G. Hassan Khajavy

Learning a second/foreign language (L2) is a long process and L2 learners certainly will encounter setbacks and discouragements during this process. However, their reactions to these failures might be different based on their perceptions of L2 learning ability and their subsequent effort put into L2 learning. Based on this, the present study aimed at exploring two under-researched constructs within the field of applied linguistics, namely grit (“perseverance and passion for long-term goals”, Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, & Kelly, 2007, p. 1087) and language mindset (individuals’ perceptions of their language learning ability, Mercer & Ryan, 2009). We had five main aims: 1) to examine the factor structure of grit, 2) to examine the factor structure of language mindset, 3) to examine whether there are gender differences in grit or language mindset, 4) to examine the relationships between language mindset and grittiness, and 5) to examine the roles of grit and language mindset as predictors of L2 achievement. To address these aims, a total number of 1,178 university students who were taking general English courses took part in our study and completed the questionnaires. Results of confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the two-factor structure for both grit and language mindset fitted the data better than the single-factor structure. We also tested several structural equation models and found that a growth language mindset weakly, but positively predicted one component of grit (perseverance of effort), but not the other (consistency of interest). A fixed language mindset did not predict perseverance of effort, but did negatively predict consistency of interest. Finally, only growth language mindset was a weak, positive predictor of L2 achievement. At the end, theoretical and pedagogical implications regarding the role of grit and language mindset in L2 learning are presented.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the role of perfectionism in the second/foreign language (L2) learning context. To this end, we investigated the possible links between perfectionism, emotions, achievement goals, and L2 achievement. A total number of 2008 secondary school students completed the relevant questionnaires. First, confirmatory factor analysis was performed to assure the construct validity of the questionnaires. Then, separate structural equation models were conducted to examine the relations among variables. Results indicated that adaptive perfectionism was directly related to positive emotions, while the opposite pattern was found for maladaptive perfectionism. Moreover, only adaptive perfectionism was related to mastery goals, and both adaptive and maladaptive perfectionisms were related to performance-approach goals and performance-avoidance goals. Maladaptive perfectionism dimensions were negatively related to L2 achievement, while one dimension of adaptive perfectionism had positive relation and another one had negative relation with L2 achievement. Finally, mediation analysis was performed and results showed that only negative emotions and only mastery goals could mediate the relation between perfectionism dimensions and L2 achievement.

Drawing upon appraisal-theoretical framework (Frenzel, 2014), this study aimed at examining the antecedents of pleasant and unpleasant emotions experienced by English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers in Iran. Results of semi-structured interviews with eleven EFL teachers teaching in private language institutes showed that positive interaction with students, motivated students, and students' progress were the most frequently mentioned antecedents of enjoyment. For pride, positive feedback from students and students' progress were identified as the key antecedents. For anxiety and shame, inability to answer students' questions was the key antecedent, while shame was additionally triggered by responsibility for student failure, and anxiety was additionally triggered by class observation by supervisors, and lack of preparation. For anger, disciplinary issues, lack of student commitment to tasks and homework, and having to explain a topic to students several times when they do not understand were identified as the key antecedents. Demotivated and uncollaborative students were identified as antecedents of boredom. In the end, the findings were discussed and pedagogical and research implications were suggested.

The aim of the present study is twofold. First, it tests a model of willingness to read (WTR) based on L2 motivation and communication confidence (communication anxiety and perceived communicative competence). Second, it applies the recent theory of L2 motivation proposed by Dörnyei (2005; 2009), L2 motivational self system (ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience), in willingness to communicate and WTR construct. For this purpose, one-hundred eighty Iranian university students who were taking general English courses completed the survey questionnaire. Structural equation modeling was utilized to analyze the proposed model of WTR. Results of the analysis indicated that L2 learning experience, ideal L2 self, and communication confidence positively and significantly predicted WTR, and L2 learning experience was the strongest predictor of WTR. Moreover, among the three measures of L2 motivational self system, ideal L2 self was the strongest positive predictor of communication confidence, and ought-to L2 self contributed to communication confidence negatively. The results suggest that L2 motivational self system framework can adequately account for willingness to communicate. Also, in contrast to previous studies, it has a higher explanatory power than communication confidence in predicting L2 WTR.

The present study aimed at testing a model of intercultural willingness to communicate based on ethnocentrism, ambiguity tolerance, and sensation seeking between English and non-English major university students in Iran. A significant difference was found between the two groups on ethnocentrism and the results showed that the model fit the data adequately. Ethnocentrism was the strongest predictor of intercultural willingness to communicate for both groups. Sensation seeking was a significant predictor of intercultural willingness to communicate only for the non-English major university students. Moreover, sensation seeking and ambiguity tolerance were significant predictors of ethnocentrism.

This study examined willingness to communicate (WTC) in English among Iranian EFL learners in the classroom context. For this purpose, an L2WTC model based on WTC theory (MacIntyre, Clément, Dörnyei, & Noels, 1998) and empirical studies was proposed and tested using Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). This model examined the inter-relationships among WTC in English, communication confidence, motivation, classroom environment, attitudes toward learning English, and English language achievement. A total number of 243 English-major university students in Iran completed a questionnaire. The proposed SEM model adequately fit the data. Results of the SEM indicated that classroom environment was the strongest direct predictor of L2WTC, communication confidence directly affected WTC, motivation indirectly affected WTC through communication confidence, English language proficiency indirectly affected WTC through communication confidence, and the classroom environment directly affected attitudes, motivation, and communication confidence.

This study examined the role of metacognition and intelligence in foreign language achievement on a sample of 143 Iranian English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners. Participants completed Raven's Advanced Progressive Matrices as a measure of intelligence, and Metacognitive Awareness Inventory as a measure of metacognition. Learners' scores at the end of the semester were aggregated as a measure of foreign language achievement. The findings revealed that intelligence accounts for 12.2% of the variance in foreign language achievement, and metacognition accounts for 17.6% of the variance. Although each of them had a unique impact on foreign language achievement, metacognition outweighs intelligence as a predictor of foreign language achievement. Finally, the pedagogical implications were discussed in light of foreign language achievement.

The purpose of the present study was to explore English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teacher's motivations for teaching and testing a model of burnout based on motivations and emotions using structural equation modeling (SEM). For this purpose, a total number of 326 Iranian EFL teachers in different language institutes completed the related scales. Results of the study showed that altruistic and intrinsic factors are the main motivations of EFL teachers. Results of SEM indicated that both motivations and emotions predicted different dimensions of burnout. However, emotions had a stronger effect on burnout dimensions than motivational factors. Finally, the pedagogical implications were discussed based on the results of the study.

The present study was conducted first, to design and validate a measure of stroke grounded in Transactional Analysis theory and second, to examine its relationship with motivation. To do so, a total number of 348 individuals completed a stroke scale along with a motivation measure. Several statistical procedures were taken to validate the scale. First, uni-dimensionality of the scale was examined using Rasch analysis. Then, exploratory factor analysis was used to determine the underlying factors of the scale. The results indicated that the scale can be best explained by a four-factor solution. Finally, these results were confirmed using confirmatory factor analysis. Moreover, the relationship between stroke and motivation was explored. Findings indicated that stroke is positively related to extrinsic and intrinsic motivation and negatively related to amotivation. In the end, the results were discussed and implications of the scale were presented.

This article examines Mongolian and American young adults' perceptions of prior experiences of intergenerational communication. Irrespective of culture, as age of targets increased from young adulthood to older adulthood, so did attributions of benevolence, norms of politeness and deference, and communicative respect and avoidance; conversely, stereotypes of personal vitality decreased linearly. Mongolian youth expressed more stereotypic personal vitality and less normative politeness, yet more normative deference and less communicative avoidance toward older adults. In addition, differences were revealed across the nations with regard to when young adulthood and middle age begins and ends, and when elderliness begins.

The purpose of this study was to find the relationships among teachers’ conceptions of intelligence, teacher care, and teacher feedback in the realm of English Language Teaching (ELT). To this aim, three scales were developed to measure the aforementioned constructs. The participants consisted of 81 English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and their 426 students who were learning English in private language institutes. The scales were validated by Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) and the correlations among their subscales were investigated. The findings suggested that modularity, increasability, and applied ELT are associated with the nature and amount of teacher feedback and care as perceived by the students. Moreover, the results revealed that teachers’ conceptions of intelligence significantly affect how they evaluate their students (p < .05). In the end, implications were provided in the context of teaching

This study examined the predictability of the L2 proficiency by personality and L2 motivational self system variables among 141 Iranian EFL university students. Participants completed Transparent Bipolar Inventory (Goldberg, 1992) as a personality measure, L2 motivational self system (Papi, 2010), and a self-rated measure of second language proficiency. Regression analyses showed that extroversion and openness to experience accounted for 13% of the variance in L2 proficiency; and ideal L2 self and L2 learning experience accounted for 35% of the variance in L2 proficiency. Further, extroversion, neuroticism, conscientiousness, and openness explained 25% of the variance of in ideal L2 self; neuroticism and conscientiousness explained 24% of the variance in ought-to L2 self; and conscientiousness and extroversion explained 26% of the variance in L2 learning experience. Hierarchical regressions also showed that L2 motivation is a more powerful predictor of L2 proficiency.

The present study had two purposes. First, the relationship between language
anxiety and motivation was examined among Iranian EFL learners. Secondly, a
foreign language achievement model based on language learning anxiety and motivation
was developed and tested by structural equation modeling. To achieve the purposes,
foreign language classroom anxiety scale (FLCAS) and language learning orientations
scale (LLOS) were administered to 264 participants. The results of the study showed
that amotivation and less self-determined types of external motivation are positively
related to language anxiety. Also, intrinsic motivation and identified regulation were
negatively related to language anxiety. The application of the structural equation modeling
showed that both anxiety and motivation significantly predict the English achievement
of the language learners within an Iranian context. Pedagogical implications of the
results are discussed.

Over the past decade, Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) has gradually become an imperative component of the language-learning process. Many organizations have incorporated CALL into their courses and have benefited from its advantages and utilities to accelerate the process of language learning. However, students and teachers might have different attitudes towards using CALL in the EFL classrooms. The present study is mainly concerned with the students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards computer-assisted language learning and whether there are differences with regard to their attitudes. The participants of the study were 95 students and 82 EFL teachers at the Iranian secondary schools. Participants were asked to answer CALL attitude instrument (CALLAI) including 27 items. Moreover, they were asked to write reasons they endorse or reject using CALL in the classrooms. To analyze the data, first measurement invariance test was established using Mplus 7.3 to assure that both teachers and students have the same perceptions of the items. After confirming measurement invariance between teachers and students, multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used to check the differences between students’ and teachers’ attitudes towards CALL and its three subscales. Findings indicated that students had more positive attitudes towards using CALL in EFL classrooms than their teachers. Based on the participants’ explanations, the main reason teachers had less positive attitudes towards CALL was their lack of sufficient computer literacy.