Keqian Xu
Nanjing Normal University, Chinese Language and Literature, Faculty Member
It was Zhuangzi who first introduced the concept of “zhen（true）” and revealed its important philosophical meanings in early Chinese philosophy. He also created other “zhen” related concepts, such as “zhen ren (true man)”, “zhen zhi (true... more
It was Zhuangzi who first introduced the concept of “zhen（true）” and revealed its important philosophical meanings in early Chinese philosophy. He also created other “zhen” related concepts, such as “zhen ren (true man)”, “zhen zhi (true knowledge)”, etc. In the Zhuangzi, “zhen” has the meaning of absolute truthfulness, but it also contains rich semantic meanings such as naturalness, primitiveness, simplicity, sincerity, etc. It is the opposite of anything artificial, and has a dimension of divinity towards the Daoist transcendental horizon of Heaven and Dao. “Zhen ren (true man)” represents the Daoist transcendent ideal personality and embodies the basic Daoist ideas and doctrines, such as keeping a life free from the corrupt social reality, conforming to the Dao and nature, being in a unity with the Heaven, etc. It is the highest level of horizon an individual can arrive at through Daoist personal cultivation. Zhuangzi also linked “zhen ren” with concept of “zhen zhi (true knowledge)”. But this “true knowledge” cannot be understood in the sense of western epistemology. For Zhuangzi, to acquire the “zhen zhi” means breaking through the boundary between Heaven and human and ascending to the transcendent level of existence of “zhen”.
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Zhongdaology is the core of Chinese traditional Confucian philosophy. The zhongdaological way of thinking represents the Chinese philosophical thinking mode, with Confucianism as the main body, and has deeply influenced many aspects of... more
Zhongdaology is the core of Chinese traditional Confucian philosophy. The zhongdaological way of thinking represents the Chinese philosophical thinking mode, with Confucianism as the main body, and has deeply influenced many aspects of Chinese culture. It is different from the traditional ontological thinking in the West. However, for a long time, due to the influence of the dominant position of Western ontological thinking in the field of philosophical research, the characteristics of zhongdaological thinking have not been fully elaborated and promoted. This essay briefly exposes the historical origin of the doctrine of zhongdaology and its significance in Confucianism. Like the situation of traditional Chinese philosophy, African philosophy also has long been overshadowed and ignored by western philosophy to some extent. To this end, it can be safely stated that the dominance of western tradition is why the interaction between Chinese philosophy and African philosophy and other underrepresented philosophical traditions in the south have not taken firm roots. This essay makes some preliminary comparisons between Chinese Confucian zhongdaology with some African philosophical ideas such as Ezumezu and Ubuntu, etc., to show not only the significance of broader dialogue and exchange among different philosophical traditions in the south, but how zhongdaology itself could serve as a veritable framework for doing philosophy across borders.
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It is an undeniable fact that China has basically succeeded in controlling the spread of the epidemic in China in the first half of 2020. Behind this success there may be several reasons, among which the cultural factors have certainly... more
It is an undeniable fact that China has basically succeeded in controlling the spread of the epidemic in China in the first half of 2020. Behind this success there may be several reasons, among which the cultural factors have certainly played an important role. What kind of cultural values helped Chinese to combat the COVID-19 Epidemic? This paper attempts to discuss this issue by analysing some data from the newly released results in Wave 7 of the World Values Survey and combining with the study of Chinese cultural concepts. It finds that, generally speaking, Chinese culture is characterized with the following cultural spirits and values which are relevant to Chinese people's responding to the crisis of COVID-19 outbreak: the value of the supremacy of human life, believe in science rather than religion, the preference of the value of security over the value of freedom, the idea that the fate of an individual is inextricably linked to that of a group, nation, and humanity, and the spirit of trust and obedience to political leadership. At a time when humanity need to unite in the face of a major disaster such as the Covid-19 pandemic, these Chinese cultural values clearly have some advantages that deserve to be summarized and studied.
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The Daoist philosophy, especially as conceptualized by Master Zhuang Zhou within the Zhuangzi, has cultivated most of the unique traditional Chinese aesthetic tastes. The aesthetic view of the Zhuangzi is based on Zhuangzian philosophy,... more
The Daoist philosophy, especially as conceptualized by Master Zhuang Zhou within the Zhuangzi, has cultivated most of the unique traditional Chinese aesthetic tastes. The aesthetic view of the Zhuangzi is based on Zhuangzian philosophy, which emphasizes the naturalness of things. He suggests most beautiful things are those that naturally created by the Dao or naturally demonstrated. He also suggests a link between “truthfulness” and “beautifulness.” At the same time, Zhuang Zhou takes a suspicious view on the conventionally constructed standards or stereotypes of “beauty,” indicating that there might not be any absolute standard of beauty in human society. Zhuang Zhou’s philosophy and aesthetic view has profound and far-reaching influence on Chinese literature and art. It has nourished many aesthetic paradigm and artistic styles. Additionally, his philosophy also advocates an anti-utilitarian attitude, which provides an alternative supplement to the Confucian view of aesthetics within literature and art. But what exactly is meant by “Zhuang Zhou’s theory of art” or “the Zhuangzian aesthetics,” and in what manner has his teachings provided such far-reaching influence on Chinese aesthetics? We explore these questions with a discussion on four aesthetic principles emphasized within the Zhuangzian philosophy and exemplified by six concepts within the Zhuangzi. Following, we discuss these ideas relating to their impact within Chinese literature, art, and music with several real-world examples. In this way, Zhuang Zhou’s Daoist philosophy has significantly influenced Chinese aesthetic values.
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The absolute priority of individual liberty and freedom has become a taboo and political correctness for long in modern western ideology. However, many evidences indicates that excessively emphasizing the value of individual freedom in... more
The absolute priority of individual liberty and freedom has become a taboo and political correctness for long in modern western ideology. However, many evidences indicates that excessively emphasizing the value of individual freedom in practice not only will not turn out good results, but also leads to the opposite direction, i.e., losing of freedom. From a cross-cultural perspective, over emphasizing the value of individual freedom is only an Anglo-American cultural particularity. Freedom is only one among other important human values. According to ancient Chinese philosophy of Yin-Yang and Five elements, these different values are mutually correlated. Over emphasizing the absoluteness of one value will cause the interaction of other elements, and will lead things towards opposite direction. Therefore, it is necessary to say no to the cult of extreme liberalism.
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Whether Confucianism is a religion or not has been a controversial issue for many years. Recently, along with the "national revitalization" movement in China, Confucianism has been valued and advocated again in China at both official and... more
Whether Confucianism is a religion or not has been a controversial issue for many years. Recently, along with the "national revitalization" movement in China, Confucianism has been valued and advocated again in China at both official and civil levels. This trend sometimes has been perceived by some observers as a kind of religious revival movement. This paper analysis some key components in the thought of Confucius, such as his idea and attitude towards "Gods", "Tian" and other divine or supernatural beings, in order to prove that, although Confucius does not exclude religious faith, and has accepted some traditional religious rituals, the basic Confucian doctrines are not constructed on any religious foundation. The essence of Confucianism is humanism and rationalism characterized with the practical reason of "zhongdaology". It provides a rational base for constructing the secular ideology in ancient China. In today's Chinese society, Confucianism can still play a role in constructing the modern secular ideology, which may accommodate cultural diversity yet maintain a harmonious social political environment.
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In modern Western liberal discourse, human dignity has been cast as an important component of basic human rights, while so-called human rights have been generally understood as certain inborn, inherent and inalienable properties of every... more
In modern Western liberal discourse, human dignity has been cast as an important component of basic human rights, while so-called human rights have been generally understood as certain inborn, inherent and inalienable properties of every human being. In this understanding, human dignity is just a natural endowment rather than a historically constructed social-cultural phenomenon. Based on this premise, liberalism is justified for the reason that under a social condition of complete freedom, individuals will spontaneously exercise their rights thus to secure their dignity. However, from a Confucian point of view, human dignity is socially defined and exists in concrete forms in social-cultural contexts. Dignity is not an abstract, universal, minimal standard that can be applied to all people at every time; it refers to individuals' decency and grace under various given social contexts, and it corresponds to particular roles, statuses and even ages and genders of individuals in their respective societies. The full realization of human dignity relies on certain social-cultural or institutional arrangements. Confucian li is precisely this kind of arrangement, which designs a whole set of regulations and norms in order to maintain human dignity in general, as well as to maintain different people's dignity in varying situations. Therefore, according to Confucianism, behaving appropriately according to the norms and regulations of li is just a way to preserve dignity.
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The essence of traditional Chinese Confucian philosophy can be termed “Zhongdaology”; it searches for the appropriate degree of zhong which is a standard guiding people’s actions. The Chinese pictographic character “zhong” has multiple... more
The essence of traditional Chinese Confucian philosophy can be termed “Zhongdaology”; it searches for the appropriate degree of zhong which is a standard guiding people’s actions. The Chinese pictographic character “zhong” has multiple meanings, including centrality, middle, appropriate, fit, just, fair, impartial, upright, etc. In early Confucianism, it has been developed into an important concept with profound philosophical connotations; it includes a combination of subjective and objective views, a fusion of different stances and considerations, and postulates a harmony of the internal and external worlds. Zhongdaology takes a dynamic, contextual, correlative and dialectic view of things in the world, and provides a way of thinking different from the traditional Western ontological (metaphysical) way of thinking. The practical rationality and wisdom of Zhongdaology are very significant for promoting dialogue and resolving a variety of conflicts in human societies.
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" Liberty " is a core, prior value of modern Western culture, and particularly of Anglo-American political and economic discourse. For more than a century, the US and other Western countries have been doing their utmost to promote the... more
" Liberty " is a core, prior value of modern Western culture, and particularly of Anglo-American political and economic discourse. For more than a century, the US and other Western countries have been doing their utmost to promote the value of liberty around the world. However, different nations and cultures have different value priorities. Considering " liberty " as the essential, unassailable prior value is an Anglo-American cultural particularity without universal applicability. In China, " liberty " as a high value is a new idea imported from the West at the beginning of the modern era which never enjoyed a very important position in ancient China. Generally speaking, in Chinese culture, the value of " ping an, " with its connotations of peace, safety, equality, health, harmony, and tranquility, is obviously a prior value. Different value priorities have different impacts on culture. This paper tries to compare the American value priority of " liberty " with the Chinese value priority of " ping an, " while discussing their different historical backgrounds and cultural impacts. It argues that values and value priorities are neither absolute nor universal, but that they are rather historical, situational, and dynamic. Value priority in a society should be based on that society's particular social reality and on the stage of development and the life requirements of its people, rather than on an outside imperative. In the era of globalization, different and even sometimes contradictory human values may actually mutually complement and counterbalance one another.
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“Ren xing shan”, or “Human nature is good”, is a famous thesis of Mencius. But it is questionable whether the Mencian concept of “ren xing” is an exact equivalent of the western concept of “human nature”, and whether Mencius really thinks... more
“Ren xing shan”, or “Human nature is good”, is a famous thesis of Mencius. But it is questionable whether the Mencian concept of “ren xing” is an exact equivalent of the western concept of “human nature”, and whether Mencius really thinks that all human beings are naturally moral. This paper suggests that when talking about “ren xing”, Mencius actually refers to both human being and human becoming. “Ren xing” may have a root in the nature of human being, which is a “mandate” endowed by “Heaven”. But the complete notion of “ren xing” should be construed in terms of the process towards full human becoming. “Human Nature is good” does not guarantee complete virtue for individual human beings. However, the human being has the capability of pursuing the moral direction along life’s path, and should take the responsibility of maintaining the right moral direction of human becoming, and thus should avoid veering from this moral path. This interpretation may provide a more consistent understanding of the metaphysical foundation, theoretic system, and self-cultivation practice of Mencian ethics.
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The netherworld marriage or the wedding for dead persons is a folk religious ritual in ancient China. It is based on ancient Chinese folk belief of afterlife in the netherworld. Through a textual research and investigation based on... more
The netherworld marriage or the wedding for dead persons is a folk religious ritual in ancient China. It is based on ancient Chinese folk belief of afterlife in the netherworld. Through a textual research and investigation based on relevant historical records and other ancient documents, as well as some archeological discoveries, this paper tries to give a brief account of the origin and development of netherworld marriage and its cultural and ideological background in ancient China. It finds that netherworld marriage might originate from human sacrifice in early ancient times, and its name varies in different periods. It has gone through its prevailing in the Tang Dynasty, declining in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and reviving again in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. During the long history, this custom was generally criticized and condemned by orthodoxy Confucian intellectuals, yet it was practiced and sometimes even prevailing among both noble class and common people, due to its deep root on the folk belief. The paper also intends to clarify some misconceptions and misunderstanding concerning the study of this unique cultural phenomenon.
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“Zhong 中” is a very important philosophical concept in early Confucianism. Both the received ancient Confucian classics and the newly discovered ancient bamboo manuscripts tell us that adhering to the principle of “zhong” was an... more
“Zhong 中” is a very important philosophical concept in early Confucianism. Both the received ancient Confucian classics and the newly discovered ancient bamboo manuscripts tell us that adhering to the principle of “zhong” was an important political admonition which had been transmitted and inherited among the early ancient Chinese political leaders from generation to generation. Confucius and his followers adopted the concept of “zhong” and had further developed it into a sophisticated doctrine, which is usually called “Zhong Dao中道”(the Way of “Zhong”) or “Zhong Yong中庸”. Being a polysemous word, “zhong” has several different but philosophically related meanings. As a noun, it means the center, things inside or innate; as a verb, it means hitting exactly at a target, with extended meaning of correctness and fitness; as an adjective, it means middle, mean, average, etc. However, for a long time, people usually understand the “zhong” in the sense of only one of these meanings, and the “Zhong Dao” or “Zhong Yong” has been commonly interpreted as “the Doctrine of the Mean”. My argument in this paper is that a synthetic grasping and interpretation which should include all of the semantic meanings of “zhong” mentioned above is necessary in order to acquire a deep and well-rounded comprehension of the philosophic significance of the Way of “Zhong”. The Way of “Zhong” is featured with a dialectal view of the relationship between the Heaven and human being, the mind and materials, subjective desire and the available objective conditions, individual’s will and its current applicability, self and others, centrality and diversity, extremist and moderates, etc. The Way of “Zhong” has become a widely applied philosophical methodology in Confucianism, as well as a political principle and a kind of personal moral merit in early Confucian doctrines. Today, it still has relevance in contemporary Chinese social and cultural contexts, in terms of handling many existing social and cultural knotty problems in order to maintain the harmoniousness and stability of the society.
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A correspondance to Nature magazine concening the relationship between Chinese traditional culture and the practice of science research in modern China.
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Although being widely considered as only a Western tradition, individualism is not absent in traditional Chinese philosophy and culture. In some of the classic Chinese philosophic works such as Zhuangzi, we can clearly identify some... more
Although being widely considered as only a Western tradition, individualism is not absent in traditional Chinese philosophy and culture. In some of the classic Chinese philosophic works such as Zhuangzi, we can clearly identify some elements which can be appropriately attributed to “individualism”, such as the awareness of individual “self” as an independent and unique existence, advocating individual freedom and liberty, emphasizing on the value and dignity of individual life, favoring individuals’ autonomy and privacy, pursuing unconstrained development in personality and spirituality. However, due to its particular pre-Qin social cultural background and its unique Daoist philosophic origin, this kind of individualism in Zhuangzi has its own unique characteristics, which has made it distinguishable from the variety of other individualist thoughts emerged in different times and places in the West. Zhuangzi has a dynamic and open view on individual or “self”, he does not consider individuals as fixed and interchangeable “atoms” but as dynamic, changing and unique beings, he set the unlimited and indefinable Dao as the only and ultimate source for individuals to conform to, thus to release individual mind into an realm of infinite openness and freedom. Zhuangzian individualism is “inward” rather than “outward”, which means while concentrating on individuals’ freedom of spirit and innate nature, it cares less about individuals’ outside material interests and rights in social reality, and does not encourage competition and rivalry among individuals. The special type of individualism in Zhuangzi has a profound influence on Chinese culture, providing a spiritual space for the development of individuality and personality in ancient China. It also provides an alternative understanding of individual as an existence.
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The subtle and complex relation between Confucianism and modern democracy has long been a controversial issue, and it is now again becoming a topcal issue in the process of political modernization in contemporary China. This paper argues... more
The subtle and complex relation between Confucianism and modern democracy has long been a controversial issue, and it is now again becoming a topcal issue in the process of political modernization in contemporary China. This paper argues that there are some quite basic early Confucian values and principles which are not only compatible with democracy, but also may become the theoretic foundation of modern democracy in China. Early Confucianism considers “the people’s will” as the direct representative of “Heaven’s will”, with which it legitimizes political power. Confucian theory of “human nature is good” endorses equal potential good for every man. These principles can be used in reasoning towards a system of democracy. In terms of decision-making, the Confucian “Doctrine of the Mean” accords with certain democratic principles. The independent personality and committed individualism advocated by early Confucianism is a required civic merit in a democratic society. These fundamental Confucian principles, through contemporary hermeneutics, may provide a philosophic grounding for democracy and support the construction of a democratic system with a Chinese dimension. To get democracy rooted in the spirit of traditional Chinese culture will benefit the healthy and smooth development of democracy in China.
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In the Pre-Qin time, pursuing “Dao” was the main task in the scholarship of most of the ancient Chinese philosophers, while the Ancient Greek philosophers considered pursuing “Truth” as their ultimate goal. While the “Dao” in ancient... more
In the Pre-Qin time, pursuing “Dao” was the main task in the scholarship of most of the ancient Chinese philosophers, while the Ancient Greek philosophers considered pursuing “Truth” as their ultimate goal. While the “Dao” in ancient Chinese texts and the “Truth” in ancient Greek philosophic literature do share or cross-cover certain connotations, there are subtle and important differences between the two comparable philosophic concepts. These differences have deep and profound impact on the later development of Chinese and Western philosophy and culture respectively. Interestingly, while the modern Chinese philosophy has gradually accepted and established the Western conception of “Truth” on its way towards modernization, the “post-modern” Western philosophy is just undergoing a process of deconstructing its traditional concept of “Truth”, thus, in a certain sense, going closer to the traditional Chinese “Dao”. From a comparative, relative and dynamic perspective, there could possibly be a fusion of horizon between the Chinese “Dao” and the Western “Truth”.
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A comparative study between Hui Shi and other pre-Qin scholars
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中国哲学与非洲哲学之间的比较与会话是一个有待深入开发的研究领域。这两个哲学传统之间一些共同点和相通之处的会话与比较有助于突破比较哲学研究中往往以西方哲学作为哲学的唯一标准的思维定式，从而揭示人类哲学思维的多样性和丰富性，并对基于西方哲学概念逻辑的思维模式和价值观的所谓普世性进行反思和质疑，进而为探究或建构真正属于全人类的普遍理性、共同价值和世界哲学做出贡献。中国哲学与非洲哲学可以在以下相关话题上展开会话与比较：一是中国哲学与非洲哲学各自的所谓“合法性”问题及其实质；二是中国哲... more
中国哲学与非洲哲学之间的比较与会话是一个有待深入开发的研究领域。这两个哲学传统之间一些共同点和相通之处的会话与比较有助于突破比较哲学研究中往往以西方哲学作为哲学的唯一标准的思维定式，从而揭示人类哲学思维的多样性和丰富性，并对基于西方哲学概念逻辑的思维模式和价值观的所谓普世性进行反思和质疑，进而为探究或建构真正属于全人类的普遍理性、共同价值和世界哲学做出贡献。中国哲学与非洲哲学可以在以下相关话题上展开会话与比较：一是中国哲学与非洲哲学各自的所谓“合法性”问题及其实质；二是中国哲学与非洲哲学关于“存在”问题思考的比较；三是中国哲学与非洲哲学在思维模式和逻辑方法方面的相通之处；四是中国哲学与非洲哲学对个人与群体关系的认知；五是中国哲学与非洲哲学在社会政治哲学与民主问题上的共同话语。中非哲学之间进行会话交流，互相借鉴，将有助于促进中非人民之间心相连、情相通，从而为构建中非命运共同体提供哲学思想与文化价值观基础。
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对“人民”的看法和态度是政治学说根本问题之一。以韩非子为代表的早期法家人民观不否认人民是国家之“本”，但同时视人民为治理对象，而非政治主体。韩非子认为人民总体上具有趋利避害、易于服从权威、易受煽动等群体特征；为了对人民进行有效治理，必须对这种人之情、民之性有客观清醒的认识。法家以严刑峻法为主要内容的法治措施正是针对人民的上述特征制定的。从主观上来说，韩非子认为这些措施是符合人民的长远利益的。韩非子认为统治者应当重视民心向背问题，以法律为准绳控制民间舆论，对人民进行法治教育和行... more
对“人民”的看法和态度是政治学说根本问题之一。以韩非子为代表的早期法家人民观不否认人民是国家之“本”，但同时视人民为治理对象，而非政治主体。韩非子认为人民总体上具有趋利避害、易于服从权威、易受煽动等群体特征；为了对人民进行有效治理，必须对这种人之情、民之性有客观清醒的认识。法家以严刑峻法为主要内容的法治措施正是针对人民的上述特征制定的。从主观上来说，韩非子认为这些措施是符合人民的长远利益的。韩非子认为统治者应当重视民心向背问题，以法律为准绳控制民间舆论，对人民进行法治教育和行为引导，同时认为“民智不可用”，在实施重大变法革新时不可被民众一时的意见所左右。韩非子的人民观适应了特定历史发展阶段的政治要求，同时也具有明显的思想局限性。
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对语言本身的怀疑是庄子怀疑论不同于西方怀疑论的一个重要特征。由于怀疑语言，故庄子主张“无言”，认为“道不可言”。然而“道”作为本质的“言”就决定了“道”从根本上来说不可能脱离“言”。“道”与“言”的悖论使庄子最终不可能抛开“言”而显示“道”，而只能对言说方式进行改造与创新。这种由庄子独创的言说方式以言而无待、两行以明、不谴是非为其特征。正是这种言说方式的改造使庄子的哲学得以通往艺术与美学之域。
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战国后期盛行的黄老思想对韩非子的政治学说无疑有着重要影响。但黄老思想在韩非子政治学说中究竟扮演着什么角色，起到什么作用，这个问题仍值得进一步探讨。考察可知，黄老思想中的因循之道启发韩非子要求君主“缘道理”“因人情”而立法， 其无为思想则被韩非子用来告诫君主不要凭个人的聪明和能力治国，而要依靠法度; 黄老思想中的阴柔玄妙、以柔克刚之术在韩非子学说中既可以被君主用来防范大臣专制，也可以被法术之士用来控制和驾驭君主。总的来说，... more
战国后期盛行的黄老思想对韩非子的政治学说无疑有着重要影响。但黄老思想在韩非子政治学说中究竟扮演着什么角色，起到什么作用，这个问题仍值得进一步探讨。考察可知，黄老思想中的因循之道启发韩非子要求君主“缘道理”“因人情”而立法， 其无为思想则被韩非子用来告诫君主不要凭个人的聪明和能力治国，而要依靠法度; 黄老思想中的阴柔玄妙、以柔克刚之术在韩非子学说中既可以被君主用来防范大臣专制，也可以被法术之士用来控制和驾驭君主。总的来说， 黄老思想在韩非子政治学说中起到了减弱君主专制成分的作用。
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君子如何安身立命是孔孟儒学的一个重要问题。要安身立命首先要“知命”。故孔子曰“不知命，无以为君子”。但究竟什么是“命”古往今来众说纷纭。本文从“命”这个字的语义分析入手，剖析了“命”字所指的多重语义及其相互之间的关系，再从天道之命、社会使命、肉体生命三个层面分析“命”的哲学意义，进而论述孔孟安身立命之学的具体内涵，指出先秦儒家的安身立命之学是在人的个体生命、社会关系、精神超越三个层面完整理解人的“存在”，全面安顿人生，从而实现“为生民立命”的目标。
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孟、莊、荀三家人性論在先秦諸子有關人性問題的討論中頗具代表性。諸子人性論討論皆關乎人在世間如何做人，人應該追求何種理想人格的問題，而這實際上又都關乎人的自由問題。由於三子在對人性的理解及人性與道德的關係等問題上觀點不同，故對於解決上述問題的進路也各有側重與差異。孟子意義上人的自由是一種帶有主觀主義色彩的道德理想主義的自由，也即個體通過反求諸己，達到對至善之德的自覺體認，從而成為人格獨立的聖賢。莊子意義上人的自由主要是帶有超驗主義色彩的對於絕對之“真”的追求，也即個體通過修煉，... more
孟、莊、荀三家人性論在先秦諸子有關人性問題的討論中頗具代表性。諸子人性論討論皆關乎人在世間如何做人，人應該追求何種理想人格的問題，而這實際上又都關乎人的自由問題。由於三子在對人性的理解及人性與道德的關係等問題上觀點不同，故對於解決上述問題的進路也各有側重與差異。孟子意義上人的自由是一種帶有主觀主義色彩的道德理想主義的自由，也即個體通過反求諸己，達到對至善之德的自覺體認，從而成為人格獨立的聖賢。莊子意義上人的自由主要是帶有超驗主義色彩的對於絕對之“真”的追求，也即個體通過修煉，法天貴真，與道為一，進入絕對超越的精神境界。荀子意義上人的自由則是借助禮樂等外在形式對人性進行美化，使個體融入社會，成為溫文爾雅文質彬彬的君子，並在社會群體中實現整體的和諧與美。
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《孟子•离娄下》“天下之言性也”一章对于理解孟子的人性论具有重要意义，但前人注解对此章一些重要概念和学理的理解颇有分歧。联系孟子完整的思想体系来分析，可以看出以“故”言性，“以利为本”都不代表孟子本人的思想，孟子并不认为人的善性是一个可以从现实人类已然的故常中归纳出来的“理”，更不赞成把“利”看成是人性之本。孟子所谓人性善只是说人的心性中有此向善的趋向，对这一趋向既不可无所用心放任自流，也不可用智过度拔苗助长。
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“小说”这个名称最早见于《庄子》一书。然而，庄子所谓“小说”是不是一种文体？小说这种文体在先秦时期是否已经存在？ 这一直是颇有争议的问题。本文认为，庄子所说的“小说”不但确实是指一种文体，而且在先秦时期，也确实存在着一类可以归于“小说”这个名目之下的作品。这类具有故事情节和人物形象的叙事性作品，其性质不同于神话、寓言、或历史，只能叫做“小说”，它是中国古代小说萌芽时期最早的一批产品，而且已经有了相当可观的成就。因此，中国古代小说的历史，应当从战国时期算起。
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郑玄对《尚书•金滕》的注解在有关史实上与《史记•鲁周公世家》及汉代其它相关文献的记载有重大差异，导致经过郑玄解读和阐释的周公形象与其它文献中记录的周公形象大相径庭。郑玄《金滕》注刻意突出了周公谦恭礼让的品格，淡化了周公当仁不让、摄政平乱的刚毅果敢。本文认为郑玄的这种解读与东汉末年的政治局势有关，寄寓了郑玄对当时政治问题所发表的微言大义。
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Yang Zhu is the representative of egoism in ancient China. This paper poinst out that Yang Zhu's thought was originated from Confucianism, especially, from the thought of Zeng Zi, one of the most famous dieciples of Confucius.
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战国中期燕王哙让国于子之的事件，是战国社会转型时期诸侯国政权交接方式的一种新的尝试，它是在当时流行的尧舜禅让学说影响下发生的。但显然这是一次非常失败的尝试，儒、道、法各家人物均对这一事件给与了否定性批评。分析各家围绕这一事件的批评及其相关的理论观点，可以了解战国时期有关政权合法性问题的思想进展，并得出一些有益的启示。
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中”或“中道”是先秦儒家哲学方法论和价值观的精髓，是儒家“道统”的核心精神。荀子对“中道”的哲学原理及其实践意义有透彻的领会和阐发，并且将“中道”精神贯彻在其整个学说体系中。本文对荀子的“中道”哲学及其具体运用进行分析论述，说明其对儒家“中道”传统的贡献。
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本书深入探究了“中道论”这一儒家哲学和中国传统思维方式的基本特征。书中追溯“中”这一儒家哲学重要概念的起源和历史发展，讨论了“中道论”的哲学内涵及其在中国传统文化中的意义，分析了其对中国人的思维方式和行为方式的影响，以及它与当代中国政治、经济、社会和文化多方面的相关性。书中还对“中道”思维方式与典型的西方传统哲学本体论思维方式进行了比较，指出了两大哲学传统的不同及其深远影响，并进而探讨了“中道”思维在当今时代的价值和意义。本书从传统中国文化的内在考察和中西文化对比的双重视角提... more
本书深入探究了“中道论”这一儒家哲学和中国传统思维方式的基本特征。书中追溯“中”这一儒家哲学重要概念的起源和历史发展，讨论了“中道论”的哲学内涵及其在中国传统文化中的意义，分析了其对中国人的思维方式和行为方式的影响，以及它与当代中国政治、经济、社会和文化多方面的相关性。书中还对“中道”思维方式与典型的西方传统哲学本体论思维方式进行了比较，指出了两大哲学传统的不同及其深远影响，并进而探讨了“中道”思维在当今时代的价值和意义。本书从传统中国文化的内在考察和中西文化对比的双重视角提供了对儒家哲学基本特征的新的见解，可以为中外读者深入认知中国思想文化传统和正确理解当代中国现实提供参考。
This book makes an in-depth study of one of the essential characteristics of Confucian philosophy and the traditional Chinese way of thinking, which has been termed as “zhongdaology”. It traces back to the origin and historical evolution of the Confucian philosophical concept “zhong”, discusses the philosophical connotations and significance of “zhongdaology” in traditional Chinese culture, analyzes its impact on the Chinese way of thinking and behavior, as well as its relevance to the political, economic, social and cultural aspects of contemporary China. The book also compares the traditional Chinese zhongdaological thinking mode with the typical Western traditional philosophical ontological thinking mode, points out the difference and far-reaching of the two philosophical traditions. It also discusses the value and significance of zhongdaological thinking mode in the current era. This book provides new insights into the basic characteristics of Confucian philosophy from the perspective of the internal investigation of traditional Chinese culture and the comparison between Chinese and Western cultures, which can provide a reference for Chinese and foreign readers to deeply understand Chinese ideological and cultural traditions, and correctly understand the reality of contemporary China.
This book makes an in-depth study of one of the essential characteristics of Confucian philosophy and the traditional Chinese way of thinking, which has been termed as “zhongdaology”. It traces back to the origin and historical evolution of the Confucian philosophical concept “zhong”, discusses the philosophical connotations and significance of “zhongdaology” in traditional Chinese culture, analyzes its impact on the Chinese way of thinking and behavior, as well as its relevance to the political, economic, social and cultural aspects of contemporary China. The book also compares the traditional Chinese zhongdaological thinking mode with the typical Western traditional philosophical ontological thinking mode, points out the difference and far-reaching of the two philosophical traditions. It also discusses the value and significance of zhongdaological thinking mode in the current era. This book provides new insights into the basic characteristics of Confucian philosophy from the perspective of the internal investigation of traditional Chinese culture and the comparison between Chinese and Western cultures, which can provide a reference for Chinese and foreign readers to deeply understand Chinese ideological and cultural traditions, and correctly understand the reality of contemporary China.
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A modern interpretation of whole the book of Mencius, the contents are rearranged based on themes and topics, with an index to the original text at the end of the book. First Published by Shanghai Ancient Book Publishing House in 2001.
Research Interests: Confucianism and Mencius
An introduction to the book of Mencius, one of the most important An introduction to the book of Mencius, one of the most important Confucian classics. Including a dictionary of the basic concepts and terms in Mencius, the brief live... more
An introduction to the book of Mencius, one of the most important An introduction to the book of Mencius, one of the most important Confucian classics. Including a dictionary of the basic concepts and terms in Mencius, the brief live story of Mencius, the main ideas and theories of Mencius, and some annotated and commented chapters from Mencius. Language of this book is in Chinese, it was published by Shanghai Ancient Book Publishing Company in 2001.
Research Interests: Confucianism and Mencius
A Chinese text book about traditional Chinese though and culture, chief edited by Keqian Xu The attachment is the first chapter of this book. A revised seconed edition of this text book has been published by the Higher Education... more
A Chinese text book about traditional Chinese though and culture, chief edited by Keqian Xu
The attachment is the first chapter of this book.
A revised seconed edition of this text book has been published by the Higher Education Press(高等教育出版社） in 2016。
The attachment is the first chapter of this book.
A revised seconed edition of this text book has been published by the Higher Education Press(高等教育出版社） in 2016。
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先秦思想文化是中国传统思想文化的源头，是中华民族精神文明最初的、最富于原创性的成果，也是整个人类精神文明宝库中最重要的组成部分之一。本书选编了作者过去二十多年来在国内外学术刊物上陆续发表的有关先秦思想文化的部分论文，内容涉及先秦思想史、文化史、哲学史、文学史，又以讨论先秦儒家思想和道家思想的论文为主体。作者从不同的角度和不同的切入点深入探讨了先秦思想文化特别是儒家、道家哲学中的“道”论、人性论、价值论、文化观、社会观、伦理观、政治观、语言观、思维方式等方面的诸多问题，并立足于... more
先秦思想文化是中国传统思想文化的源头，是中华民族精神文明最初的、最富于原创性的成果，也是整个人类精神文明宝库中最重要的组成部分之一。本书选编了作者过去二十多年来在国内外学术刊物上陆续发表的有关先秦思想文化的部分论文，内容涉及先秦思想史、文化史、哲学史、文学史，又以讨论先秦儒家思想和道家思想的论文为主体。作者从不同的角度和不同的切入点深入探讨了先秦思想文化特别是儒家、道家哲学中的“道”论、人性论、价值论、文化观、社会观、伦理观、政治观、语言观、思维方式等方面的诸多问题，并立足于当代思想文化语境，返本开新，对先秦思想精华进行新的解读与阐发；又往往能将先秦思想与西方文化中相关的思想内容进行比较，指出其异同，力图在古与今、中与外的视域融合中，探寻对人类所共同面临的一些永恒的哲学、文化问题的解答。
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中华书局，2005年8月第1版
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Modern information technology has broken through the limitation of library wall,and made library extend its function to the boundless cyberspace.However,library's function as a consistent place still exists and cannot be... more
Modern information technology has broken through the limitation of library wall,and made library extend its function to the boundless cyberspace.However,library's function as a consistent place still exists and cannot be neglected.This paper discusses the functions and meanings of library as a place in the era of internet.
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“Liberty” is a core, prior value of modern Western culture, and particularly of Anglo-American political and economic discourse. For more than a century, the US and other Western countries have been doing their utmost to promote the value... more
“Liberty” is a core, prior value of modern Western culture, and particularly of Anglo-American political and economic discourse. For more than a century, the US and other Western countries have been doing their utmost to promote the value of liberty around the world. However, different nations and cultures have different value priorities. Considering “liberty” as the essential, unassailable prior value is an Anglo-American cultural particularity without universal applicability. In China, “liberty” as a high value is a new idea imported from the West at the beginning of the modern era which never enjoyed a very important position in ancient China. Generally speaking, in Chinese culture, the value of “ ping an ,” with its connotations of peace, safety, equality, health, harmony, and tranquility, is obviously a prior value. Different value priorities have different impacts on culture. This paper tries to compare the American value priority of “ liberty ” with the Chinese value priority of “ping an,” while discussing their different historical backgrounds and cultural impacts. It argues that values and value priorities are neither absolute nor universal, but that they are rather historical, situational, and dynamic. Value priority in a society should be based on that society’s particular social reality and on the stage of development and the life requirements of its people, rather than on an outside imperative. In the era of globalization, different and even sometimes contradictory human values may actually mutually complement and counterbalance one another.
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Due to the differences of languages, “ontology” in its original Western sense had not been conceptualized in ancient China. The most prominent and unique feature of Confucian philosophy in early ancient China is “Zhongdaology” instead of... more
Due to the differences of languages, “ontology” in its original Western sense had not been conceptualized in ancient China. The most prominent and unique feature of Confucian philosophy in early ancient China is “Zhongdaology” instead of “ontology”. Zhongdaology is the philosophical inquiring for the way of “Zhong”, which is based on all the primordially related semantic meanings embodied in the Chinese character “zhong”. Zhongdaological philosophy indicates an association between human beings and their world, a coincidence between subjectivity and objectivity, a harmony of internal world and external world, an intersubjective perspective between self and others, an equilibrium among different ideas and divergences. Zhongdaology advocates inclusiveness and harmony when dealing with conflicts and contradictions. The rich historical and cultural background of Zhongdaology enriches it with profound philosophic significance, and makes it a general philosophy of Confucianism. Zhongdaology not only provides a Confucian approach to some fundamental ontological and epistemological issues, a philosophical methodology for establishing ethical norms, moral standards, social justice and political principles, but also provides an angle to understand certain aspects of Chinese way of life.
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ABSTRACT “Zhong 中” is a very important philosophical concept in early Confucianism. Both the received ancient Confucian classics and the newly discovered ancient bamboo manuscripts tell us that adhering to the principle of “zhong” was an... more
ABSTRACT “Zhong 中” is a very important philosophical concept in early Confucianism. Both the received ancient Confucian classics and the newly discovered ancient bamboo manuscripts tell us that adhering to the principle of “zhong” was an important political admonition which had been transmitted and inherited among the early ancient Chinese political leaders from generation to generation. Confucius and his followers adopted the concept of “zhong” and had further developed it into a sophisticated doctrine, which is usually called “Zhong Dao中道”(the Way of “Zhong”) or “Zhong Yong中庸”. Being a polysemous word, “zhong” has several different but philosophically related meanings. As a noun, it means the center, things inside or innate; as a verb, it means hitting exactly at a target, with extended meaning of correctness and fitness; as an adjective, it means middle, mean, average, etc. However, for a long time, people usually understand the “zhong” in the sense of only one of these meanings, and the “Zhong Dao” or “Zhong Yong” has been commonly interpreted as “the Doctrine of the Mean”. My argument in this paper is that a synthetic grasping and interpretation which should include all of the semantic meanings of “zhong” mentioned above is necessary in order to acquire a deep and well-rounded comprehension of the philosophic significance of the Way of “Zhong”. The Way of “Zhong” is featured with a dialectal view of the relationship between the Heaven and human being, the mind and materials, subjective desire and the available objective conditions, individual’s will and its current applicability, self and others, centrality and diversity, extremist and moderates, etc. The Way of “Zhong” has become a widely applied philosophical methodology in Confucianism, as well as a political principle and a kind of personal moral merit in early Confucian doctrines. Today, it still has relevance in contemporary Chinese social and cultural contexts, in terms of handling many existing social and cultural knotty problems in order to maintain the harmoniousness and stability of the society.
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The fundamental task of philosophy is to seek for "Shi" or "Being".One of the features of Chinese Philosophy is that it seeks Shi(Bing) throughshi(fact),shi(event),shi(history),shi(time),shi(trend),which constituted... more
The fundamental task of philosophy is to seek for "Shi" or "Being".One of the features of Chinese Philosophy is that it seeks Shi(Bing) throughshi(fact),shi(event),shi(history),shi(time),shi(trend),which constituted the general context of understanding and hermeneutic of Shi in Chinese philosophy.This also represents the practical,humanistic and dialectic features of Chinese philosophy.
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Although "Tao" and "moral" that the pre-Qin Taoism advocated are not the exact ones as the present concepts,both are closely related to each other.To analyze the moral philosophy and moral cultivation theory of pre-Qin... more
Although "Tao" and "moral" that the pre-Qin Taoism advocated are not the exact ones as the present concepts,both are closely related to each other.To analyze the moral philosophy and moral cultivation theory of pre-Qin Taoism will help us deepen our understanding of moral issues,expand our horizon of morality and offer inspirations to improve our moral education today as well.
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Many universal and fundamental philosophic problems have been involved in Zhuang Zi's work. However, he adopted an aesthetic attitude and method to deal with and resolve those profound philosophic problems. This feature is manifested... more
Many universal and fundamental philosophic problems have been involved in Zhuang Zi's work. However, he adopted an aesthetic attitude and method to deal with and resolve those profound philosophic problems. This feature is manifested in his aesthetic observation without paying attention to either subject or object, an orientation to aesthetic value that is without utilitarian and pragmatic goals, and in his aesthetic interest in "wandering" or "playing". Zhuang Zi's goal of entering a realm of "ultimate beauty and ultimate pleasure" makes his philosophy different from western philosophy, which takes truth as its ultimate goal and from the Confucian philosophy, which takes moral virtue as its ultimate goal.
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Professor Zhang Xiping's The Study of Missionary Sinology provides an overall,close and bidirectional perspective for us to observe the ideological and cultural dynamics and interaction between the two great civilizations in the East... more
Professor Zhang Xiping's The Study of Missionary Sinology provides an overall,close and bidirectional perspective for us to observe the ideological and cultural dynamics and interaction between the two great civilizations in the East and the West.It is of great significance and has important reference value in the study of the history of East-West exchange,the history of Western Sinology,the study of the historical development of christinity in China,and the study of the Ming and Qing dynasties.
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Due to the differences of languages, “ontology” in its original Western sense had not been conceptualized in ancient China. The most prominent and unique feature of Confucian philosophy in early ancient China is “Zhongdaology” instead of... more
Due to the differences of languages, “ontology” in its original Western sense had not been conceptualized in ancient China. The most prominent and unique feature of Confucian philosophy in early ancient China is “Zhongdaology” instead of “ontology”. Zhongdaology is the philosophical inquiring for the way of “Zhong”, which is based on all the primordially related semantic meanings embodied in the Chinese character “zhong”. Zhongdaological philosophy indicates an association between human beings and their world, a coincidence between subjectivity and objectivity, a harmony of internal world and external world, an intersubjective perspective between self and others, an equilibrium among different ideas and divergences. Zhongdaology advocates inclusiveness and harmony when dealing with conflicts and contradictions. The rich historical and cultural background of Zhongdaology enriches it with profound philosophic significance, and makes it a general philosophy of Confucianism. Zhongdaology not only provides a Confucian approach to some fundamental ontological and epistemological issues, a philosophical methodology for establishing ethical norms, moral standards, social justice and political principles, but also provides an angle to understand certain aspects of Chinese way of life.
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Zhongdaology is the core of Chinese traditional Confucian philosophy. The zhongdaological way of thinking represents the Chinese philosophical thinking mode, with Confucianism as the main body, and has deeply influenced many aspects of... more
Zhongdaology is the core of Chinese traditional Confucian philosophy. The zhongdaological way of thinking represents the Chinese philosophical thinking mode, with Confucianism as the main body, and has deeply influenced many aspects of Chinese culture. It is different from the traditional ontological thinking in the West. However, for a long time, due to the influence of the dominant position of Western ontological thinking in the field of philosophical research, the characteristics of zhongdaological thinking have not been fully elaborated and promoted. This essay briefly exposes the historical origin of the doctrine of zhongdaology and its significance in Confucianism. Like the situation of traditional Chinese philosophy, African philosophy also has long been overshadowed and ignored by western philosophy to some extent. To this end, it can be safely stated that the dominance of western tradition is why the interaction between Chinese philosophy and African philosophy and other un...
In modern Western liberal discourse, human dignity has been cast as an important component of basic human rights, while so-called human rights have been generally understood as certain inborn, inherent and inalienable properties of every... more
In modern Western liberal discourse, human dignity has been cast as an important component of basic human rights, while so-called human rights have been generally understood as certain inborn, inherent and inalienable properties of every human being. In this understanding, human dignity is just a natural endowment rather than a historically constructed social-cultural phenomenon. Based on this premise, liberalism is justified for the reason that under a social condition of complete freedom, individuals will spontaneously exercise their rights thus to secure their dignity. However, from a Confucian point of view, human dignity is socially defined and exists in concrete forms in social-cultural contexts. Dignity is not an abstract, universal, minimal standard that can be applied to all people at every time; it refers to individuals’ decency and grace under various given social contexts, and it corresponds to particular roles, statuses and even ages and genders of individuals in their ...
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“Liberty” is a core, prior value of modern Western culture, and particularly of Anglo-American political and economic discourse. For more than a century, the US and other Western countries have been doing their utmost to promote the value... more
“Liberty” is a core, prior value of modern Western culture, and particularly of Anglo-American political and economic discourse. For more than a century, the US and other Western countries have been doing their utmost to promote the value of liberty around the world. However, different nations and cultures have different value priorities. Considering “liberty” as the essential, unassailable prior value is an Anglo-American cultural particularity without universal applicability. In China, “liberty” as a high value is a new idea imported from the West at the beginning of the modern era which never enjoyed a very important position in ancient China. Generally speaking, in Chinese culture, the value of “ ping an ,” with its connotations of peace, safety, equality, health, harmony, and tranquility, is obviously a prior value. Different value priorities have different impacts on culture. This paper tries to compare the American value priority of “ liberty ” with the Chinese value priority of “ping an,” while discussing their different historical backgrounds and cultural impacts. It argues that values and value priorities are neither absolute nor universal, but that they are rather historical, situational, and dynamic. Value priority in a society should be based on that society’s particular social reality and on the stage of development and the life requirements of its people, rather than on an outside imperative. In the era of globalization, different and even sometimes contradictory human values may actually mutually complement and counterbalance one another.
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ABSTRACT “Zhong 中” is a very important philosophical concept in early Confucianism. Both the received ancient Confucian classics and the newly discovered ancient bamboo manuscripts tell us that adhering to the principle of “zhong” was an... more
ABSTRACT “Zhong 中” is a very important philosophical concept in early Confucianism. Both the received ancient Confucian classics and the newly discovered ancient bamboo manuscripts tell us that adhering to the principle of “zhong” was an important political admonition which had been transmitted and inherited among the early ancient Chinese political leaders from generation to generation. Confucius and his followers adopted the concept of “zhong” and had further developed it into a sophisticated doctrine, which is usually called “Zhong Dao中道”(the Way of “Zhong”) or “Zhong Yong中庸”. Being a polysemous word, “zhong” has several different but philosophically related meanings. As a noun, it means the center, things inside or innate; as a verb, it means hitting exactly at a target, with extended meaning of correctness and fitness; as an adjective, it means middle, mean, average, etc. However, for a long time, people usually understand the “zhong” in the sense of only one of these meanings, and the “Zhong Dao” or “Zhong Yong” has been commonly interpreted as “the Doctrine of the Mean”. My argument in this paper is that a synthetic grasping and interpretation which should include all of the semantic meanings of “zhong” mentioned above is necessary in order to acquire a deep and well-rounded comprehension of the philosophic significance of the Way of “Zhong”. The Way of “Zhong” is featured with a dialectal view of the relationship between the Heaven and human being, the mind and materials, subjective desire and the available objective conditions, individual’s will and its current applicability, self and others, centrality and diversity, extremist and moderates, etc. The Way of “Zhong” has become a widely applied philosophical methodology in Confucianism, as well as a political principle and a kind of personal moral merit in early Confucian doctrines. Today, it still has relevance in contemporary Chinese social and cultural contexts, in terms of handling many existing social and cultural knotty problems in order to maintain the harmoniousness and stability of the society.
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The subtle and complex relation between Confucianism and modern democracy has long been a controversial issue, and it is now again becoming a topical issue in the process of political modernization in contemporary China. This paper argues... more
The subtle and complex relation between Confucianism and modern democracy has long been a controversial issue, and it is now again becoming a topical issue in the process of political modernization in contemporary China. This paper argues that there are some quite basic early Confucian values and principles that are not only compatible with democracy, but also may become the theoretic foundation of modern democracy in China. Early Confucianism considers ‘the people’s will ’ as the direct representative of ‘Heaven’s will’, with which it legitimizes political power. Confucian theory of ‘human nature is good ’ endorses equal potential good for every man. These principles can be used in reasoning towards a system of democracy. In terms of decision-making, the Confucian ‘Doctrine of the Mean ’ accords with certain democratic principles. The independent personality and committed individualism advocated by early Confucianism is a required civic merit in a democratic society. These fundamen...
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Newspaper in China has a long history. According to some scholars, as early as in the Spring-Autumn period (722-461B.C), a kind of official newspaper was appeared between the leud states then ( 倪 延 年 , p.10). Of course, it was not printed... more
Newspaper in China has a long history. According to some scholars, as early as in the Spring-Autumn period (722-461B.C), a kind of official newspaper was appeared between the leud states then ( 倪 延 年 , p.10). Of course, it was not printed on paper, but carved on bamboo slips. The modern newspapers were first introduced to China by western missionaries, mainly for the purpose of religion. Since then, newspapers have been playing an important role in Chinese society. Newspaper as a source of information has certain features that make it different from other information sources such as books, periodicals, radio, television and internet. No other source can compete with newspaper in the abundance and variety of information contents. The huge volume of information in newspapers is usually timely and instant, and much more closely related to social reality and people's daily life, which makes newspaper a superiority over books and periodicals. Newspaper has vastitude of readers, and ...
Whether Confucianism is a religion or not has been a controversial issue for many years. Recently, along with the national revitalization movement in China, Confucianism has been valued and advocated again in China at both official and... more
Whether Confucianism is a religion or not has been a controversial issue for many years. Recently, along with the national revitalization movement in China, Confucianism has been valued and advocated again in China at both official and civil levels. This trend sometimes has been perceived by some observers as a kind of religious revival movement. This paper analysis some key components in the thought of Confucius, such as his idea and attitude towards Gods, Tian and other divine or supernatural beings, in order to prove that, although Confucius does not exclude religious faith, and has accepted some traditional religious rituals, the basic Confucian doctrines are not constructed on any religious foundation. The essence of Confucianism is humanism and rationalism characterized with the practical reason of zhongdaology. It provides a rational base for constructing the secular ideology in ancient China. In today s Chinese society, Confucianism can still play a role in constructing the ...
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The netherworld marriage or the wedding for dead persons is a folk religious ritual in ancientChina. It is based on ancient Chinese folk belief of afterlife in the netherworld. Through a textual research and investigation based on... more
The netherworld marriage or the wedding for dead persons is a folk religious ritual in ancientChina. It is based on ancient Chinese folk belief of afterlife in the netherworld. Through a textual research and investigation based on relevant historical records and other ancient documents, as well as some archeological discoveries, this paper tries to give a brief account of the origin and development of netherworld marriage and its cultural and ideological background in ancient China. It finds that netherworld marriage might originate from human sacrifice in early ancient times, and its name varies in different periods. It has gone through its prevailing in the Tang Dynasty, declining in the Song and Yuan Dynasties, and reviving again in the Ming and Qing Dynasties. During the long history, this custom was generally criticized and condemned by orthodoxy Confucian intellectuals, yet it was practiced and sometimes even prevailed among both noble class and common people, due to its deep ...
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One of the most prominent features of early Confucianism is its attention to “the Way of zhong” 中道 (zhongdao). By itself, the character zhong 中is often translated as “centrality,” but since it has a wider range of meanings that I will... more
One of the most prominent features of early Confucianism is its attention to “the Way of zhong” 中道 (zhongdao). By itself, the character zhong 中is often translated as “centrality,” but since it has a wider range of meanings that I will explore in this paper, I leave it in its transliterated form