Adolf Hitler
Adolf Hitler (Braunau, Austria, 20 Aprili 1889; Berlin, Ujerumani, 30 Aprili 1945) alikuwa dikteta wa Ujerumani kuanzia mwaka 1933 hadi kifo chake.
Alihutubia dharau na chuki ya kimbari dhidi ya watu wote wasio Wagermanik na hasa dhidi ya Wayahudi. Alisababisha Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia na mateso ya watu milioni kadhaa. Akitangaza shabaha ya Ujerumani Mkubwa alisababisha kushindwa na kugawiwa kwa taifa lake pamoja na kupotewa na maeneo makubwa, hasa upande wa mashariki.
Maisha
Utoto na familia
Alizaliwa nchini Austria mwaka 1889. Wazazi wake walikuwa mtumishi wa forodha ya Austria Alois Hitler na mama yake Klara aliyekuwa mke wa tatu wa Alois.
Adolf alikuwa na ndugu watano lakini kati yao ni dada yake Paula pekee aliyeishi kufikia umri wa mtu mzima, wengine wote walikufa mapema. Alikuwa pia na ndugu wawili kutoka ndoa ya mke wa pili wa baba na hao waliitwa Alois mdogo na Angela waliokaa katika familia ya Alois mzee baada ya kifo cha mama.
Kutokana na kuhamishwa kwa baba mara kwa mara Adolf alisoma kwenye shule za msingi tofauti kati ya 1895 hadi 1899. Kuanzia mwaka 1900 alisoma kwenye shule ya sekondari mjini Linz lakini hakufaulu, alipaswa kurudia madarasa mawili. Hakupenda somo la dini, lakini alivutiwa na historia na jiografia. Baba alimpiga mara nyingi katika kipindi kile akikasirika juu ya kutofaulu shuleni.
Baada ya kifo cha baba Alois mwaka 1903 mamake alimhamisha kwenda shule nyingine mjini lakini alishindwa hapa pia, akarudi nyumbani kwa mama bila ya kumaliza masomo yake.
Alipokaa Linz Adolf alifahamika na mafundisho ya kiongozi wa chama cha "Alldeutsch" [1] na hapa alianza kusikia habari za chuki dhidi ya Wayahudi na dharau dhidi ya mataifa ya Waslavi ya Ulaya.
Tangu 1906 Hitler alijisikia kuwa msanii alipeleleza nafasi za kusoma uchoraji. Mwaka 1907 aliomba kupokewa katika chuo cha sanaa mjini Vienna, lakini alishindwa. Akarudi nyumbani baada ya kusikia mamake alikuwa mgonjwa wa kansa. Aliangalia nyumba hadi kifo cha mama kwenye Desemba 1907. Mama alitibiwa na daktari Eduard Bloch aliyekuwa Myahudi; Adolf alimshukuru sana kwa juhudi zake na baadaye alimlinda Bloch dhidi ya mateso yaliyoandaliwa kwa Wayahudi katika miaka ya 1930 baada ya Hitler kuwa mtawala wa Ujerumani na tangu 1938 wa Austria pia.
Msanii asiyefaulu Vienna na Munich
Tangu Januari 1908 alitumia urithi wa mama pamoja na pensheni ya mjane kwa kuhamia Vienna alipokaa hadi 1913. Alijaribu tena kupata nafasi kwenye chuo cha sanaa cha Vienna akashindwa tena. Mtu aliyeishi pamoja naye katika chumba kimoja alisema wakati ule Hitler alivutiwa zaidi na opera za Richard Wagner kuliko siasa.
Tangu mwisho wa 1908 alihama mara kwa mara sehemu alipokaa akitafuta kupanga vyumba kwa bei nafuu zaidi; inaonekana matatizo ya pesa yaliongezeka. Miaka 1910-1911 alipaswa kuishi katika bweni la wanaume wasio na nyumba[2].
Tangu 1910 Hitler alikuwa na mapato madogo kwa njia ya kunakili picha alizouza kupitia watu walioishi pamoja naye katika bweni. Wengine waliouza picha kwa niaba yake walikuwa Wayahudi lakini, tofauti na daktari wa mamake, hakuwapa usaidizi wowote baadaye: waliteswa kama Wayahudi wote baada ya kuvamiwa kwa Austria 1938.
Hitler alisoma mengi wakati ule na hasa maandiko yaliyotangaza ubora wa mbari ya Kigermanik na chuki dhidi ya Wayahudi.
Mwaka 1913 alihamia Munich katika jimbo la Bavaria, Ujerumani. Alikuwa amepokea hela kidogo kutoka urithi wa babake pia alitaka kujiondoa katika wajibu wa kufanya huduma ya lazima ya kijeshi katika Austria-Hungaria. Aliendelea kunakili picha na kuziuza kwenye maduka ya sanaa.
Mnamo Februari 1914 alikamatwa na polisi ya Bavaria na kupelekwa Austria lakini huko iliamuliwa hafai kwa huduma ya kijeshi akarudi Munich. Wakati wa kukaa Munich alisoma maandiko ya Houston Stewart Chamberlain kuhusu ubaguzi wa kimbari.
Kuhamia kwake Munich kulifuatwa na vita mwaka 1914. Mnamo Agosti 1914, wakati wa mwanzo wa Vita Kuu ya Kwanza ya Dunia alijitolea kwa jeshi la Bavaria ambapo kutokana na bidii na ukakamavu wake alipanda cheo na kuwa praiveti. Mwisho wa vita mwaka 1918 alikuwa na cheo cha koplo. Hakupewa shughuli za kupigania maadui moja kwa moja bali sehemu kubwa ya vita alihudumia kama tarishi aliyebeba habari na barua kati ya maafisa wa ngazi ya juu na hivyo mbali kiasi na eneo la mapigano. Alijeruhiwa mwaka 1916 alipopigwa na kibanzi cha kombora na tena kwenye Oktoba 1918 alipoathiriwa na gesi ya sumu iliyosababisha kipindi cha upofu. Alikuwa hospitalini bado aliposikia habari za mapinduzi katika Ujerumani na azimio la kusimamisha vita tarehe 11 Novemba 1918.
Kuingia siasa
Mwezi Novemba 1918 Hitler alirudi Munich alipoendelea kuwa mwanajeshi hadi mwaka 1920. Munich iliona kipindi cha vuguvugu ya mapinduzi. Kwa muda alishiriki katika kamati zilizochaguliwa na wanajeshi na kuwawakilisha mbele ya serikali na maafisa. Munich iliona kipindi kifupi cha mapinduzi makali ambako viongozi wake walijaribu kuiga mfano wa Urusi. Kipindi hiki kilikwisha baada ya mashambulio ya sehemu za jeshi zilizofuata amri za serikali kuu ya Berlin.
Sasa maafisa wa jeshi walioshika tena amri walipambana na mielekeo ya kikomunisti na kisoshalisti kati ya askari na wafanyakazi wa viwanda. Hapa Hitler aliteuliwa na wakuu wake kwa propaganda dhidi ya wanamapinduzi wasoshalisti. Alipelekwa kwa mafundisho ya kiitikadi akapewa mazoezi ya kuhutubia watu. Inaonekana ya kwamba ilikuwa katika kipindi hiki Hitler alipopokea mafundisho yaliyoimarisha itikadi ya chuki dhidi ya Wayahudi walioshtakiwa na wafuasi wa ufalme kuwa sababu ya kushindwa vitani pamoja na kuchochea mapinduzi.
Hitler alitumwa pia na wakuu wake kama mpelelezi kuhudhuria mikutano ya kisiasa mjini.
Hapa ilitokea ya kwamba kwenye Septemba 1919 alihudhuria mkutano wa chama kidogo na kichanga kilichojiita "Chama cha Wafanyakazi Wajerumani" (Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, DAP). Hitler alishiriki katika majadiliano akakaribishwa kujiunga na chama hicho. Aliomba kibali cha mkuu wake jeshini kwa hatua hii akawa mwanachama wa 55 wa chama hiki.
Aliteuliwa kuwa katibu mwenezi wa DAP na chama kilianza kupokea zawadi kutoka matajiri waliomwona Hiler kama mhubiri mwenye kipaji kikubwa aliyepinga usoshalisti na ukomunisti. Mwezi Februari DAP ilibadilisha jina lake kuwa "Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei" (Chama cha Kizalendo - Kisoshialisti cha Wafanyakazi Wajerumani) kifupi NSDAP.
Kwenye Aprili 1920 Hitler alitoka katika jeshi akipata riziki yake kwa njia ya kuhutubia mikutano alipolipwa. Sifa zake kama mhubiri zilijulikana kote Munich na alianza kuwasiliana pia na wanasiasa waliokuwa na mielekeo ya kufanana huko Berlin.
Mwaka 1921 hatimaye aliweza kushinda viongozi wa awali katika chama na kuwa kiongozi mkuu wa NSDAP ambao hadi wakati ule bado ilikuwa moja ya vyama vingi vidogo vilivyotangaza siasa ya kizalendo dhidi ya ukomunisti na pia dhidi ya demokrasia.
Jaribio la mapinduzi 1923
Hitler alivutiwa sana na mfano wa Benito Mussolini, kiongozi wa kifashisti wa Italia, aliyefaulu mwaka 1922 kupindua serikali ya Italia kwa maandamano makubwa ya wafuasi wake kuelekea Roma.
Mwaka 1923 Hitler alijaribu kumwiga Mussolini kwa kupindua serikali ya jimbo la Bavaria - kama utangulizi wa kupindua serikali ya kitaifa huko Berlin - lakini alikamatwa na kuhukumiwa kwa uasi huo kifungo cha miaka mitano, ingawa alitumikia miezi tisa tu. Chama chake kilipigwa marufuku.
Hitler akiwa kijana aliwahi kusoma vitabu vya Mwingereza Neville Chamberlain aliyedai kwamba kuna mbari mbalimbali za watu zenye tabia na thamani tofauti sana.
Akiwa gerezani aliandika kitabu kilichoitwa "Mein Kampf" ("Mapambano Yangu") alimojaribu kueleza imani na siasa zake. Humo alieleza pia chuki dhidi ya Wayahudi na itikadi yake ya ubaguzi wa kimbari.
Katika itikadi hiyo mbari ya juu ni watu wa Ulaya ya Kaskazini aliowaita "Waaria", na wale ambao ni duni zaidi ni watu weusi. Vikundi vingine vimo katikati. Lakini watu wabaya kabisa katika itikadi hiyo ni Wayahudi ambao ni wajanja wakuu upande mmoja, lakini hawana uwezo wa kuunda kitu kwa upande mwingine. Hivyo wanajaribu kwa ujanja wao kutawala dunia kwa kuiba fikra na mafanikio ya Waaria.
Kujenga chama
Baada ya kutoka gerezani alirudi katika siasa. Aliahidi za kwamba atafuata sheria, hivyo chama cha NSDAP kiliruhusiwa tena. Hitler alisafiri kote Ujerumani akiunda matawi ya chama. Ndani ya chama alianzisha vikosi viwili vilivyovaa sare vikifanya mazoezi kama wanamgambo na kuwa tayari kupigana na maadui wa kisiasa wakati wa maandamano.
Kikundi cha SA ("Sturmabteilung" - "Kikosi cha kushambulia") kilikuwa na watu wengi sana kikavuta hasa wanaume wasio na kazi waliovaa sare ya kahawia. Kikosi cha pili kilikuwa na watu wachache kikaitwa "SS" ("Schutzstaffel" - "Kikosi cha ulinzi") waliovaa sare nyeusi na kuwa na wajibu hasa kumlinda Hitler.
Chama chake hakikufaulu hadi 1929, wakati uchumi wa dunia pamoja na wa Ujerumani ulipoporomoka vibaya katika Mdodoro Mkuu. Mamilioni ya watu waliachishwa kazi na kuona njaa. Katika hali hiyo watu walianza kupigia kura vyama vyenye itikadi kali.
Katika uchaguzi wa mwaka 1930 kura za NSDAP ziliongezeka kutoka 2.6% hadi 18.3%. Serikali za Ujerumani zilikuwa za vyama vingi na dhaifu.
Mwaka 1932 chama cha NSDAP kilipata 33% za kura na kuwa chama chenye kura nyingi zaidi nchini na chama kikubwa katika bunge la Reichstag. Katika hali hiyo viongozi wa Dola la Ujerumani waliamua kumwingiza Hitler katika serikali mwaka 1933.
Chansela na kiongozi wa Ujerumani
Tarehe 30 Januari 1933 Hitler akawa Chansela wa Ujerumani. Mara moja alichukua nafasi kuwakandamiza wapinzani wake na baada ya mwaka mmoja hata wale waliomwingiza madarakani.
Baada ya mwaka mmoja utawala wake ulisimama imara kabisa ilhali wapinzani wengi walikamatwa na kupelekwa katika makambi ya KZ.
Hitler alifuata siasa ya kujenga uchumi na kurudisha watu kazini akibahatika kwamba uchumi wa dunia ukapaa tena.
Hitler alifuta mapatano yote ya Ujerumani yaliyoweka mipaka kwa ukubwa wa jeshi lake kuwa watu 100,000 tu akajenga jeshi kubwa zaidi, akaanzisha utawala wa kidikteta wa "Dola la Tatu" akipiga marufuku vyama vya upinzani. Alitesa wapinzani wote na watu wa mbari alizochukia, hasa Wayahudi.
Siasa dhidi ya Wayahudi
Chuki dhidi ya Wajerumani waliokuwa Wayahudi aliionyesha kwa sheria mbalimbali zilizokuwa kali zaidi na zaidi. Idadi ya Wayahudi katika Ujerumani ilikuwa ndogo, takriban nusu milioni kati ya wakazi milioni 62. Kila Mjerumani akitaka kuajiriwa na serikali au kupata nafasi ya masomo alitakiwa kuorodhesha wazazi na mababu hadi kizazi cha pili. Kwa njia hiyo Hitler alipanga Wajerumani wote katika vikundi vya "Waaria" (ambao hawana Wayahudi katika familia), "Wayahudi" (watu wenye asili ya Kiyahudi, hata kama wameshakuwa Wakristo tangu vizazi kadhaa au hawakufuata dini), "Wayahudi nusu" kama mzazi mmoja alikuwa Myahudi, "Wayahudi robo" kama mmoja kati ya mababu na mabibi wanne alikuwa Myahudi. Wayahudi na Wayahudi nusu walifukuzwa katika ajira ya serikali na walikataliwa kufanya kazi mbalimbali.
Sheria kuhusu "Aibu wa mbari" ilikataza ndoa kati ya "Waaria" na "Wayahudi"; "Wayahudi" waliondolewa uraia kamili.
Tokeo moja la siasa hiyo lilikuwa kuondoka kwa Wayahudi wengi kidogo katika Ujerumani; baada ya mashambulizi makali na mauaji mwaka 1938 mwelekeo huo uliongezeka. Hasa wanasayansi na wasanii wengi walihamia nchi huru.
Siasa yake katika mwaka 1939 ilisababisha Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia.
Vita Kuu ya Pili
Hitler alifuata mwanzoni siasa ya kukusanya Wajerumani wote wa Ulaya katika Dola la Ujerumani.
Mwaka 1938 alifaulu kuteka Austria na maeneo ya Wajerumani katika Ucheki bila upingamizi wa kimataifa.
Lakini aliposhambulia Poland tarehe 1 Septemba 1939 tendo hili lilikuwa mwanzo wa Vita Kuu ya Pili ya Dunia kwa sababu Uingereza na Ufaransa walisimama imara kwa mikataba ya kusaidiana na Poland.
Wakati wa vita Hitler alichukua mwenyewe uongozi mkuu wa jeshi. Mwanzoni alifaulu hata dhidi ya ushauri ya majenerali wake, hasa wakati wa vita dhidi ya Poland na Ufaransa. Lakini maazimio yake ya 1941 ya kushambulia Urusi na kutangaza hali ya vita dhidi ya Marekani yalikuwa mwanzo wa mwisho wake. Nguvu ya kiuchumi wa Ujerumani haikutosha kushindana na dunia yote.
Wakati wa vita aliamuru uuaji wa Wayahudi wote wa Ulaya, na inakadiriwa alifaulu kuwaua takriban milioni sita (2/3 ya Wayahudi wote wa Ulaya) pamoja na watu vya mbari mbalimbali kama Wasinti (kati ya 200,000 na 1,500,000).
Hasa alipoona ya kwamba vita dhidi ya Urusi haikufaulu haraka jinsi alivyotegemea aliamua kumaliza jambo lililosababisha chuki yake hasa. Azimio la "usuluhisho wa mwisho wa suala la Kiyahudi" lilichukuliwa mwisho wa mwaka 1941 na kutangazwa mbele ya viongozi wachache mnamo Januari 1942 katika Mkutano wa Wannsee.
Baadaye siasa ya kuwatenda Wayahudi vibaya na kuwaua katika maeneo fulani ilibadilishwa kulenga Wayahudi wote katika nchi zote zilizokuwa chini ya athira ya Ujerumani au kutekwa na jeshi lake. Hadi mwisho wa vita Wayahudi walikusanywa kutoka kote Ulaya na kupelekwa kwa reli hadi makambi ya mauti.
Mwisho wa vita na kifo
Maafisa wachache wa jeshi ya Ujerumani walipanga mara kadhaa kumwua Hitler. Tarehe 20 Julai 1944 kanali Stauffenberg alilipusha bomu katika ikulu ya Hitler pale Prussia ya Mashariki. Hitler alijeruhiwa lakini hakufa.
Tangu Januari 1945 Hitler alihamia tena Berlin kutokana na uvamizi wa jeshi la Kirusi katika Ujerumani Mashariki. Hapa alikaa katika boma imara chini ya ardhi. Hakutoka mjini tena.
Tarehe 20 Aprili alishehereka mara ya mwisho sikukuu yake na kupokea wageni wachache. Siku iliyofuata vikosi vya kwanza vya jeshi la Urusi vilianz kuingia katika maeneo ya Jiji la Berlin.
Tarehe 25 Aprili 1945 Berlin yote ilizungukwa kama kisiwa na jeshi la Wasovyeti na tangu 28 Aprili waliingia katika kitovu cha Berlin. Hitler bado alikuwa na tumaini kwamba vikosi vya jeshi la Kijerumani kutoka magharibi vitafika Berlin lakini majaribio yote yalishindikana. Habari zilipokelewa Berlin ya kwamba makamu zake Hitler kama Himmler na Goering walijaribu kutafuta mapatano na Marekani au Uingereza. Hitler aliwatangaza ni wasaliti akaamuru kuwakamata lakini amri hizi hazikutekelezwa tena maana hawakuwa karibu naye.
Katika hali hii Hitler alielewa ya kwamba hakuna njia ya kushinda na wataalamu hukubaliana ya kwamba hapo aliamua kujiua. Usiku wa 27 Aprili alimwoa mpenzi wake wa miaka mingi Eva Braun. Aliendelea kutunga wosia wake ambamo alimtaja mkuu wa jeshi la maji Karl Doenitz kuchukua madaraka yake kama mkuu wa dola na wa jeshi. Kwenye 29 Aprili jioni alipokea habari ya kwamba Benito Mussolini ameuawa huko Italia.
Tarehe 30 Aprili aligawa sumu kwa wote waliokuwa pamoja naye katika boma chini ya ardhi akawaruhusu kuondoka; aliagiza sumu ijaribishwe kwa mbwa wake mpendwa "Blondi". Mnamo saa 15.30 Eva Brau alijiua kwa kumeza sumu na Hitler alipigia risasi kichwani. Wasaidizi wa mwisho walibeba maiti hadi bustani ya ikulu na kuziweka katika shimo kutokana na mlipuko wa bomu; hapa wakazichoma kwa petroli.
Warusi waliingia saa chache baada ya vifo hivi. Walikuta maiti tarehe 5 Mei bila kutambua ni Hitler na Eva Braun. Tarehe 10 Mei msaidizi wa daktari wa meno wa Hitler aliweza kutambua maiti kutokana na meno. Mabaki yalizikwa baadaye karibu na makao makuu ya jeshi la Kirusi katika Ujerumani ya Mashariki; yalihamishwa mara kadhaa kila wakati makao makuu yalipohamishwa. Mwishoni mabaki ya maiti yalichomwa na Warusi tarehe 5 Aprili 1970, majivu yalisagwa na yote kutupwa katika mto mdogo karibu na mji wa Magdeburg.
Taarifa hizi zilitunzwa kama siri kwa miaka mingi hadi mwisho wa Ukomunisti katika Urusi na hivi kulikuwa na uvumi wa kwamba Hitler hajafa na labda alikimbia hadi Amerika Kusini, jinsi idadi ya wasaidizi wake waliofaulu kutoroka.
Marejeo
- ↑ Chama cha Kiaustria kilichodai kipaumbele cha Wajerumani katika Austria-Hungaria na maungano ya Wajerumani wote katika Ulaya pamoja na utawala wa Kijerumani juu ya mataifa madogo ya Ulaya ya Mashariki
- ↑ Mwaka 1938 baada ya maungano ya Ujerumani na Austria Hitler aliagiza kukamatwa kwa faili zote za polisi na manisipaa kuhusu vyumba na makazi yake katika Vienna. Alidai mwenyewe ya kwamba aliishi katika makao ya mwanafunzi
Kujisomea zaidi
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{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hakim, Joy (1995). War, Peace, and All That Jazz. A History of US. Juz. la 9. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509514-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Halperin, Samuel William (1965) [1946]. Germany Tried Democracy: A Political History of the Reich from 1918 to 1933. New York: W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-00280-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hamann, Brigitte (1999). Hitler's Vienna: A Dictator's Apprenticeship. Trans. Thomas Thornton. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512537-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hamann, Brigitte (2010) [1999]. Hitler's Vienna: A Portrait of the Tyrant as a Young Man. Trans. Thomas Thornton. London; New York: Tauris Parke Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-84885-277-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hancock, Ian (2004). "Romanies and the Holocaust: A Reevaluation and an Overview". Katika Stone, Dan (mhr.). The Historiography of the Holocaust. New York; Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-333-99745-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Heck, Alfons (2001) [1985]. A Child of Hitler: Germany In The Days When God Wore A Swastika. Phoenix, AZ: Renaissance House. ISBN 978-0-939650-44-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Heston, Leonard L.; Heston, Renate (1980) [1979]. The Medical Casebook of Adolf Hitler: His Illnesses, Doctors, and Drugs. New York: Stein and Day. ISBN 978-0-8128-2718-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hildebrand, Klaus (1973). The Foreign Policy of the Third Reich. London: Batsford. ISBN 978-0-7134-1126-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hitler, Adolf (1999) [1925]. Mein Kampf. Trans. Ralph Manheim. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 978-0-395-92503-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hitler, Adolf; Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1988) [1953]. Hitler's Table-Talk, 1941–1945: Hitler's Conversations Recorded by Martin Bormann. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-285180-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Hitler, Adolf (2000) [1941–1944]. Hitler's Table Talk, 1941–1944. London: Enigma. ISBN 1-929631-05-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Jetzinger, Franz (1976) [1956]. Hitler's Youth. Westport, Conn: Greenwood Press. ISBN 978-0-8371-8617-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Joachimsthaler, Anton (1999) [1995]. The Last Days of Hitler: The Legends, the Evidence, the Truth. Trans. Helmut Bögler. London: Brockhampton Press. ISBN 978-1-86019-902-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kee, Robert (1988). Munich: The Eleventh Hour. London: Hamish Hamilton. ISBN 978-0-241-12537-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Keegan, John (1987). The Mask of Command: A Study of Generalship. London: Pimlico. ISBN 978-0-7126-6526-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Keller, Gustav (2010). Der Schüler Adolf Hitler: die Geschichte eines lebenslangen Amoklaufs (kwa German). Münster: LIT. ISBN 978-3-643-10948-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Kellogg, Michael (2005). The Russian Roots of Nazism White Émigrés and the Making of National Socialism, 1917–1945. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84512-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kershaw, Ian (1999) [1998]. Hitler: 1889–1936: Hubris. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-04671-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kershaw, Ian (2000a) [1985]. The Nazi Dictatorship: Problems and Perspectives of Interpretation (tol. la 4th). London: Arnold. ISBN 978-0-340-76028-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kershaw, Ian (2000b). Hitler, 1936–1945: Nemesis. New York; London: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-32252-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kershaw, Ian (2008). Hitler: A Biography. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06757-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kershaw, Ian (2012). The End: Hitler's Germany, 1944–45 (tol. la Paperback). London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-101421-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Knickerbocker, H. R. (1941). Is Tomorrow Hitler's? 200 Questions On the Battle of Mankind. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Koch, H. W. (1988). "Operation Barbarossa – The Current State of the Debate". The Historical Journal. 31 (2): 377–390. doi:10.1017/S0018246X00012930.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - Kolb, Eberhard (2005) [1984]. The Weimar Republic. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-34441-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kolb, Eberhard (1988) [1984]. The Weimar Republic. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-09077-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kressel, Neil J. (2002). Mass Hate: The Global Rise Of Genocide And Terror. Boulder: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-8133-3951-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kubizek, August (2006) [1953]. The Young Hitler I Knew. St. Paul, MN: MBI. ISBN 978-1-85367-694-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Kurowski, Franz (2005). The Brandenburger Commandos: Germany's Elite Warrior Spies in World War II. Stackpole Military History series. Mechanicsburg, PA: Stackpole Books. ISBN 978-0-8117-3250-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Langer, Walter C. (1972) [1943]. The Mind of Adolf Hitler: The Secret Wartime Report. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-04620-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Larson, Erik (2011). In the Garden of Beasts: Love, Terror, and an American Family in Hitler's Berlin. New York, NY: Random House/Crown Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-40884-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Lichtheim, George (1974). Europe In The Twentieth Century. London: Sphere Books. ISBN 978-0-351-17192-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Linge, Heinz (2009) [1980]. With Hitler to the End: The Memoirs of Adolf Hitler's Valet. Intro. Roger Moorhouse. New York: Skyhorse Publishing. ISBN 978-1-60239-804-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Maiolo, Joseph (1998). The Royal Navy and Nazi Germany 1933–39: Appeasement and the Origins of the Second World War. London: Macmillan Press. ISBN 978-0-333-72007-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Manvell, Roger; Fraenkel, Heinrich (2007) [1965]. Heinrich Himmler: The Sinister Life of the Head of the SS and Gestapo. London; New York: Greenhill; Skyhorse. ISBN 978-1-60239-178-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Maser, Werner (1973). Hitler: Legend, Myth, Reality. London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-0473-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Marrus, Michael (2000). The Holocaust in History. Toronto: Key Porter. ISBN 978-0-299-23404-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - McNab, Chris (2009). The Third Reich. Amber Books Ltd. ISBN 978-1-906626-51-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Megargee, Geoffrey P. (2007). War of Annihilation: Combat and Genocide on the Eastern Front, 1941. Lanham, Md: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-4482-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Messerschmidt, Manfred (1990). "Foreign Policy and Preparation for War". Katika Deist, Wilhelm (mhr.). Germany and the Second World War. Juz. la 1. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-822866-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Mitcham, Samuel W. (1996). Why Hitler?: The Genesis of the Nazi Reich. Westport, Conn: Praeger. ISBN 978-0-275-95485-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Murray, Williamson (1984). The Change in the European Balance of Power. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-05413-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Naimark, Norman M. (2002). Fires of Hatred: Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-00994-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Niewyk, Donald L.; Nicosia, Francis R. (2000). The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-11200-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - O'Donnell, James P. (2001) [1978]. The Bunker. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 978-0-306-80958-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Overy, Richard; Wheatcroft, Andrew (1989). The Road To War. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-14-028530-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Overy, Richard (1999). "Germany and the Munich Crisis: A Mutilated Victory?". Katika Lukes, Igor; Goldstein, Erik (whr.). The Munich Crisis, 1938: Prelude to World War II. London; Portland, OR: Frank Cass. OCLC 40862187.
- Overy, Richard (1999). "Misjudging Hitler". Katika Martel, Gordon (mhr.). The Origins of the Second World War Reconsidered. London: Routledge. ku. 93–115. ISBN 978-0-415-16324-8.
- Overy, Richard (2005). The Dictators: Hitler's Germany, Stalin's Russia. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-393-02030-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Payne, Robert (1990) [1973]. The Life and Death of Adolf Hitler. New York, New York: Hippocrene Books. ISBN 978-0-88029-402-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Plating, John D. (2011). The Hump: America's Strategy for Keeping China in World War II. Williams-Ford Texas A&M University military history series, no. 134. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-1-60344-238-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Redlich, Fritz R. (2000). Hitler: Diagnosis of a Destructive Prophet. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513631-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - Rees, Laurence (1997). The Nazis: A Warning from History. New York: New Press. ISBN 978-0-563-38704-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rißmann, Michael (2001). Hitlers Gott. Vorsehungsglaube und Sendungsbewußtsein des deutschen Diktators (kwa German). Zürich München: Pendo. ISBN 978-3-85842-421-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Roberts, G. (2006). Stalin's Wars: From World War to Cold War, 1939–1953. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 0-300-11204-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Roberts, J. M. (1996). A History of Europe. Oxford: Helicon. ISBN 978-1-85986-178-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Roberts, Martin (1975). The New Barbarism – A Portrait of Europe 1900–1973. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-913225-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Robertson, Esmonde M. (1963). Hitler's Pre-War Policy and Military Plans: 1933–1939. London: Longmans. OCLC 300011871.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Robertson, E. M. (1985). "Hitler Planning for War and the Response of the Great Powers". Katika H.W, Koch (mhr.). Aspects of the Third Reich. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-05726-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rosenbaum, Ron (1999). Explaining Hitler: The Search for the Origins of His Evil. Harper Perennial. ISBN 978-0-06-095339-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rosmus, Anna Elisabeth (2004). Out of Passau: Leaving a City Hitler Called Home. Columbia, S.C: University of South Carolina Press. ISBN 978-1-57003-508-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rothwell, Victor (2001). The Origins of the Second World War. Manchester: Manchester University Press. ISBN 978-0-7190-5957-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Rummel, Rudolph (1994). Death by Government. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction. ISBN 978-1-56000-145-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Ryschka, Birgit (29 Septemba 2008). Constructing and Deconstructing National Identity: Dramatic Discourse in Tom Murphy's the Patriot Game and Felix Mitterer's in Der Löwengrube. Peter Lang. ISBN 978-3-631-58111-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Sereny, Gitta (1996) [1995]. Albert Speer: His Battle With Truth. New York; Toronto: Vintage. ISBN 0-679-76812-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Shirer, William L. (1960). The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-671-62420-0.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Snyder, Timothy (2010). Bloodlands: Europe Between Hitler and Stalin. New York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-00239-9.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Speer, Albert (1971) [1969]. Inside the Third Reich. New York: Avon. ISBN 978-0-380-00071-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Spiro, Jonathan Peter (2008). Defending the Master Race: Conservation, Eugenics, and the Legacy of Madison Grant. Lebanon, NH: University Press of Vermont. ISBN 978-1-58465-715-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Stackelberg, Roderick (2007). The Routledge Companion to Nazi Germany. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-30860-1.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Steigmann-Gall, Richard (2003). The Holy Reich: Nazi Conceptions of Christianity, 1919–1945. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press. doi:10.2277/978-0-521-82371-5. ISBN 978-0-521-82371-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Steinberg, Jonathan (1995). "The Third Reich Reflected: German Civil Administration in the Occupied Soviet Union, 1941-4". The English Historical Review. 110 (437): 620–651. doi:10.1093/ehr/CX.437.620. OCLC 83655937.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - Steiner, John Michael (1976). Power Politics and Social Change in National Socialist Germany: A Process of Escalation into Mass Destruction. The Hague: Mouton. ISBN 978-90-279-7651-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Stolfi, Russel (1982). "Barbarossa Revisited: A Critical Reappraisal of the Opening Stages of the Russo-German Campaign (June–December 1941)". The Journal of Modern History. 54 (1): 27–46. doi:10.1086/244076.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help) - Tames, Richard (2008). Dictatorship. Chicago: Heinemann Library. ISBN 978-1-4329-0234-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Le Tissier, Tony (2010) [1999]. Race for the Reichstag. Pen & Sword. ISBN 978-1-84884-230-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Toland, John (1992) [1976]. Adolf Hitler. New York: Anchor Books. ISBN 978-0-385-42053-2.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Trevor-Roper, Hugh (1987) [1947]. The Last Days of Hitler. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-81224-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Vinogradov, V. K. (2005). Hitler's Death: Russia's Last Great Secret from the Files of the KGB. Chaucer Press. ISBN 978-1-904449-13-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Waite, Robert G. L. (1993) [1977]. The Psychopathic God: Adolf Hitler. New York: Da Capo Press. ISBN 0-306-80514-6.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Weber, Thomas (2010). Hitler's First War: Adolf Hitler, The Men of the List Regiment, and the First World War. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923320-5.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Weinberg, Gerhard (Desemba 1955). "Hitler's Private Testament of 2 May 1938". The Journal of Modern History. 27 (4): 415–419. doi:10.1086/237831. OCLC 482752575.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Weinberg, Gerhard (Desemba 1964). "Hitler's Image of the United States". The American Historical Review. 69 (4): 1006–1021. doi:10.2307/1842933.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Weinberg, Gerhard (1970). The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Diplomatic Revolution in Europe 1933–1936. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-88509-4.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Weinberg, Gerhard (1980). The Foreign Policy of Hitler's Germany Starting World War II. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-88511-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Weinberg, Gerhard (1995). "Hitler and England, 1933–1945: Pretense and Reality". Germany, Hitler, and World War II: Essays in Modern German and World History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-47407-8.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Welch, David (2001). Hitler: Profile of a Dictator. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-25075-7.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Wheeler-Bennett, John (1967). The Nemesis of Power. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-1812-3.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Wilt, Alan (Desemba 1981). "Hitler's Late Summer Pause in 1941". Military Affairs. 45 (4): 187–191. doi:10.2307/1987464. JSTOR 1987464.
{{cite journal}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Winkler (2007). Germany: The Long Road West. Vol. 2, 1933–1990. Sager, Alexander (trans.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-926598-5.
{{cite book}}:|first2=missing|last2=(help); Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Ziemke, Earl F. (1969). Battle for Berlin: End of the Third Reich. Ballantine's Illustrated History of World War II. Juz. la Battle Book #6. Ballantine Books. OCLC 23899.
{{cite book}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)
Viungo vya nje
- Bazyler, Michael J. (25 Desemba 2006). "Holocaust Denial Laws and Other Legislation Criminalizing Promotion of Nazism" (PDF). Yad Vashem. Iliwekwa mnamo 7 Januari 2013.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Parkinson's part in Hitler's downfall", BBC News, 29 July 1999. Retrieved on 13 June 2011.
- "1933 – Day of Potsdam". City of Potsdam. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2012-06-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 Juni 2011.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Documents: Bush's Grandfather Directed Bank Tied to Man Who Funded Hitler", Fox News, 17 October 2003. Retrieved on 16 October 2011.
- "Hitler's Last Days". mi5.gov.uk. MI5 Security Service. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-05-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 5 Januari 2012.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Evans, Richard J.. "How the First World War shaped Hitler", Phillip Crawley, 22 June 2011. Retrieved on 23 September 2012.
- Frauenfeld, A. E (Agosti 1937). "The Power of Speech". Calvin College. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-06-06. Iliwekwa mnamo 19 Oktoba 2011.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Glantz, David (11 Oktoba 2001). "The Soviet‐German War 1941–45: Myths and Realities: A Survey Essay". Clemson, SC: Strom Thurmond Institute of Government and Public Affairs, Clemson University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2015-02-18. Iliwekwa mnamo 12 Desemba 2012.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Goebbels, Joseph (1936). "The Führer as a Speaker". Calvin College. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-06-04. Iliwekwa mnamo 19 Oktoba 2011.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Hinrichs, Per. "Des Führers Pass: Hitlers Einbürgerung", Spiegel Online, 10 March 2007. Retrieved on 16 October 2011. (German)
- Kotanko, Florian. "House of Responsibility". Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-11-13. Iliwekwa mnamo 8 Januari 2013.
{{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|month=(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Introduction to the Holocaust". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Iliwekwa mnamo 17 Oktoba 2011.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Eingabe der Industriellen an Hindenburg vom November 1932". Glasnost–Archiv. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Oktoba 2011.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Longerich, Heinz Peter (2003). "Hitler's Role in the Persecution of the Jews by the Nazi Regime". Atlanta: Emory University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 22 Julai 2012. Iliwekwa mnamo 31 Julai 2013.
{{cite journal}}:|chapter=ignored (help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Longerich, Heinz Peter (2003). "Hitler's Role in the Persecution of the Jews by the Nazi Regime". Atlanta: Emory University. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 9 Julai 2009. Iliwekwa mnamo 31 Julai 2013.
{{cite journal}}:|chapter=ignored (help); Cite journal requires|journal=(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - McMillan, Dan (2012). "Review of Fritz, Stephen G., Ostkrieg: Hitler's War of Extermination in the East". H-Genocide, H-Net Reviews. Iliwekwa mnamo 16 Oktoba 2012.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help); Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - "Der Hitler-Prozeß vor dem Volksgericht in München" (kwa German). 1924.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help); Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: postscript (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Office of Strategic Services (1945). "The Nazi Master Plan: The Persecution of the Christian Churches". Rutgers Journal of Law and Religion. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Law Library: 6–7. OCLC 320083040. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2013-09-26. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-24.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|dead-url=ignored (|url-status=suggested) (help) - "Hitler ersucht um Entlassung aus der österreichischen Staatsangehörigkeit" (kwa German). NS-Archiv. 7 Aprili 1925. Iliwekwa mnamo 13 Aprili 2012.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|trans_title=ignored (|trans-title=suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) CS1 maint: unrecognized language (link) - Phayer, Michael (2000). "The Response of the Catholic Church to National Socialism" (PDF). The Churches and Nazi Persecution. Yad Vashem. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo (PDF) mnamo 2019-01-20. Iliwekwa mnamo 2013-11-24.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help) - Sharkey, Joe. "Word for Word/The Case Against the Nazis; How Hitler's Forces Planned To Destroy German Christianity", 13 January 2002. Retrieved on 7 June 2011.
- "Leni Riefenstahl", The Daily Telegraph, London: TMG, 10 September 2003. Retrieved on 10 May 2013.
- "Man of the Year", Time Magazine, Time, 2 January 1939. Retrieved on 22 May 2008. Archived from the original on 7 June 2008.
- "Seven Years War?", Time Magazine, Time, 2 October 1939. Retrieved on 30 August 2008. Archived from the original on 2008-03-09.
- "Germany: Second Revolution?", Time Magazine, Time, 2 July 1934. Retrieved on 15 April 2013. Archived from the original on 17 April 2008.
- "Poles: Victims of the Nazi Era: The Invasion and Occupation of Poland". ushmm.org. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. Ilihifadhiwa kwenye nyaraka kutoka chanzo mnamo 2014-07-14. Iliwekwa mnamo 26 Mei 2013.
{{cite web}}: Unknown parameter|=ignored (help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) - Wilson, Bee (9 Oktoba 1998). "Mein Diat – Adolf Hitler's diet". New Statesman. UK: Questia. Iliwekwa mnamo 22 Mei 2008.
{{cite web}}: Invalid|ref=harv(help)CS1 maint: date auto-translated (link) Kigezo:Subscription required