- Oshawa, Ontario, Canada
Robin Kay
University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Facutly of Ed, Faculty Member
- Dr. Robin Kay is currently a Full Professor and the Director of Graduate Studies in the Faculty of Education at the U... moreDr. Robin Kay is currently a Full Professor and the Director of Graduate Studies in the Faculty of Education at the University of Ontario Institute Of Technology in Oshawa, Canada. He has published over 150 articles, chapters and conference papers in the area of computers in education, is a reviewer for five prominent computer education journals, and has taught computer science, mathematics, and educational technology for over 20 years at the high school, college, undergraduate and graduate level. Current projects include research on laptop use in higher education, BYOD in K-12 education, web-based learning tools, classroom response systems, e-learning in secondary and higher education, video podcasts, scale development with respect to computer attitude, use, and behaviour, gender differences in computer related behaviour, emotions and the use of computers, the impact of social media tools in education, and factors that influence how students learn with technology. Dr. Kay received his Bachelors of Science at the University of Toronto in Psychology and Computer Science, his M.A. in Computer Applications in Education at the University of Toronto., and his Ph.D. in Cognitive Science (Educational Psychology) at the University of Toronto.edit
Competency-based education in health care requires rigorous standards to ensure professional proficiency. Demonstrating competency in hands-on laboratories calls for effective preparation, knowledge, and experience, all of which can be... more
Competency-based education in health care requires rigorous standards to ensure professional proficiency. Demonstrating competency in hands-on laboratories calls for effective preparation, knowledge, and experience, all of which can be difficult to achieve using traditional teaching methods. Virtual laboratories are an alternative, cost-effective approach to providing students with sufficient preparatory information. Research on the use of virtual labs in allied health education is limited. The current study investigated the benefits, challenges, and perceived impact of a virtual lab in an allied health program. The sample consisted of 64 students (55 females, 9 males) enrolled in a university medical laboratory science program. A convergent mixed methods approach (Likert survey, open-ended questions, think-aloud protocol data) revealed that students had positive attitudes towards visual learning, authenticity, learner control, organization, and scaffolding afforded by the virtual lab. Challenges reported included navigational difficulties, an absence of control over content selection, and lack of understanding for certain concepts. Over 90% of students agreed that the virtual lab helped them prepare for hands-on laboratory sessions and that they would use this format of instruction again. Overall, 84% of the students agreed that the virtual lab helped them to achieve greater success in learning.
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The current study offers a comprehensive, systematic analysis of learning objects used in secondary school science classrooms. Five reliable and valid measures were used to examine the effectiveness of learning objects for 503 students... more
The current study offers a comprehensive, systematic analysis of learning objects used in secondary school science classrooms. Five reliable and valid measures were used to examine the effectiveness of learning objects for 503 students and 15 teachers in 27 science classrooms. The results suggest that teachers typically spend 1-2 hours finding learning objects and preparing lessons that often focus on the review of previous material. both teachers and students are positive about the learning benefits, quality, and engagement value of learning objects, although teachers are more positive than students. student performance increased significantly, almost 40%, when learning objects were used in conjunction with a variety of teaching strategies including brief introductions, letting students work on their own, and providing guiding handouts. it is reasonable to conclude that science-based learning objects are effective teaching tools in the secondary school environment. a review of the literature on the use of technology in secondary school science classrooms (Kay & Knaack, 2007d) indicates that computers can be used to improve attitudes and learning performance; however, there is limited research on the use of web-based tools. a learning object defined as an " interactive web-based tool designed to enhance, amplify and guide learning, " is a readily accessible, easy-to-learn, concept-focussed tool that is a promising alternative for teachers of science. in theory, good learning objects a require students to construct and manipulate information, provide rich feedback and interactive illustrations, help students understand abstract
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The design, development, reuse, and accessibility of learning objects has been examined in some detail for almost 10 years (Kay & Knaack, 2007c, 2007d), however, research on the effectiveness of learning objects is limited (Kay & Knaack,... more
The design, development, reuse, and accessibility of learning objects has been examined in some detail for almost 10 years (Kay & Knaack, 2007c, 2007d), however, research on the effectiveness of learning objects is limited (Kay & Knaack, 2005; Nurmi & Jaakkola, 2006a, 2006b, Sosteric & Hesemeirer,2004), particularly in the K-12 environment. Until recently, learning objects were solely used in higher education (Haughey & Muirhead, 2005; Kay & Knaack, 2005, 2007c). The purpose of the current chapter is to examine factors that influence the effectiveness of learning objects in secondary school classrooms. These factors will include learning object qualities, gender, self-efficacy, grade, subject area, and teaching strategies.
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Empirical research evaluating the effectiveness of learning objects is noticeably absent. No formal research has been done on the use of learning objects in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of learning... more
Empirical research evaluating the effectiveness of learning objects is noticeably absent. No formal research has been done on the use of learning objects in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the use of learning objects by high school students. The evaluation metric used to assess benefits and quality of learning objects was theoretically sound, reliable, and partially validated. Overall, two-thirds of the students stated they benefitted from using learning objects. Students benefitted more if they were comfortable with computers, the learning object had a well organized layout, the instructions were clear, and the theme was fun or motivating. Students appreciated the motivational, interactive, visual qualities of the learning objects most. Computer comfort was significantly correlated with learning object quality and benefit. Younger students appeared to have less positive experiences than their older counterparts. There were no gender differences in perceived benefit or quality of learning objects, with one exception. Females emphasized the quality of help features significantly more than males.
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Pre-calculus concepts such as working with functions and solving equations are essential for students to explore limits, rates of change, and integrals. Yet many students have a weak understanding of these key concepts which impedes... more
Pre-calculus concepts such as working with functions and solving equations are essential for students to explore limits, rates of change, and integrals. Yet many students have a weak understanding of these key concepts which impedes performance in their first-year university Calculus course. A series of online learning objects was developed to provide students with appropriate resources for self-study in pre-calculus concepts. each learning object consisted of text-based summary sheets, interactive video-clips demonstrating sample solutions to typical problems, and a set of online mastery practice questions. The results indicated that a majority of students used the learning objects frequently, rated them as useful or very useful, and reported significant knowledge gains in pre-calculus concepts.
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This paper provides a review of the literature from 2009 to 2014 on student use of technology in early childhood education. Previous efforts to synthesize the literature are somewhat dated, non-specific about age range, and focus almost... more
This paper provides a review of the literature from 2009 to 2014 on student use of technology in early childhood education. Previous efforts to synthesize the literature are somewhat dated, non-specific about age range, and focus almost exclusively on literacy. Thirty peer-reviewed articles from 11 countries, selected from a comprehensive search of the literature, were organized into five main categories: literacy, engagement, social interactions, mathematics, and miscellaneous topics. The overall effect size, based on only 12 studies and 33 measures was moderately high (d= 0.71, SD=0.60). Considerable qualitative and quantitative evidence indicated that technology had a significant impact on literacy development. Fewer studies, mostly qualitative in design and small in sample size, reported that technology had a positive impact on engagement, social interactions, and mathematics skills. A handful of studies provided qualitative evidence that technology had a positive impact on sequencing, visual perception, creative thinking, and fine motor capability. Methodological concerns included limited sample sizes and descriptions, not documenting the consistency and accuracy data of collection tools, the extent of adult intervention, and the limited range of technology tools used.
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Rapid change in technology, conflicting definitions and perspectives, and competing models make it difficult to develop a consistent and coherent understanding of information literacy. A comprehensive search of 50 peer-reviewed articles... more
Rapid change in technology, conflicting definitions and perspectives, and competing models make it difficult to develop a consistent and coherent understanding of information literacy. A comprehensive search of 50 peer-reviewed articles between 2004 and 2014 was conducted to identify major research themes in understanding information literacy. Five key areas associated with information literacy were reviewed, including evolutionary history, proposed definitions, foundational learning theories, digital literacy, and previous information literacy models. Based on a detailed content analysis of previous research, a 4Ps framework (planning, picking, processing, and producing) was developed and analyzed to synthesize the results.
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This chapter explores gender differences in three key areas: computer attitude, ability, and use. Past research (10-25 years ago) is examined in order to provide a framework for a more current analysis. Seventy-one studies and 644... more
This chapter explores gender differences in three key areas: computer attitude, ability, and use. Past research (10-25 years ago) is examined in order to provide a framework for a more current analysis. Seventy-one studies and 644 specific measures are analysed with respect to overall patterns, time, education level, and context. Males and females are more similar than different on all constructs assessed, for most grade levels and contexts. However, males report moderately more positive affective attitudes, higher self-efficacy, and more frequent use. Females are slightly more positive about online learning and appear to perform somewhat better on computer-related tasks. The results must be interpreted with caution because of methodological limitations in many studies reviewed. Finally, a model is proposed to understand and address gender differences in computer-related behaviour.
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Previous research on distractions and the use of mobile devices (personal digital assistants, tablet personal computers, or laptops) have been conducted almost exclusively in higher education. The purpose of the current study was to... more
Previous research on distractions and the use of mobile devices (personal digital assistants, tablet personal computers, or laptops) have been conducted almost exclusively in higher education. The purpose of the current study was to examine the frequency and influence of distracting behaviors in Bring Your Own Device secondary school classrooms. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 181 secondary school students (55 female and 126 male) enrolled in three schools across Canada. Almost 80% of the students reported being on task regularly when using mobile devices in class. However, students also engaged in at least one of five distracting activities occasionally or regularly with their mobile devices including emailing (64%), surfing the web (65%), using social media (52%), instant messaging (32%), and playing games (30%). Female students engaged with social media significantly more than male students, whereas male students played games significantly more than female students. Students were rarely distracted by peer use of mobile technology devices. Students were more distracted by their own use of mobile devices when engaged in independent or group work, and less distracted with lectures and student presentations. Students claimed that teacher and school restrictions were probably the most effective method to limit distracting behavior while learning.
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In the past five years, there has been considerable interest in the decision-making process of school board officials in the field of education. However, a paucity of research exists on how these leaders use online resources to inform... more
In the past five years, there has been considerable interest in the decision-making process of school board officials in the field of education. However, a paucity of research exists on how these leaders use online resources to inform decision-making. Through an online survey and face-to-face interviews, this study examined the use of online resources by school board trustees (n =164) to support board-level decisions. Trustees used online articles (news, research articles, journals) twice as much as social media (Twitter, Facebook, blogs) or repository services (clipping services, Google Scholar). Almost 70% of trustees used three or more resources to inform their decision-making. Seventy-five to 85% of trustees rated online articles and repository services as being useful. Trustees actively checked the trustworthiness of online resources by evaluating sources, crosschecking data, and asking colleagues. Key barriers to using online resources included lack of time, finding reliable or relevant information, and negotiating conflicting results. Some trustees wanted access to a third-party repository of valid, reliable information.
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The laptop computer is considered one of the most used and important technological devices in higher education, yet limited systematic research has been conducted to develop a measure of laptop use in college and university. The purpose... more
The laptop computer is considered one of the most used and important technological devices in higher education, yet limited systematic research has been conducted to develop a measure of laptop use in college and university. The purpose of the following study was to develop a research-based, theoretically grounded scale to assess student use of laptops inside and outside higher education classrooms. The Laptop Use Scale addressed four key areas: in-class academic use, in-class non-academic use, outside of class academic use, and outside of class non-academic use. Tested on 156 higher education students using laptops computers, the Laptop Use Scale showed acceptable internal reliability and good validity (face, content, construct, and convergent validity). It is argued that this scale can help assess and calibrate pedagogical strategies used to integrate laptops into higher education classrooms. Suggestions for future research on assessing student use of laptops are offered including a focus on multi-tasking behavior.
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A comprehensive, formal comparison of resources used to learn computer software has yet to be researched. Understanding the relative strengths and weakness of resources would provide useful guidance to teachers and students. The purpose... more
A comprehensive, formal comparison of resources used to learn computer software has yet to be researched. Understanding the relative strengths and weakness of resources would provide useful guidance to teachers and students. The purpose of the current study was to explore the effectiveness of seven key resources: human assistance, the manual, the keyboard, the screen, the software (other than main menu), the software main menu, and software help. Thirty-six adults (18 male, 18 female), representing three computer ability levels (beginner, intermediate, and advanced), volunteered to think out loud while they learned, for a period of 55 minutes, the rudimentary steps (moving the cursor, using a menu, entering data) required to use a spreadsheet software package (Lotus 1-2-3). The main menu, the screen, and the manual were the most effective resources used. Human assistance produced short term gains in learning but w as not significantly related to overall task performance. Searching the keyboard w as frequently done, but w as relatively ineffective for improving learning. Softw are help w as the least effective learning resource. Individual differences in using resources w ere observed w ith respect to ability level and gender
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Defining computer literacy has proven to be an elusive endeavour. A variety of conflicting criteria has created a somewhat confusing and chaotic state of affairs. The following paper provides a framework to organize and understand the... more
Defining computer literacy has proven to be an elusive endeavour. A variety of conflicting criteria has created a somewhat confusing and chaotic state of affairs. The following paper provides a framework to organize and understand the evolving and ephemeral meaning of computer literacy. Employing Marshall McLuhan’s now famous axiom “the Medium is the Message,” it is proposed that advances in computer technology have strongly influenced the way in which computer literacy has been defined. Significant advances in computer technology have spawned six relatively distinct perspectives on computer literacy. These perspectives or stages include (a) computer awareness, (b) programming, (c) evolving concept and planning (d) behavioural approach, (e) reaction and process, and (f) personal needs. It is argued that significant advances in computer technology should allow educators to stop focusing on how to use computers and start focusing on how to apply computers.
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Since its relatively modest beginning in 1972, the term computer literacy has flourished into a myriad of conflicting meanings and purposes leaving a somewhat confusing result. It is hypothesized that the rapid growth of computer... more
Since its relatively modest beginning in 1972, the term computer literacy has flourished into a myriad of conflicting meanings and purposes leaving a somewhat confusing result. It is hypothesized that the rapid growth of computer technology has strongly influenced the nature of computer literacy definitions. Five relatively distinct philosophies on defining computer literacy are examined, including (a) Specificity, (b) Global, (c) Planned, (d) Evolutionary, and (e) Individual Needs. It is concluded that computer literacy architects are now focusing on educational as opposed to computer literacy goals.
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The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of context on student attitudes toward Web-Based Learning Tools (WBLTs) and learning performance. Survey data about attitudes and quasi-experimental data on learning performance were... more
The purpose of this study was to explore the influence of context on student attitudes toward Web-Based Learning Tools (WBLTs) and learning performance. Survey data about attitudes and quasi-experimental data on learning performance were collected from 832 middle and secondary schools students. Five contextual variables were assessed including subject area (math vs. science), grade level (middle vs. secondary school), lesson plan format (teacher led vs. student based), collaboration (pairs vs. individual), and technological problems experienced (minor vs. major). Science-based WBLTs, higher grade levels, teacher-led lessons, and the absence of major technological problems were associated with significantly higher student attitudes toward the learning, design, and engagement value of WBLTs. Science-based WBLTs, higher grade levels, teacher-led lessons, working alone, and the absence of software problems were associated with significant gains in student learning performance. It is reasonable to conclude that the context in which a WBLT is taught can significantly influence student attitudes and learning performance.
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Little research has been done examining the relation between locus of control and computer literacy. More specific criteria in measuring devices would help to resolve some of the conflicting results that have been observed. The present... more
Little research has been done examining the relation between locus of control and computer literacy. More specific criteria in measuring devices would help to resolve some of the conflicting results that have been observed. The present study used the Multicomponent Assessment of Computer literacy (MAC, .97) and the Computer Locus of Control Measure (CLOC, .87) to examine the relation between computer literacy and locus of control. Computer literacy was found to correlate significantly (p<.001) with locus of control (r=.79). Individual computer literacy subscales including basic skills (.72), application software (.77), awareness (.69) and programming (.62) also correlated significantly with locus of control (p<.001).
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In the past five years, there has been considerable interest in the decision-making process of school board officials in the field of education. However, a paucity of research exists on how these leaders use online resources to make... more
In the past five years, there has been considerable interest in the decision-making process of school board officials in the field of education. However, a paucity of research exists on how these leaders use online resources to make decisions. Through an online survey and face to face interviews, this study examined the use of online resources by school-board trustees (n=164) to guide board-level decisions. Trustees used online articles (news, research articles, journals) twice as much as social media (Twitter, Facebook, blogs) or repository services (clipping services, Google Scholar). Almost 70% of trustees used three or more resources to inform their decision making. Seventy-five to 85% of trustees rated online articles and repository services as being useful. Trustees actively checked the trustworthiness of online resources by evaluating sources, cross-checking data, and asking colleagues. Key barriers to using online resources included lack of time, finding reliable or relevant information, and negotiating conflicting results. Some trustees wanted access to a third-party, repository of valid, reliable information.
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The purpose of this article was to provide a comprehensive review of research on video podcasts from 2002 to 2011 in order to guide future studies and educational practice. Fifty-three, peer-reviewed articles were selected from an... more
The purpose of this article was to provide a comprehensive review of research on video podcasts from 2002 to 2011 in order to guide future studies and educational practice. Fifty-three, peer-reviewed articles were selected from an extensive search of the literature. Key topics included the history and growth of video podcasts, types of podcasts, previous literature reviews, benefits and challenges of using video podcasts, methodological concerns, and suggestions for future research. Key benefits included positive affective and cognitive attitudes toward video podcasts, control over learning, improved study habits, and increased learning performance. Key challenges included a variety of technical problems, preference of some students for lectures, and reduced class attendance. Methodological concerns involved insufficient description of video podcasts examined, limited sample selection and description, and the absence of reliability and validity estimates for data collection tools. Suggestions for future research include focusing on the quality and design of video podcasts, pedagogical strategies, viewing patterns and impact on learning effectiveness, and in individual differences in video podcast use.
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This study explored differences in computer attitudes, computer literacy, computer locus of control and commitment to computers between males and females. Three hundred and eighty-three education students at the University of Toronto... more
This study explored differences in computer attitudes, computer literacy, computer locus of control and commitment to computers between males and females. Three hundred and eighty-three education students at the University of Toronto completed a survey about computer attitudes (affective and cognitive), computer literacy (experience, basic skills, awareness, application software, programming), locus of control (specific to the use of computers), and commitment to computers (actual use, interest, promotion). Males and females did not differ in either their affective or cognitive attitudes toward computers. Males had significantly higher scores on all subscales of computer literacy and commitment to computers. Males also showed more internal locus of control with respect to computers. It is recommended that increased effort be made to impart computer literacy skills to female student teachers.
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To date, extensive research has been done on the use of au-dience Response Systems (aRSs) in colleges and universi-ties, but not in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to conduct a detailed formative analysis on the benefits,... more
To date, extensive research has been done on the use of au-dience Response Systems (aRSs) in colleges and universi-ties, but not in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to conduct a detailed formative analysis on the benefits, challenges, and use of aRSs from the perspective of 659 sec-ondary school students. Key benefits reported were increased levels of engagement and motivation, the effective use of for-mative assessment, and a better quality learning environment. Key challenges included a perceived decrease in learning per-formance when an aRS was used for summative assessment, technological malfunctions, resistance to using a new method of learning, and increased stress due to perceived time con-straints. finally, students consistently rated the use of an aRS significantly higher when it was used for formative as op-posed to summative assessment. Overview an audience Response System (aRS), also known as a personal re-sponse system (Hinde & Hunt, 2006), electronic voting system (Kennedy & Cutts, 2005), student response system (Kaleta & Joosten, 2007 and clickers (Bergtrom, 2006), permits students to respond to multiple choice questions using a remote control device. after students click in their responses, the results are instantly aggregated and displayed in chart form for the entire class to review. Responses are often anonymous but the teacher can assign an ARS remote device to specific students for evaluation purposes. Once the feedback is displayed, a teacher can change the course of instruction accord-ingly or students can work out misconceptions and difficulties through peer
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Researchers of computer ability have been largely influenced by the Galtonian perspective of intelligence assessment: a predominantly linear, construct-driven model based on identifying statistically determined factors. The use of this... more
Researchers of computer ability have been largely influenced by the Galtonian perspective of intelligence assessment: a predominantly linear, construct-driven model based on identifying statistically determined factors. The use of this methodology, though, has far more to do with utility than theoretical rigor. Notably absent from this kind of approach is data on process--how a subject interacts with the computer. This study looked at the process of knowledge acquisition in a computer-based environment. Six subjects (two males, four females) were videotaped while learning a new spreadsheet software package. A detailed examination of their think-aloud protocols is presented which addresses the role of previous experience, the use of metaphors, the effects of task interpretation, and use of terminology. The following conclusions were reached: (1) there is no clear relation between previous computer-related skills and the successful completion of spreadsheet learning tasks; (2) subjects actively attempt to learn by using a variety of metaphors; (3) task interpretation affects how subjects behave and the kind of errors they make while learning; (4) terminology is related to degree of understanding of new tasks; and (5) a process-oriented approach to examining computer ability provides a rich source of theoretical and pedagogical information. Protocol instructions for subjects are appended. (22 references) (Author/BBM)
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This study examined the impact of Web-based Learning Tools (WbLTs), also known as learning objects, in middle school mathematics and science classrooms. Survey, quali-tative, and student performance data were collected from a sample of 18... more
This study examined the impact of Web-based Learning Tools (WbLTs), also known as learning objects, in middle school mathematics and science classrooms. Survey, quali-tative, and student performance data were collected from a sample of 18 teachers and 443 students. Teachers were very positive about the learning benefits, design of WbLTs, and increased engagement of their students. Students were mod-erately positive about these same features. Student learning performance with respect to remembering, understanding, ap-plying and evaluating concepts increased significantly when WbLTs were used. Qualitative data suggested that a num-ber of students enjoyed the visual supports, ease of use, and interactivity of WbLTs as well using technology to learn. Some students noted that the WbLTs used in class were not challenging enough and that the help features and the design of certain WbLTs were deficient. overall, it is reasonable to conclude that WbLTs, if selected carefully, can be a positive and effective learning tool in a middle school environment. Overview Research and use of Web-based Learning Tools (WbLTs), also referred to as learning objects, has been conducted primarily in higher education (e.g., Haughey & Muirhead, 2005; Kay & Knaack, 2008, 2009). Recent-ly, there has been an increase in the implementation of WbLTs in middle
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Identifying the nature and effect of knowledge building activities (KBAs) is an effective method for investigating and understanding knowledge acquisition. The purpose of this study was to investigate KBAs in the domain of computer... more
Identifying the nature and effect of knowledge building activities (KBAs) is an effective method for investigating and understanding knowledge acquisition. The purpose of this study was to investigate KBAs in the domain of computer software. Thirty-six adults (18 male, 18 female; 12 beginners, 12 intermediates, 12 advanced users) were asked to think aloud while they attempted to learn a series of tasks in a common spreadsheet package. A detailed analysis of 3,061 KBAs revealed that seeking information and actions (e.g. pressing a key, playing, exploring) were prominent in learning effectively. An analysis of more specific KBAs showed that directed (as opposed to broad) search, trial and error, and careful observation had a strong impact on learning. Pace of learning and systematic testing played a more moderate role. The effect of KBAs varied as a function of ability. Practical recommendations are offered to educators of computer studies.
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The following paper is based on a review of 68 refereed journal articles that focused on introducing technology to preservice teachers. Ten key strategies emerged from this review, including delivering a single technology course; offering... more
The following paper is based on a review of 68 refereed journal articles that focused on introducing technology to preservice teachers. Ten key strategies emerged from this review, including delivering a single technology course; offering mini-workshops; integrating technology in all courses; modeling how to use technology; using multimedia; collaboration among preservice teachers, mentor teachers and faculty; practicing technology in the field; focusing on education faculty; focusing on mentor teachers; and improving access to software, hardware, and/or support. These strategies were evaluated based on their effect on computer attitude, ability, and use. The following patterns emerged: First, most studies looked at programs that incorporated only one to three strategies. Second, when four or more strategies were used, the effect on preservice teacher’s use of computers appeared to be more pervasive. Third, most research examined attitudes, ability, or use, but rarely all three. Fourth, and perhaps most important, the vast majority of studies had severe limitations in method: poor data collection instruments, vague sample and program descriptions, small samples, an absence of statistical analysis, or weak anecdotal descriptions of success. It is concluded that more rigorous and comprehensive research is needed to fully understand and evaluate the effect of key technology strategies in preservice teacher education.
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In this study, the Computer Attitude Measure (CAM) was administered to 383 student teachers to assess three relatively distinct dimensions of computer attitudes: cognitive, affective and behavioral. The alpha coefficients for each... more
In this study, the Computer Attitude Measure (CAM) was administered to 383 student teachers to assess three relatively distinct dimensions of computer attitudes: cognitive, affective and behavioral. The alpha coefficients for each subscale (cognitive (α = .87), affective (α = .89), behavioral (α = .94) showed a high degree of internal reliability. The principal component factor analysis supported the a priori assumption that the three subscales were independent. Finally, significant positive correlations (p < .001) of all subscales with a high degree of computer literacy and experience, and an internal locus of control, supported the external validity of the Computer Attitude Measure (CAM).
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A well-documented advantage of distance learning is that students control the time, pace, and pathways of learning. This control over learning is particularly appealing when just-in-time support is readily available. However, providing... more
A well-documented advantage of distance learning is that students control the time, pace, and pathways of learning. This control over learning is particularly appealing when just-in-time support is readily available. However, providing effective, timely assistance is challenging for instructors and tutors. The time and money required to provide help 24 hours a day, 7 days a week is both time and cost prohibitive. One possible strategy that could reduce the time required to address student questions in a distance learning environment is the use of educational video-clips (EVC). This paper will report on the benefits of EVCs in four key areas: instruction, assessment, administration, and creating community. Overview Participation in distance education has grown at a remarkably rapid rate. In the United States, almost five million higher education students reported taking an online course in 2008 (Allen & Seaman, 2008), an increase of over 180% since 2002. Over 96% of the largest highe...
A theoretical analysis of methods used by researchers to examine gender differences in behaviour toward computers is offered. Most studies have used a quantitative, construct-testing, cross-sectional approach to assess general behaviours.... more
A theoretical analysis of methods used by researchers to examine gender differences in behaviour toward computers is offered. Most studies have used a quantitative, construct-testing, cross-sectional approach to assess general behaviours. It is argued that a qualitative, contextual, developmental approach, examining specific cognitive tasks is required if we want to shift from simply identifying gender differences to understanding them. This alternative approach offers the potential to develop a more cohesive and comprehensive understanding of human-computer interaction. Without this understanding we will continue to identify only pieces of a very complex puzzle.
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A number of researchers have used a construct metaphor to investigate and explain gender differences in behaviours toward computers. A typical study uses paper-and-pencil data gathering techniques to develop and assess a variety of... more
A number of researchers have used a construct metaphor to investigate and explain gender differences in behaviours toward computers. A typical study uses paper-and-pencil data gathering techniques to develop and assess a variety of independent constructs based on attitude, ability and use. Males and females are then compared on the basis of these constructs. Although this metaphor provides concise, easily understood descriptions of the data, it suffers from several drawbacks, the most serious being the neglect of process. Other problems include arbitrary analysis of results and a bias toward general as opposed to specific needs of the individual. An argument is made to use a process metaphor, employing verbal protocol analysis, to investigate computer-related behaviour. A "contextual module", synthesizing factors such as declarative and procedural knowledge, goals, affect, reaction to typical problem situations, self-concept and code of conduct, is offered as a guide for p...
Many children start interacting with computers at three or four years of age; gender-based socialization begins even earlier, 1 at the moment when someone asks, "Is it a boy or a girl?". A critical question arises as to whether... more
Many children start interacting with computers at three or four years of age; gender-based socialization begins even earlier, 1 at the moment when someone asks, "Is it a boy or a girl?". A critical question arises as to whether computer behaviour is influenced by gender. If computers play an increasingly prominent role in our society, one could argue that significant power and success rest with those who know how to use this technology effectively. It is vital that boys and girls have equal opportunity to work with and benefit from computers. Synopsis of the Research Literature In 1992, I reviewed 36 studies on gender and computer-related behaviours. 2 The overall picture indicated that males had more positive attitudes and higher abilities, and that they used computers more. Five years later, a detailed study by Whitley 3 revealed that gender imbalances continued to exist with respect to computer attitudes. Males viewed computers as primarily masculine tools, had stronger...
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Previous research on online discussions has focused on university students learning higher level subjects. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether online discussions could be used effectively by secondary school students... more
Previous research on online discussions has focused on university students learning higher level subjects. The purpose of the current study was to examine whether online discussions could be used effectively by secondary school students attempting to learn introductory level topics. Forty-five male students, ranging in age from 13 to 15 years old, participated in two consecutive online discussions used to supplement the learning of HTML (24 days) and beginning programming (36 days) respectively. Students were able to actively understand and apply new concepts and procedures using an online discussion format. The majority of students posted clear, good quality messages that covered material which went beyond the course curriculum. Although attitudes toward using online discussions and participation rates were uneven, most students reported gaining useful information from the discussion board. More than three quarters of all discussion threads were resolved. Finally, and perhaps most ...
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Identifying the nature and effect of knowledge building activities (KBAs) is an effective method for investigating and understanding knowledge acquisition. The purpose of this study was to investigate KBAs in the domain of computer... more
Identifying the nature and effect of knowledge building activities (KBAs) is an effective method for investigating and understanding knowledge acquisition. The purpose of this study was to investigate KBAs in the domain of computer software. Thirty-six adults (18 male, 18 female; 12 beginners, 12 intermediates, 12 advanced users) were asked to think aloud while they attempted to learn a series of tasks in a common spreadsheet package. A detailed analysis of 3,061 KBAs revealed that seeking information and actions (e.g. pressing a key, playing, exploring) were prominent in learning effectively. An analysis of more specific KBAs showed that directed (as opposed to broad) search, trial and error, and careful observation had a strong impact on learning. Pace of learning and systematic testing played a more moderate role. The effect of KBAs varied as a function of ability. Practical recommendations are offered to educators of computer studies.
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Most researchers and educators have used a construct approach to evaluate computer ability or literacy. A prototypical measure assesses programming ability, application software skill, and computer awareness. This kind of measure is often... more
Most researchers and educators have used a construct approach to evaluate computer ability or literacy. A prototypical measure assesses programming ability, application software skill, and computer awareness. This kind of measure is often viewed as a final product, rather than a pedagogical tool. It is argued that the fundamental basis of computer ability measures has to be altered in order to (a) address a rapidly evolving computer software market and (b) take advantage of significant advances made in instruction and cognitive science. A more fundamentally useful metric of computer ability can be developed using process-oriented methodology. This new metric, comprised of actual learning activities, helps provide a comprehensive and coherent understanding of how a person interacts with a computer. Metaphors and constraints based on an extensive core of intelligence assessment research are used (a) to illustrate how theorists have looked at computer ability and (b) to provide guideli...
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The current study offers a formative analysis of the impact of learning objects in middle school mathematics and science classrooms. Five reliable and valid measure of effectiveness were used to examine the impact of learning objects from... more
The current study offers a formative analysis of the impact of learning objects in middle school mathematics and science classrooms. Five reliable and valid measure of effectiveness were used to examine the impact of learning objects from the perspective of 262 students and 8 teachers (14 classrooms) in science or mathematics. The results indicate that teachers typically spend 1-2 hours finding and preparing for learning-object based lesson plans that focus on the review of previous concepts. Both teachers and students are positive about the learning benefits, quality, and engagement value of learning objects, although teachers are more positive than students. Student performance increased significantly, over 40%, when learning objects were used in conjunction with a variety of teaching strategies. It is reasonable to conclude that learning objects have potential as a teaching tool in a middle school environment. L'impacte des objets d'apprentissage dans les classes de mathé...
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Extensive research has been done on the use of Interactive Classroom Communication Systems (ICCS) in higher education, but not in secondary schools. This chapter provides a detailed overview of the benefits, challenges, and strategies... more
Extensive research has been done on the use of Interactive Classroom Communication Systems (ICCS) in higher education, but not in secondary schools. This chapter provides a detailed overview of the benefits, challenges, and strategies observed when using ICCS in higher education. This overview is then used to analyze and interpret quantitative and qualitative data collected from 659 secondary school students. The main benefits that students identified for using ICCS were increased use of formative assessment, higher engagement and motivation, enhanced participation, and improved focus during class. Students were relatively neutral, though, with respect to whether ICCS improved class discussion or learning. The main challenges that students reported were increased stress and uncertainty of answers when ICCS were used in a formal test situation. Males were significantly more positive toward ICCS, as were students who had higher comfort levels with technology. When ICCS were used for formative assessment as opposed to formal tests, students were significantly more accepting. The chapter concludes with suggestions for educators and future research.
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Considerable research has been conducted examining the use of laptops in higher education, however, a reliable and valid scale to assess in-class use of laptops has yet to be developed. The purpose of the following study was to develop... more
Considerable research has been conducted examining the use of laptops in higher education, however, a reliable and valid scale to assess in-class use of laptops has yet to be developed. The purpose of the following study was to develop and evaluate the Laptop Effectiveness Scale (LES). The scale consisted of four constructs: academic use and three areas of non-academic use (communication, watching movies, playing games). Tested on 177 higher education students, the data generated using the LES showed acceptable internal reliability, construct validity, content and convergent validity. Feedback from students suggested that both academic and non-academic constructs assessed by the LES could be expanded to incorporate a wider range of laptop related behaviour. Overview There is extensive debate about the efficacy of laptop computers in the classroom. Several studies have identified benefits such as keeping students on task and engaged (Hyden, 2005), or following lectures via PowerPoint...
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The purpose of this study was to examine individual differences in attitudes toward Audience Response Systems (ARSs) in secondary school classrooms. Specifically, the impact of gender, grade, subject area, computer comfort level,... more
The purpose of this study was to examine individual differences in attitudes toward Audience Response Systems (ARSs) in secondary school classrooms. Specifically, the impact of gender, grade, subject area, computer comfort level, participation level, and type of use were examined in 659 students. Males had significantly more positive attitudes toward ARSs than female students. Students who were more comfortable with computers had significantly more positive attitudes than students who were less comfortable. Students who did not actively participate in class before ARSs were used were more positive about this tool than students who regularly participated. Finally, students were significantly more positive about ARSs when they were used for formative (not for grades) as opposed to summative (for grades) assessment. There were no significant differences observed for grade level or subject area taught.
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While discussion of the criteria needed to assess learning objects has been extensive, a formal, systematic model for evaluation has yet to be thoroughly tested. The purpose of the following study was to develop and assess a... more
While discussion of the criteria needed to assess learning objects has been extensive, a formal, systematic model for evaluation has yet to be thoroughly tested. The purpose of the following study was to develop and assess a multi-component model for evaluating learning objects. The Learning Object Evaluation Metric (LOEM) was developed from a detailed list of criteria gathered from a comprehensive review of the literature. A sample of 1113 middle and secondary students, 33 teachers, and 44 learning objects was used to test this model. A principal components analysis revealed four distinct constructs: interactivity, design, engagement, and usability. These four constructs showed acceptable internal and inter-rater reliability. They also correlated significantly with student and teacher perceptions of learning, quality, and engagement. Finally, all four constructs were significantly and positively correlated with student learning performance. It is reasonable to conclude that the LOE...
Research Interests: Educational Technology, Mobile Learning, Web Based Learning, Factor analysis, Models, and 6 moreCorrelation, Web-based Learning and Instruction, Construct Validity, E Learning, Web Based Learning, and Educational Technology, Curriculum Development, Curriculum and Pedagogy, and Interrater Reliability
The purpose of this study was to investigate the benefits and challenges of using laptop computers (hereafter referred to as laptops) inside and outside higher education classrooms. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from... more
The purpose of this study was to investigate the benefits and challenges of using laptop computers (hereafter referred to as laptops) inside and outside higher education classrooms. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected from 156 university students (54 males, 102 females) enrolled in either education or communication studies. Benefits of using laptops in class were active note taking, particularly when instructors provided materials ahead of time, searching for academic resources, use of subject-specific software, communicating and sharing information with peers, and engaging with online interactive tools. Challenges of using laptops inside the class included surfing the web for personal reasons, social networking with peers and, to a lesser extent, entertainment in the form of watching video podcasts or playing games. Benefits were reported 30% more often than challenges inside the classroom. Benefits of using laptops outside of class included collaboration with peers, i...
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The purpose of the following study was to examine the impact of web-based learning tools (WBLTs) in science classrooms (grades 7 to 10) from the perspective of both teachers and stu-dents. Survey, qualitative, and student performance data... more
The purpose of the following study was to examine the impact of web-based learning tools (WBLTs) in science classrooms (grades 7 to 10) from the perspective of both teachers and stu-dents. Survey, qualitative, and student performance data were collected from a sample of 11 teachers and 371 students. Teachers were very positive about the learning benefits, design, and engagement value of WBLTs. Students were more critical, but still positive about these same features. Qualitative data suggested that students appreciated visual scaffolding, ease of use, en-gagement, and using technology. Student performance based on five knowledge categories (re-membering, understanding, applying, analyzing, and evaluating) increased significantly when WBLTs were used. Finally, middle and secondary school students had similar attitudes toward WBLTs, but older students showed higher learning performance gains.
The purpose of this paper was to explore research-based applications for using video podcasts in an online learning environment. Five key video podcast uses were examined including administration, instruction, student assignments,... more
The purpose of this paper was to explore research-based applications for using video podcasts in an online learning environment. Five key video podcast uses were examined including administration, instruction, student assignments, feedback, and community. Administrative video podcasts provide course information on areas such as learning goals, lesson plan instructions, course policies, and homework or assignment expectations. Instruction-based video podcasts present short summaries or worked examples for teaching specific concepts. Student assignment video podcasts offer a creative way for students to demonstrate a variety of skills in a wide range of subject areas. Feedback-based video podcasts provide formative guidance to students about their progress or summative evaluation for assignments they complete. Finally, community-based video podcasts help build instructor-to-peer and peer-to-peer connections within an online learning course. Future exploration on the design of video po...
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The purpose of this study was to examine the use of video podcasts designed to teach software skills in a preservice teacher education program. It was observed that most preservice teachers used video podcasts one or two times per month... more
The purpose of this study was to examine the use of video podcasts designed to teach software skills in a preservice teacher education program. It was observed that most preservice teachers used video podcasts one or two times per month to learn specific tasks involving specialty software (e.g., web design, subject-specific, multimedia presentations). The majority of preservice teachers agreed that video podcasts were easy to find, clear, simple to follow, and delivered at a good pace. Preservice teachers specifically enjoyed the just-in-time, instant access to video podcasts. Preference for using video podcasts varied according to gender, age, and level of computer experience. Finally, preservice teachers indicated that the video clips were useful in helping them to learn new software tasks.
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The case approach described here attempts to bridge the gap between the theory and practice of education by developing a video case documentary depicting exemplary teaching and learning in science education. A video-based case study on... more
The case approach described here attempts to bridge the gap between the theory and practice of education by developing a video case documentary depicting exemplary teaching and learning in science education. A video-based case study on the topic of developing argumentation skills with grade 12 biology students was produced and placed on a website. The case was viewed by a class of preservice teachers in science education. Their interactions with the case and each other while viewing the case were recorded by a variety of methods. Findings regarding the development of argumentation skills for students and the efficacy of the video-case methodology will be described.
To date, limited research has been done examining and eval-uating the instructional wrap for using learning objects effec-tively. The current study examined instructional strategies used by 15 teachers to integrate learning objects into... more
To date, limited research has been done examining and eval-uating the instructional wrap for using learning objects effec-tively. The current study examined instructional strategies used by 15 teachers to integrate learning objects into 30 sec-ondary school classrooms (510 students). Four key areas were examined: preparation time, purpose for using a learn-ing object, integration strategies, and time spent using a learn-ing object. A small, but significant, correlation was observed between preparation time and student attitudes toward learn-ing objects. When the purpose of using a learning object was to introduce a concept before a formal lesson, motivate stu-dents, or teach a new concept, student attitudes and perfor-mance were significantly higher. On the other hand, choosing to use a learning object after a formal lesson or to review a concept resulted in significantly lower student attitudes and performance. Regarding integration strategies, providing a guiding set of questions ...
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This article examined how higher education students used text and instant messaging for academic purposes with their peers and faculty. Specifically, comfort level, frequency of use, usefulness, reasons for messaging and differences... more
This article examined how higher education students used text and instant messaging for academic purposes with their peers and faculty. Specifically, comfort level, frequency of use, usefulness, reasons for messaging and differences between peer-to-peer and peer-to-instructor interactions were examined. Students noted that they were very comfortable with using both text and instant messaging. Text messaging was used weekly with instructors and daily with peers. Instant messaging was used rarely with instructors but weekly with peers. Students rated
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Since its relatively modest beginning in 1972, the term computer literacy has flourished into a myriad of conflicting meanings and purposes leaving a somewhat confusing result. It is hypothesized that the rapid growth of computer... more
Since its relatively modest beginning in 1972, the term computer literacy has flourished into a myriad of conflicting meanings and purposes leaving a somewhat confusing result. It is hypothesized that the rapid growth of computer technology has strongly influenced the nature of computer literacy definitions. Five relatively distinct philosophies on defining computer literacy are examined, including a) Specificity,
b) Global, c) Planned, d) Evolutionary and e) Individual Needs. It is concluded that computer literacy architects are now focusing on educational as opposed to computer literacy goals.
b) Global, c) Planned, d) Evolutionary and e) Individual Needs. It is concluded that computer literacy architects are now focusing on educational as opposed to computer literacy goals.
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Most definitions of computer literacy or ability are either too narrow or too broad, making it difficult to sort out conflicting research results. A multicomponent measure of ability to use computers, isolating independent constructs, is... more
Most definitions of computer literacy or ability are either too narrow or too broad, making it difficult to sort out conflicting research results. A multicomponent measure of ability to use computers, isolating independent constructs, is needed in order to clarify and interpret future research. In this study, the 22-item Computer Ability Survey (CAS) was administered to 647 preservice teachers to assess four distinct components of ability to use computers: software ability, awareness, programming skill, and perceived control. The internal reliability coefficient for the full measure was .96. The alpha coefficients for each of the ability subscales—software/awareness (α = .94), programming (α = .93), and perceived control (α = .89)—showed a high degree of internal consistency. The principal components factor analysis showed that each construct was relatively independent. Significant positive correlations (p <.001) among all ability subscales, attitudes toward computers (another measure of software skill), and mathematical ability supported the external validity of the CAS. Researchers and educators could use the CAS to evaluate and predict performance of adult learners.
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Little research has been done examining the relation between locus of control and computer literacy. More specific criteria in measuring devices would help to resolve some of the conflicting results that have been observed. The present... more
Little research has been done examining the relation between locus of control and computer literacy. More specific criteria in measuring devices would help to resolve some of the conflicting results that have been observed. The present study used the Multicomponent Assessment of Computer literacy (MAC, .97) and the Computer Locus of Control Measure (CLOC, .87) to examine the relation between computer literacy and locus of control. Computer literacy was found to correlate significantly (p<.001) with locus of control (r=.79). Individual computer literacy subscales including basic skills (.72), application software (.77), awareness (.69) and programming (.62) also correlated significantly with locus of control (p<.001).
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To date, extensive research has been done on the use of Audience Response Systems (ARSs) in colleges and universities, but not in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to conduct a detailed formative analysis on the benefits,... more
To date, extensive research has been done on the use of Audience Response Systems (ARSs) in colleges and universities, but not in secondary schools. The purpose of this study was to conduct a detailed formative analysis on the benefits, challenges, and use of ARSs from the perspective of 659 secondary school students. Key benefits reported were increased levels of engagement and motivation, the effective use of formative assessment, and a better quality learning environment. Key challenges included a perceived decrease in learning performance when an aRS was used for summative assessment, technological malfunctions, resistance to using a new method of learning, and increased stress due to perceived time constraints. finally, students consistently rated the use of an aRS significantly higher when it was used for formative as opposed to summative assessment.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an online virtual lab as a learning tool to prepare allied health students for face-to-face laboratory sessions. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from... more
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of an online virtual lab as a learning tool to prepare allied health students for face-to-face laboratory sessions. Both qualitative and quantitative data were collected from 64 university students (55 females, 9 males) and analyzed to assess attitudes towards the virtual lab. Students reported that the virtual lab made skill acquisition easier and faster, helped them prepare for hands-on laboratory sessions, and was a tool they would use again. The key benefits of the virtual lab was that it enabled students to visualize procedures and reactions outside of the traditional laboratory setting. Student visualization enhanced preparedness and performance in the laboratory environment.
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Many reports indicate that students have difficulty in mathematics (e.g., Carr, 2012; Hinton, 2014;). Some evidence suggests that technology can help (Boogart et al., 2014; Riconscente, 2013). This study investigated how the use of... more
Many reports indicate that students have difficulty in mathematics (e.g., Carr, 2012; Hinton, 2014;). Some evidence suggests that technology can help (Boogart et al., 2014; Riconscente, 2013). This study investigated how the use of mathematics apps in a grade 2/3 mathematics class impact student attitudes and academic performance. Five apps were carefully selected based on set pedagogical criteria. Twenty students (11 males, 9 females) participated. The results indicated the importance of focusing on specific qualities of mathematics apps rather than on the tablet itself. Overall, students rated apps as relatively easy to use, engaging, and helped them to learn. The extent to which math apps supported learning was influenced by usability, differentiation, multiple opportunities to practice, positive and useful feedback, and exposure to suitably challenging tasks. Students' mathematics performance increased significantly over a five-week period.
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While laptop programs have been investigated extensively, Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) programs, which have a unique set of features, have not been examined, particularly at the secondary school level. This study explored the... more
While laptop programs have been investigated extensively, Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) programs, which have a unique set of features, have not been examined, particularly at the secondary school level. This study explored the effectiveness of a BYOD approach to teaching high school English over a four-month semester. Using a mixed methods design, we asked 80 students (32 males, 48 females) about their perceptions of engagement and learning. A majority of students claimed they were engaged as a direct result of using technology. Students also perceived computer use to have a positive impact on their learning with respect to productivity, accessibility,
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While considerable research and investigation have been conducted on asynchronous online learning [1, 2, 3], much less is known about synchronous or virtual classrooms. Research and practice within asynchronous environments do not readily... more
While considerable research and investigation have been conducted on asynchronous online learning [1, 2, 3], much less is known about synchronous or virtual classrooms. Research and practice within asynchronous environments do not readily transfer to virtual environments. Since 2010, the use of virtual classrooms has grown considerably, although the research in this area is still in its infancy [4, 5, 6]. The purpose of the current presentation is to present and assess promising pedagogy for teaching and learning in virtual classrooms. Based on five years of developing, designing and teaching virtual online courses in a Master of Education program, 10 themes focusing on the most effective teaching and learning strategies will be discussed including communication, pre-course preparation, first-class design, establishing social presence, learning outcomes and assessment, addressing technology problems, in-class activities, meaningful technology tools, consolidation, formative and course improvement.
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Currently, there are thousands of educational apps available, however, most are not formally regulated, and educators have limited guidance on how to choose the most effective apps [1,2]. The purpose of this paper is to present a... more
Currently, there are thousands of educational apps available, however, most are not formally regulated, and educators have limited guidance on how to choose the most effective apps [1,2]. The purpose of this paper is to present a comprehensive framework for selecting and evaluating educational apps based on an extensive review of the research from 2008 to 2017. First, the history and growth of educational apps and the limitations of previous metrics will be discussed. Second, eight types of educational apps will be discussed (instructive, practice-based, metacognitive, constructive, productive, communicative, collaborative, game-based). Third, eight characteristics of effective apps will be summarized including learning value, content quality, learning goals, usability, engagement, challenge level, feedback, and collaboration. Fourth, practical issues for selecting apps will be explored. Finally, guideless for using the app characteristics and types are provided.