Maura Sala
Universita' della Svizzera Italiana, Facoltà di Teologia di Lugano, Department Member
- École biblique et archéologique française de Jérusalem, Archéologie, Department Memberadd
- Bronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology), Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine (History and Archaeology), Biblical Archaeology, Near Eastern Archaeology, Syria (Archaeology), Archaeology of the Southern Levant, and 67 moreArchaeology of Ancient Israel, Ancient Near East (Archaeology), Bronze Age Near East (Archaeology), Pottery technology and function, Ancient Pottery Analysis, Carthage, Punic Pottery, Mediterranean archaeology, Phoenician Punic Archaeology, Punic world and Punic Archaeology, Phoenician and Punic Studies, archaeology of Sardinia in phoenician age, Pottery (Archaeology), Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Pottery technology, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Ancient Metallurgy, Jerusalem Archaeology, Votive offerings, Phoenician Punic Archaeology, Levantine Archaeology, 1) cultural interconnections and trade (Egypt and Levant), Radiocarbon, Cultural interrelations in the eastern Mediterranean from the BA to the EIA, Pottery studies, Pottery consumption, Ceramic Technology, Ceramic Analysis (Archaeology), Archaeology of Ritual, Religious architecture, Radiocarbon Dating (Archaeology), Egypt and Canaan, Early Bronze Age Syria, Mediterranean archaeology, Iron Age, Late Bronze Age, Protohistoric Iberian Peninsula, Ritual Practices, Commensality, Phoenician trade, Syro-Palestinian archaeology, Middle Bronze Age, Trade, Exchange, Pottery, Metallurgy, Social Change During the Early Bronze Age, Mortuary Practices EB IA, Jordan, Bab Edh Dhra, Figurines, Performativity, Identity, Early Bronze Age, Levant, Archaeology, Bronze Age Collapse, Desert Road Archaeology, Arabian/Persian Gulf Archaeology, Arabian/Persian Gulf Studies, Middle Bronze Age Period relations with Egypt, Middle and Late Bronze Age, Middle Bronze Age Lebanon, Middle Bronze Age Levant, foreign relations during ancient Egypt's Middle Kingdom, Cultural Connection Between Egypt and the Levant, Sinai, Death and Burial (Archaeology), Funerary Archaeology, Ancient Ethnicity and Identity, Philistines, Amorite Koiné, Byblos, and Wadi Tumilatedit
It is a systematic catalogue of Archeological sites in Jericho area for the sake of its protection, management and cultural valorization. It provides a comprehensive archeological data-base for archeological sites and features in... more
It is a systematic catalogue of Archeological sites in Jericho area for the sake of its protection, management and cultural valorization. It provides a comprehensive archeological data-base for archeological sites and features in Jericho area, supplemented with a historical introduction, history of exploration, current archeological activities, chronological table, maps, plans and a detailed bibliography. This Catalogue, edited by Lorenzo Nigro, Maura Sala and Hamdan Taha was published in ROSAPAT 7 in the framework of joint cooperation between the Palestinian Department of Antiquities and the University of Rome “La Sapienza.
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The present work reports the results of the typological, technological and archaeometric study undertaken on Early Bronze Age ceramic fragments from the site of Tell el-Far'ah North (West Bank), which macroscopic analysis has recognized... more
The present work reports the results of the typological, technological and archaeometric study undertaken on Early Bronze Age ceramic fragments from the site of Tell el-Far'ah North (West Bank), which macroscopic analysis has recognized as representative of 'metallic ware'. The fragments belong to a distinctive class of medium-sized carinated bowls dating to the south Levantine EB II/ESL 4. Petrographic (OM), mineralogical (XRPD) and chemical (SEM-EDS) analyses have yielded the identification of a 'metallic ware' industry, which used a low calcareous clay where quartz is dominant, along with feldspars, fragments of sedimentary and siliceous rocks, nodules of iron oxides, and was fired at a temperature in a range between 800-900°C. Petrographic and mineralogical data have made it possible to discuss the nature of raw materials and to investigate aspects of the production technology. Finally, through a comparison with other ceramics from the site, the fragments have been examined against the background of the local pottery tradition. The metallic ware bowls from Tell el-Far'ah North have proved to be representative of a distinctive specialized ceramic industry of the central hill country, linked to the so-called 'Aphek family' bowls.
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In recent decades, evidence of a two-way relationship between First Dynasty Egypt and the Early Bronze Age II communities of southern Levant progressively emerged. The ongoing investigation hints at a branched network of exchanges between... more
In recent decades, evidence of a two-way relationship between First Dynasty Egypt and the Early Bronze Age II communities of southern Levant progressively emerged. The ongoing investigation hints at a branched network of exchanges between Egypt and the Levant, which was operational at the dawn of the earliest Levantine urbanization and involved multiple Levantine centers. While a complete reassessment of Egyptian–south Levantine relations in the EB II/ESL 4 is beyond its scope, this paper reviews evidence from two key south-Levantine sites: Tell es-Sultan and Tell el-Far‘ah North. The paper examines the amount, range, and find context of the Egyptian and Egyptian-style objects from Tell es-Sultan and Tell el-Far‘ah North, and seeks to assess their role in these early urbanized societies.
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The later phase of EB I and the transition to the EB II represent a key period in the social, economic and cultural transformation of the Southern Levant, which witnessed the passage from a village-based organization to an urban-centered... more
The later phase of EB I and the transition to the EB II represent a key period in the social, economic and cultural transformation of the Southern Levant, which witnessed the passage from a village-based organization to an urban-centered society. This paper considers the topic of the EB IB-II transition by focusing on the site of Tell el-Far'ah North, which was uninterruptedly inhabited throughout the two periods. The EB IB-II shift is examined in view of the changes in the settlement size, planning and layout, and design and construction of domestic buildings, as well as through a technological analysis of pottery industry from the two settlement phases. Despite noticeable transformations, a continuity in occupation, socioeconomic milieu, and technological know-how has been outlined through the two phases; and the changes that mark the rise of the EB II urbanized center at Tell el-Far'ah North appear to be placed in the riverbed of a developmental trajectory that began in EB IB.
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Across the Levant a strong dichotomy exists between lowland valley landscapes, often characterized as cultural and economic hubs, and regions of perceived economic, social, and cultural marginality (e.g. uplands, steppes, and deserts).... more
Across the Levant a strong dichotomy exists between lowland valley landscapes, often characterized as cultural and economic hubs, and regions of perceived economic, social, and cultural marginality (e.g. uplands, steppes, and deserts). Despite the growing number of surveys and excavations being carried out within these regions there have been few attempts to collate this work into a broader landscape study. This study will demonstrate the potential of using new technologies, alongside traditional survey techniques and the collation of existing literature, to understand how past populations may have exploited regions we now consider inhospitable, bleak, or at least not worth exploiting. Focusing on a broad geographical area, stretching across the north of Jordan, we will consider how human groups interacted with, within and beyond, their landscapes during the 4th millennium BC and the role these regions may have played within wider developments taking place across the entire Levant during the Late Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age.
Research Interests: Geography, Archaeology, Landscape Archaeology, Levantine Archaeology, Chalcolithic Archaeology, and 9 moreSatellite remote sensing, Early Bronze Age Archaeology, Levant, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Archaeology of Jordan, Archaeology of the Levant, Arid land archaeology, and Arid and Semiarid Regions
A review of the main principles and techniques of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing for subsurface mapping in desert regions is presented here. Its application over the well-studied region of Bir Safsaf in... more
A review of the main principles and techniques of satellite Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing for subsurface mapping in desert regions is presented here. Its application over the well-studied region of Bir Safsaf in south-central Egypt is demonstrated with Copernicus Sentinel and European Space Agency (ESA) ENVISAT Advanced SAR data. The analysis has been undertaken by the SatER Team of ISMA - CNR (Istituto di Studi sul Mediterraneo Antico - Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche) to support the archaeological projects in Egypt performed by the CNR - Multidisciplinary Egyptological Mission. This is an interdisciplinary project which brings together experts in remote sensing, GIS, geology, archaeology and Egyptology to seek further information on certain historical events in the Mediterranean region through convergence of evidence
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The present work illustrates a multi-analytical study of ceramic fragments that represent a distinctive class of pottery dating to the Early Bronze II (3050–2850 BC) from the archaeological site of Tell el-Far'ah North (West Bank).... more
The present work illustrates a multi-analytical study of ceramic fragments that represent a distinctive class of pottery dating to the Early Bronze II (3050–2850 BC) from the archaeological site of Tell el-Far'ah North (West Bank). Optical Microscopy, coupled with SEM-EDS and XRPD, allowed to identify it as a ‘metallic ware’ industry produced with a low calcareous clay where quartz is dominant, along with feldspars, fragments of sedimentary and siliceous rocks, and nodules of iron oxides. This mineralogical assemblage is consistent with the geological formations in proximity to the site. The high quality of this ceramic industry was contemporarily achieved by a judicious selection of supplies and a firing temperature in a range between 800 and 900 °C. The metallic ware identified at the Tell el-Far'ah North most likely represents a ceramic industry of the central hill country. Tell el-Far'ah North, or another site in the area, may have been the production location of this pottery, according to the pattern of regional production centres, and regional specialised industries, which characterizes the Southern Levant in the Early Bronze II
(article available on: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1dtop~2-F3oyo)
(article available on: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1dtop~2-F3oyo)
Research Interests: Pottery (Archaeology), Archaeometry, Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Pottery, Early Bronze Age, and 8 moreAncient Pottery Analysis, Archaeometry, archaeological science, ceramics, Pottery studies, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Archaeometric analysis of pottery, Archaeometry and ceramology, and Archaeology of the southern Levant in the Bronze Age
In the early 2nd millennium BCE, Near Eastern groups of diverse origin penetrated the Nile Delta, via sea and land. The Wadi Tumilat was one of the two principal overland routes in and out of Egypt for Asiatics arriving from the East.... more
In the early 2nd millennium BCE, Near Eastern groups of diverse origin penetrated the Nile Delta, via sea and land. The Wadi Tumilat was one of the two principal overland routes in and out of Egypt for Asiatics arriving from the East. Unlike the Western Asiatics from the harbour town of Tell el-Dab‘a who predominantly migrated from the northern Levantine coast, Asiatics who arrived overland into the Wadi Tumilat (from the desert areas beyond Egypt’s eastern border), belonged to a different backdrop and different socio-economic networks. The issue of identifying the geographical affiliations of these groups remains complicated. Nonetheless, micro-regional specificities in the material culture of the Wadi Tumilat, and distinctive traits in funerary practices, daily-life equipment and, more generally, lifestyle, allow the tracing (albeit preliminarily) of connections to specific sub-regions and socio-economic networks in the Levant. At least one or more substantial elements amongst the Asiatic components which entered the wadi from the East, and contributed to the establishment of Asiatic communities during the 15th Dynasty (following the Hyksos takeover and renewed commercial interests in caravan operations to the Southern Levant), may denote cultural and social ties with the southernmost part of Canaan. This adds more evidence to the multifaceted picture being created of the Asiatic groups and subgroups which infiltrated the Egyptian Delta in the early 2nd Millennium BCE and eventually led to the rise of Hyksos rule.
Research Interests: Hyksos, Second Intermediate Period (Egyptology), Bronze Age Interconnections (Egyptology), Middle Bronze Age, 1) cultural interconnections and trade (Egypt and Levant), and 10 moreArchaeology of the Southern Levant, Hyksos Period, Nile Delta archaeology, Middle Bronze Age Southern Levant, Ancient Egyptian interconnections, Middle Bronze Age Levant, Archaeology of the Nile Delta, Archaeology of the southern Levant in the Bronze Age, Wadi Tumilat, and Second Intermediate Period (Egyptology) New Kingdom (Egyptology) Ancient Egyptian History Ancient Egyptian Literature Ancient Egyptian Historiography Ancient Egypt Hyksos Period
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In the last thirty years, excavations and surveys carried out in north- central Jordan have shed new light on the settlement processes, adaptive strategies, and socio- economic activities of the communities that populated this peripheral... more
In the last thirty years, excavations and surveys carried out in north- central Jordan have shed new light on the settlement processes, adaptive strategies, and socio- economic activities of the communities that populated this peripheral region of the southern Levant toward the end of the Early Bronze Age. Around the mid- third millennium BCE—after the peak of the walled- town system and its urban socio- economic structure—the southern Levant witnessed a shift to a reorganized landscape established on a network of agro- pastoral communities, some of which, nonetheless, were able to reach a certain degree of complexity. The upper Wadi Zarqa, with its strategic setting and environmental resources, represents a key area for the study of the EB III–EB IV transition in terms of outlining elements of continuity versus discontinuity in the settlement and resources management of the district.
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The first foreign dynasty which ruled Egypt between c. 1640 and 1530 BC was seen by Egyptologists and historians alike for a long time through a filter of scanty contemporary and posthumous Egyptian as well as antique texts. They rendered... more
The first foreign dynasty which ruled Egypt between c. 1640 and 1530 BC was seen by Egyptologists and historians alike for a long time through a filter of scanty contemporary and posthumous Egyptian as well as antique texts. They rendered the tradition about these rulers in an absolutely biased and distorted way. It is the methods of modern archaeology, which enable to elucidate aspects and parts of history, prehistory and the aftermath of the Hyksos rule in a new light. We want to know from where and when the elite and the people behind the Hyksos rule came from, how they arrived in Egypt and how they settled there and were able to build up their power. We also want to know what the backbone of their economy had been and how they interacted with the rest of Egypt and with whom they entertained their commercial and political contacts. Finally, the question arises, why the Hyksos rule failed in Egypt.
Within this workshop you will hear some of the answers to these questions. We are able to offer evidence that the Western Asiatic population, on which the Hyksos rule rested, came from a different region in the Levant - at least parts of their elite. Temple architecture and burial customs show that the religious inspirations and the concepts of afterlife in the eastern Nile Delta originated from northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia. The same can be also concluded from the introduction of the artificial irrigation systems for which new evidence could be collected from Tell el-Dab‘a, a harbour town which became the capital of the Hyksos. It is the site on which excavations between 1966-2011 under the supervision of the speaker produced with more than 80 field- and working-up-campaigns an enormous quantity of evidence on settlement, tombs, palaces, temples and a hoard of material culture which was partly published in 24 volumes but would still need the same amount of publications in the future if circumstances would allow it. Other excavations in the Delta and in the Wadi Tumilat such as Tell el-Retaba, Tell el Maskhuta and Tell el Khilgan contribute to the cultural phenomenon of the Hyksos. This ERC project was able to draw from these excavations but also produced conclusions, which place these archaeological results with the help of international colleagues into a much wider perspective. Our studies in relationship with the Hyksos lead us not only to the Levant but also to the wider cultural background of Mesopotamia and also to Asia minor, and concerning trade also to Cyprus and the Aegean. It seems clear now that the flourishing trading network built up by a Western Asiatic community before the Hyksos Period broke down during their reign, as they were cut off from the resources of Upper Egypt and Nubia and could not offer a barter for their trade with the Levant.
Within this workshop you will hear some of the answers to these questions. We are able to offer evidence that the Western Asiatic population, on which the Hyksos rule rested, came from a different region in the Levant - at least parts of their elite. Temple architecture and burial customs show that the religious inspirations and the concepts of afterlife in the eastern Nile Delta originated from northernmost Syria and northern Mesopotamia. The same can be also concluded from the introduction of the artificial irrigation systems for which new evidence could be collected from Tell el-Dab‘a, a harbour town which became the capital of the Hyksos. It is the site on which excavations between 1966-2011 under the supervision of the speaker produced with more than 80 field- and working-up-campaigns an enormous quantity of evidence on settlement, tombs, palaces, temples and a hoard of material culture which was partly published in 24 volumes but would still need the same amount of publications in the future if circumstances would allow it. Other excavations in the Delta and in the Wadi Tumilat such as Tell el-Retaba, Tell el Maskhuta and Tell el Khilgan contribute to the cultural phenomenon of the Hyksos. This ERC project was able to draw from these excavations but also produced conclusions, which place these archaeological results with the help of international colleagues into a much wider perspective. Our studies in relationship with the Hyksos lead us not only to the Levant but also to the wider cultural background of Mesopotamia and also to Asia minor, and concerning trade also to Cyprus and the Aegean. It seems clear now that the flourishing trading network built up by a Western Asiatic community before the Hyksos Period broke down during their reign, as they were cut off from the resources of Upper Egypt and Nubia and could not offer a barter for their trade with the Levant.
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The paper presents an archaeometric investigation of ancient ceramics from the archaeological site of Tell el-Far‘ah North (West Bank), dated to the south-Levantine Early Bronze I-II (EB I-II, 3300–2700 BC). The application of... more
The paper presents an archaeometric investigation of ancient ceramics from the archaeological site of Tell el-Far‘ah North (West Bank), dated to the south-Levantine Early Bronze I-II (EB I-II, 3300–2700 BC). The application of mineralogical and chemical analyses by optical anD scanning electron microscopy yielded the identification of petro-fabrics that allow the reconstruction of the raw material nature used in the manufacture as well as its provenance. The results indicate that the ceramics were produced using calcareous clays with inclusions of sedimentary rock fragments, calcite crystals, iron oxides and quartz. Two basic fabrics have been identified according to the presence or absence of coarse and angular calcite crystals. The optical activity of the matrix and the presence of calcareous inclusions indicate a maximum firing temperature lower than 850 °C and in the range 700–850 °C for those ceramics showing an initial decarbonation process of calcareous inclusions. The nature of the inclusions supports a local supply of raw materials. Moreover, the comparison between the ceramic material of the two subsequent occupational phases at the site allowed achieving important information about the development of the material and technological knowledge reached by its ancient potters, in the transition from the EB I community to the EB II urban centre.
Research Interests: Pottery (Archaeology), Ceramic Technology, Levantine Archaeology, Ceramic Analysis (Archaeology), Ceramics (Archaeology), and 9 moreEarly Bronze Age (Archaeology), Ceramic Petrography, Pottery technology and function, Pottery studies, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Levant, Pottery technology, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, and Archaeology of the southern Levant in the Bronze Age
The long-lasting Egyptian-Levantine interactions reached a climax in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze IIB (the Ramesside age). Temples and temple paraphernalia at the hubs of the Egyptian presence in Canaan assumed a primary... more
The long-lasting Egyptian-Levantine interactions reached a climax in the Southern Levant during the Late Bronze IIB (the Ramesside age). Temples and temple paraphernalia at the hubs of the Egyptian presence in Canaan assumed a primary role in the transcultural encounter between local Canaanites and stationing Egyptians, consistent with their function of assuring communities’ identity and cohesion through the set of cultic objects and performed rituals, and of conveying cultural messages among the forms of material culture. Selected Egyptian facets were incorporated in the architectural arrangement and cultic apparatus of Canaanite sanctuaries that Egyptians frequented (at Beth Shan, Lachish, and Jaffa), intermingling with and renovating local traditions and resulting in a strong mixture of Canaanite and Egyptian traits. This indicates a main way through which the meeting, mixing, and cultural negotiation between Canaanites and the foreign dominating power acted in LB IIB southern Levant, and demonstrates a gradual, successful process of intercultural dialogue and inclusion (of Egyptians within the indigenous cultural and social world), which took place in these south-Levantine communities.
Research Interests: Religious architecture, Late Bronze Age archaeology, Late Bronze Age, Early Iron Age, Late Bronze Age, 1) cultural interconnections and trade (Egypt and Levant), and 6 moreForeign relations during Ancient Egypt`s New Kingdom, Cultural transmission and exchange between Ramesside Egypt and the Ancient Near East, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Late Bronze Age Levant and new kingdom Egypt, Cultural Connection Between Egypt and the Levant, and Archaeology of the southern Levant in the Bronze Age
Scores of publications have enlightened the Aegean/Cypriot origins of the Philistines and the largely intrusive character of their culture in the Southern Levant. Nonetheless, these migrants did not enter a cultural vacuum and, indeed,... more
Scores of publications have enlightened the Aegean/Cypriot origins of the Philistines and the largely intrusive character of their culture in the Southern Levant. Nonetheless, these migrants did not enter a cultural vacuum and, indeed, established their centres at key Canaanite sites. The south-Levantine Philistine culture arose as the outcome of encounters and integration of mixed groups of newcomers with local Canaanite backgrounds, in a complex ethnogenetic process where indigenous traditions and multi-faceted alien facets overlapped and intermingled in shaping the new forms of the Iron Age I culture of the south-Levantine coastal plain. Religious architecture, cultic paraphernalia and worshipped deities might be a privileged observatory to detect how and how much Levantine cultural attributes were incorporated and became entangled within the Philistine culture, and the role they play in the formation and transformation of this transcultural identity of Iron Age Southern Levant.
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The 5th-9th (2009-2012) seasons of excavations and restorations carried out by Rome “La Sapienza” University at the site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, in North-Central Jordan, focused on the palatial building, named Palace B, uncovered on the... more
The 5th-9th (2009-2012) seasons of excavations and restorations carried out by Rome “La Sapienza” University at the site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, in North-Central Jordan, focused on the palatial building, named Palace B, uncovered on the northern flank of the acropolis just inside the triple fortification line, and dating back to the Early Bronze (henceforth EB) IIIB (Nigro 2010; 2013a; Nigro - Sala 2011; 2012). The site witnesses the birth of a city at the beginning of the EB II, which flourished during the 3rd millennium BC until its final destruction in EB IIIB (Nigro 2013b). It gave back a coherent and uninterrupted stratigraphic sequence, covering the whole EB II-III period, with successive episodes of destructions and reconstructions that mark its three main occupational phases: the EB II, EB IIIA, and EBIIIB, each one associated to remarkable changes of the ceramic manufacture and repertoire (Sala 2013). Pottery from Palace B significantly enriched the EB II-III stratified assemblage from the site, namely the ensemble from the last phase of life of the city, .i.e. the EB IIIB. It finds, in fact, most of comparisons in EB IIIB layers of northern Palestinian and Transjordan sites, mainly at Khirbet ez-Zeraqon (“späten Horizont”, i.e. “Letztbenutzungsphase”; Genz 2002: 120), but also at Khirbet Kerak (late Period D; Greenberg et al. 2006), Pella (latest horizon; Bourke 2000), and Beth Shan (stratum XI/phase R7a; Mazar - Ziv-Esudri - Cohen-Weinberger 2000; Ziv-Esudri 2012: pls. 48-49). It finds parallels as well in the EB IIIB repertoires of central and southern sites, as et-Tell (phases VII-VIII), Tell es-Sultan (Period Sultan IIIc2), Khirbet Yarmouk (de Miroschedji 2000: tab. 18.1), Tell Beit Mirsim (phase J; Albright 1933; Dever - Richard 1977), Tell Handaquq South (Chesson 2000), and Tell el-‘Umeiri (IP 19; Field D, phase 4; Harrison 1997; Herr 2000), according to a general and shared standardization trend (on both typological and technological grounds) typifying the latest EB III pottery productions, towards a greater convergence of regional ceramic assemblages.
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Techniques were implemented to extract anthropogenic features in the desert region of North Sinai using data from the first- and second-generation Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR-1 and 2). To obtain a synoptic... more
Techniques were implemented to extract anthropogenic features in the desert region of North Sinai using data from the first- and second-generation Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR-1 and 2). To obtain a synoptic view over the study area, a mosaic of average, multitemporal (De Grandi) filtered PALSAR-1 σ° backscatter of North Sinai was produced. Two subset regions were selected for further analysis. The first included an area of abundant linear features of high relative backscatter in a strategic, but sparsely developed area between the Wadi Tumilat and Gebel Maghara. The second included an area of low backscatter anomaly features in a coastal sabkha around the archaeological sites of Tell el-Farama, Tell el-Mahzan, and Tell el-Kanais. Over the subset region between the Wadi Tumilat and Gebel Maghara, algorithms were developed to extract linear features and convert them to vector format to facilitate interpretation. The algorithms were based on mathematical morphology, but to distinguish apparent man-made features from sand dune ridges, several techniques were applied. The first technique took as input the average σ° backscatter and used a Digital Elevation Model (DEM) derived Local Incidence Angle (LAI) mask to exclude sand dune ridges. The second technique, which proved more effective, used the average interferometric coherence as input. Extracted features were compared with other available information layers and in some cases revealed partially buried roads. Over the coastal subset region a time series of PALSAR-2 spotlight data were processed. The coefficient of variation (CoV) of De Grandi filtered imagery clearly revealed anomaly features of low CoV. These were compared with the results of an archaeological field walking survey carried out previously. The features generally correspond with isolated areas identified in the field survey as having a higher density of archaeological finds, and interpreted as possible islands of dry land, which may have been surrounded by lagoons, rivers, and swamplands in antiquity. It is suggested that these surrounding areas may still have a higher water content, sufficient to be detected in processed Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) imagery.
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Initial research results are presented on the application of long wave (L-band) spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing for the detection of possible ancient routes traversing the desert region of North Sinai. The work... more
Initial research results are presented on the application of long wave (L-band) spaceborne Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) remote sensing for the detection of possible ancient routes traversing the desert region of North Sinai. The work is undertaken with data obtained from the European Space Agency (ESA) to support the Research Program PRIN 2009 “The Seven Plagues”1, one objective of which is to carry out archaeological survey using innovative techniques. Processing has been carried out on 74 SAR images of the area to produce a seamless multitemporal averaged mosaic of calibrated SAR backscatter. An automatic feature detection algorithm has then been applied to extract linear features. Extracted features are in the process of being interpreted together with other datasets to verify their archaeological significance.
Research Interests: Levantine Archaeology, Ancient Near East, Satellite Remote Sensing (Archaeology), Ancient Egyptian Art and Archaeology, Ancient Egypt, and 4 more1) cultural interconnections and trade (Egypt and Levant), Satellite Remote Sensing & Image Processing, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, and Archaeology of the Levant
Research Interests: Levantine Archaeology, Egyptian Archaeology, Syro-Palestinian archaeology, Ancient Near East, Satellite Remote Sensing (Archaeology), and 8 moreBronze Age (Archaeology), Bronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology), Ancient Egypt, Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine (History and Archaeology), 1) cultural interconnections and trade (Egypt and Levant), Satellite Remote Sensing & Image Processing, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, and Archaeology of the Levant
Research Interests: Levantine Archaeology, Mediterranean Studies, Mediterranean archaeology, Bronze and Iron Ages in Eastern Mediterranean (Archaeology), Lebanon, Syria, Israel and Palestine (History and Archaeology), and 6 moreLevant, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Byblos, Archaeology of the Levant, and Middle Bronze Age Lebanon
Trade and cultural interconnections between pre-dynastic Egypt and the Southern Levant are established early, and most intensely since the end of the 4th millennium BC, to continue in renewed forms during the 3rd millennium BC between the... more
Trade and cultural interconnections between pre-dynastic Egypt and the Southern Levant are established early, and most intensely since the end of the 4th millennium BC, to continue in renewed forms during the 3rd millennium BC between the Pharaonic state and the earliest urban centres of the Levant, both west and east of the Jordan.
The increasing number of Egyptian, and Egyptian-style items, identified in the first Jordanian
cities of Early Bronze II-III, provides an opportunity for a reconsideration on the movement of
Egyptian objects beyond the Jordan, up to the edge of the Syro-Arabian desert; on the evolution of the relations between Pharaonic Egypt and the urban centers of southern Levant in the 3rd millennium BC; and, eventually, on the role these commercial and cultural interactions played in the early urban societies of the region.
The increasing number of Egyptian, and Egyptian-style items, identified in the first Jordanian
cities of Early Bronze II-III, provides an opportunity for a reconsideration on the movement of
Egyptian objects beyond the Jordan, up to the edge of the Syro-Arabian desert; on the evolution of the relations between Pharaonic Egypt and the urban centers of southern Levant in the 3rd millennium BC; and, eventually, on the role these commercial and cultural interactions played in the early urban societies of the region.
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A multi-analytical approach has been applied to characterize Khirbet Kerak Ware from the archaeological site of Khirbet al-Batrawy (Jordan), a highly distinctive pottery production of Early Bronze III Levant. Sherds of Khirbet Kerak Ware... more
A multi-analytical approach has been applied to characterize Khirbet Kerak Ware from the archaeological site of Khirbet al-Batrawy (Jordan), a highly distinctive pottery production of Early Bronze III Levant. Sherds of Khirbet Kerak Ware vessels, dating back to 2750–2500 B.C., show peculiar shapes and a highly polished red/black coating, alien to other Levantine ceramic traditions. Micro-Raman, infrared spectroscopic and petrographic data have been obtained with the aim of defining the fabric, tracing the origin of the raw material used in the manufacturing process and exploring the technological aspects. The results on Khirbet Kerak Ware are then compared with those of ceramics of the same period found at that site in order to highlight possible differences or similarities in the manufacturing process. All these pottery productions reveal similar mineralogical composition, compatible with a local sourcing of the raw materials; moreover, the identification of a specific mineral assemblage allows to estimate a firing temperature ranging from 850 C to 900 C. In spite of the marked differences observed between macroscopic appearances of Khirbet Kerak Ware and those of other coeval and local pottery productions, the results are indicative of overall local manufacturing.
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Micro-Raman (m-Raman) spectroscopy has been used, as a preliminary and non-destructive technique, in order to investigate the mineralogical composition and to define the maximum firing temperature and redox state of the firing atmosphere... more
Micro-Raman (m-Raman) spectroscopy has been used, as a preliminary and non-destructive technique, in order to investigate the mineralogical composition and to define the maximum firing temperature and redox state of the firing atmosphere of ancient ceramic materials. The studied ceramics come from the archaeological site of Khirbet al-Batrawy (north-central Jordan), dating back to the Early Bronze Age (3000–2000 B.C.). The results show that the ceramic body is composed mainly by quartz and calcite, and minor amount of feldspars and hematite. In addition, apatite and zircon, important markers to identify the provenance of raw materials, have been detected. Furthermore, the occurrence of gypsum has been related to both rehydration of anhydrite and burial alteration processes. Micro-Raman spectroscopy was helpful to investigate the nature of the pigments of these ceramics: the red colour was obtained by hematite, the dark pigment by amorphous carbon. Mineral assemblage allowed estimating the maximum firing temperature of these pottery vessels between 850 and 950 C. The comparison of the results of m-Raman spectroscopy and of X-ray diffraction analysis suggests that m-Raman spectroscopy could have a key role in the study of ceramic materials, especially the characterization of archaeological ceramic samples for which manipulation and/or consumption are not allowed.
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In the Mid-Third Millennium BC a new temple type is attested in the sacred architecture of the Syro-Palestinian region: the temple in antis. First identified by A. Moortgat in the Antentempel of Tell Chuera, the temple in antis becomes... more
In the Mid-Third Millennium BC a new temple type is attested in the sacred architecture of the Syro-Palestinian region: the temple in antis. First identified by A. Moortgat in the Antentempel of Tell Chuera, the temple in antis becomes the classic temple type in the Syrian architecture of the second half of the 3rd Millennium BC, when Syria experienced the earliest full-fledged adoption of urban society. The recent discoveries at Al-Rawda and Tell Mardikh/Ebla in North-Western Central Syria now testify the broader Syrian diffusion of this type during the advanced phase of the Early Bronze Age, when the same type is attested in the Levant also beyond the Syrian borders: at Byblos, on the Levantine coast, at Tell el-Mutesellim/Megiddo and at Khirbet ez-Zeraqon in Northern Palestine. Future researches in Southern Syria could fill this gap now existing in the documentation. Nevertheless, if the North-Syrian temples excavated so far show the Langraum cella with central entrance, which will be characteristic of the Syro-Palestinian religious architecture in the 2nd Millennium BC, the Al-Rawda and Ebla temples adopt an almost squared Breitraum cella. The broad-room version is employed also in the nearly contemporary temples in antis erected at Byblos and in Palestine, where the Breitraum cella represents the classic Early Bronze Age type. The ongoing investigations in the Syro-Palestinian region show therefore the existence of a shared tradition of sacred architecture already in the second half of the 3rd Millennium BC, when the presumably north-derived temple-in-antis-type is spreadly adopted in different versions according to the exiting local architectural traditions.
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“La Sapienza” expedition to Palestine and Jordan started systematic excavations at the unexplored site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, growing in Early Bronze Age from 3000 to 2000 B.C., in north-central Jordan, which proved to be a caravans... more
“La Sapienza” expedition to Palestine and Jordan started systematic excavations at the unexplored site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, growing in Early Bronze Age from 3000 to 2000 B.C., in north-central Jordan, which proved to be a caravans centre with an imposing defensive system. Excavations and stratigraphy allowed to divide the Batrawy history in four periods of urbanization from 3000 B.C. to 2000 B.C., when this site was completely abandoned. The present study is the first multi-analytical approach for the characterization of pottery samples from this archaeological site, to typify materials such as pigments and inclusions in groundmass used in the pottery manufacturing process, with the aim of defining the level of ancient technology. A group of pottery fragments from Khirbet al-Batrawy, belonging to different periods, are collected. Their aspects and presumable employment are variable: in fact these sherds consist of simple and cooking ware vessels and storage jar fragments characterized by different surface treatment as burnishing, polishing and painting. A sub-group of pottery sherds showing a highly polished coating has been identified by the archeologist and referred to as Khirbet Kerak Ware (KKW). Samples were investigated through micro-Raman spectroscopy in order to define the pottery composition and the maximum firing temperatures. Raman data are then compared and completed by those obtained by optical microscopy and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis. Here we discuss data obtained by different methodologies to highlight the importance of Raman spectroscopy as primary non destructive step for the analysis of ceramic materials. Macroscopic observations show that pottery sherds present variable color of groundmass and sometimes simple decoration. By means of micro-Raman it is possible to identify the pigment red as hematite and the pigment dark as amorphous carbon. The concurrent presence in the dark fragments of carbon and magnetite suggests the possibility of a reducing atmosphere. The analyzed pottery samples contain mainly big fragments of rocks, grog and sometimes microfossils whose calcareous nature is detected by Raman spectra. The main identified minerals include quartz and calcite, less frequently feldspars and hematite. Moreover Raman spectroscopy allows to identify also apatite, zircon and corundum. Gypsum is detected as product of burial alteration. The concurrent presence of specific mineral assemblage and the absence of new formation minerals allow to estimate the maximum firing temperature of pottery at temperatures under 850°C. These results are also discussed following the traditional chronological framework of Khirbet al-Batrawy urbanization to better define the technological level reached in the Levant pottery production in the third millennium B.C.
Research Interests: Raman Spectroscopy, Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), Raman spectroscopy applications, X-ray Diffraction, Early Bronze Age, and 6 moreAncient Pottery Analysis, Optical microscopy, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Archaeology of Jordan, and Khirbet Kerak Ware
Since 2005 “La Sapienza” Expedition to Palestine and Jordan started systematic archeological excavations at the unexplored site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, in north-central Jordan, growing from Early Bronze II to Early Bronze IIIB (3000-2300... more
Since 2005 “La Sapienza” Expedition to Palestine and Jordan started systematic archeological excavations at the unexplored site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, in north-central Jordan, growing from Early Bronze II to Early Bronze IIIB (3000-2300 B.C.) and raising as a major Early Bronze Age center controlling the area of the Upper Wadi az-Zarqa. The present study is a multi-analytical approach on the characterization of pottery from Khirbet al-Batrawy belonging to the phase named Early Bronze IIIA and dated in the traditional chronological framework between 2700 and 2500 B.C. The potsherds consist of simple cooking ware vessels and storage jar fragments. A sub-group of nine pottery fragments, showing a highly polished coating and not to be attested afterwards, has been distinguished by the archaeologists and referred to as Khirbet Kerak Ware, an Early Bronze IIIA specialized pottery production of southern Levant. The aim of this work is to compare the composition of Khirbet Kerak Ware fragments to other pottery samples collected in the stratigraphic layers dated to the same period in order to evidence possible differences or similarity in the production. Petrographic, mineralogical and chemical investigations have been carried out in order to define the pottery composition, typify materials used in pottery manufacturing process and delineate the technology such as the maximum firing temperature and atmosphere. The potsherd samples have been studied using both destructive and non-destructive analytical methods: Micro-Raman and Infrared Spectroscopy, Optical Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy, X-Ray Diffraction and X-Ray Fluorescence. Despite different macroscopic features, the results show that Khirbet Kerak Ware samples can be grouped in fabrics with similar mineralogical and petrographic characteristics found in BAIIIA potteries. Non-plastic inclusion are represented mainly by grog, rock fragments, fossils fragments whereas single crystals of calcite, quartz, hematite, magnetite, apatite, diopside, anatase, feldspar, olivine, zircon, and gypsum have been found. Chemical analyses show that the composition of the groundmass is characterized by high contents of Si, Al, Mg, K, Na, Ca, Fe and that it is very similar in all the fragments. The occurrence of an initial stage of vitrification as shown by Scanning Electron images and the presence of a specific mineralogical assemblage suggest that the firing temperature of the studied pottery samples ranged from 850 °C to 900 °C, in agreement with the results reported in the literature (1-3). The results of the study here reported give an important contribution to the archeological attribution of the Khirbet Kerak Ware to the Khirbet al-Batrawy production, emphasizing the essential role of the archaeometric investigations in cultural heritage issues
Research Interests: Levantine Archaeology, Resonance Raman Spectroscopy, Raman Spectroscopy, Archaeometry, Early Bronze Age (Archaeology), and 11 moreX-ray Diffraction, Early Bronze Age, Infrared spectroscopy, Archaeometry, archaeological science, ceramics, Optical microscopy, Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant, Archaeometrical investigation, Archaeology of the Southern Levant, Archaeology of Jordan, Archaeology of the Levant, and Archaeometric analysis of pottery
“La Sapienza” expedition to Palestine and Jordan started systematic excavations at the unexplored site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, growing in Early Bronze Age from 3000 to 2000 B.C., in north-central Jordan and raising as a major Early Bronze... more
“La Sapienza” expedition to Palestine and Jordan started systematic excavations at the unexplored site of Khirbet al-Batrawy, growing in Early Bronze Age from 3000 to 2000 B.C., in north-central Jordan and raising as a major Early Bronze Age center controlling the area of the Upper Wadi az-Zarqa. A multi-analytical approach has been used to characterize Khirbet Kerak Ware sherds, an Early Bronze specialized pottery production of southern Levant, showing a highly polished coating and dated back in the traditional chronological framework between 2700 and 2500 B.C. and not to be attested afterwards. The composition of Khirbet Kerak Ware fragments from Khirbet al-Batrawy site are compared to other pottery samples collected in the stratigraphic layers dated to the same period in order to highlight possible differences or similarity in the production. Petrographic, mineralogical and chemical investigations have been carried out with the aim to define the pottery composition, typify materials used in pottery manufacturing process and delineate the technological aspects such as the maximum firing temperature and atmosphere. Both destructive and non-destructive analytical methods including Micro-Raman and Infrared Spectroscopy, Optical Microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy and X-Ray Diffraction have been applied. Despite different macroscopic features, microscopic results show that Khirbet Kerak Ware samples can be grouped in fabrics with similar mineralogical and petrographic characteristics found in contemporary and local potteries. Aplastic inclusions are represented mainly by grog, igneous rock fragments, fossils fragments, whereas single crystals of calcite, quartz, hematite, magnetite, apatite, diopside, anatase, feldspar, olivine, zircon, and gypsum have been found. In particular, the presence of apatite and zircon, as well as olivine and gypsum, allows to hypothesize a local provenance for the raw materials. Chemical analyses show similar composition of the groundmass in all fragments, characterized by high contents of Si, Al, Mg, K, Na, Ca and Fe. The occurrence of an initial stage of vitrification of the groundmass and the identification of specific mineral assemblage with the presence or absence of firing minerals, allow to estimate a firing temperature ranging from 850 °C to 950 °C. Furthermore, the occurrence of hematite and magnetite and the variability of the color matrix suggest uncontrolled atmosphere conditions during firing. The results of the study here reported give an important contribution to the archeological attribution of the Khirbet Kerak Ware to the Khirbet al-Batrawy production, emphasizing the essential role of the archaeometric investigations in cultural heritage issues.