Ecological Risk Assessment
Phosphogypsum Amendment Effect on Radionuclide Content in Drainage Water
and Marsh Soils from Southwestern Spain
Rachid El-Mrabet, José-Marı́a Abril,* Raúl Periáñez, Guillermo Manjón, Rafael Garcı́a-Tenorio,
Antonio Delgado, and Luis Andreu
ABSTRACT
50 times higher than the ones in typical soils. For this
reason the radioactive impact of this industry has been
extensively studied in the recent years (Periáñez and
Garcı́a-León, 1993; Martı́nez-Aguirre and Garcı́a-León,
1994b; Garcı́a-León et al., 1995; Bolı́var et al., 1996b).
There is a public concern about the safety of these
disposals and on the need of restoring the environment
where these products are accumulated.
Reclamation of sodic soils for agricultural use involves the use of Ca amendments to diminish Na saturation. Phosphogypsum, which contains a high proportion
of CaSO4·2H2O, is an efficient amendment that has been
widely used in the saline–sodic marsh soils from southwestern Spain (Domı́nguez et al., 2001). Phosphogypsum also increases P availability for crops, supplies P,
and reduces P sorption in soils (Delgado et al., 2002).
Additionally, using PG as an amendment in agriculture
soils dilutes the radionuclides until concentrations reach
background levels. Thus, this practice could contribute
to eliminating these wastes with a remarkable additional
value for the farmers.
To prevent environmental and health risks, the commercial use of PG in agriculture is permitted in the USA
if the certified average 226Ra concentration does not
exceed 370 Bq kg⫺1 (USEPA, 1992). However, Cancio
et al. (1993) have reported concentrations of 226Ra in
Spanish PG ranging from 400 up to 1000 Bq kg⫺1. It is
relevant to study the amount of these isotopes that can
move to water and plants to ensure the radiological
safety of the use of PG as a Ca amendment. Adsorption
of radionuclides to soil components (clay minerals, carbonates, iron oxides) may produce a low activity in
soil solution, limiting drainage loses and absorption by
crops. Studies about the environmental effect of PG
application have been conducted in acid soils from Florida (Alcordo et al., 1999), but there is a lack of information about the dynamics of radionuclides applied with
PG in drained marsh soils from the Mediterranean region with a high sorption capacity, but where the preferential flow to drains may represent an important loss
of radionuclides to water. The aim of this work is to
study the radionuclide enrichment of soil, drainage water, and crops after PG application at usual rates in the
reclaimed marsh soils of southwestern Spain to study
the safety of an agricultural practice that can have a
positive effect on the fertility of these soils.
Phosphogypsum (PG) is a residue of the phosphate fertilizer industry that has relatively high concentrations of 226Ra and other radionuclides. Thus, it is interesting to study the effect of PG applied as a Ca
amendment on the levels and behavior of radionuclides in agricultural
soils. A study involving treatments with 13 and 26 Mg ha⫺1 of PG
and 30 Mg ha⫺1 of manure was performed, measuring 226Ra and U
isotopes in drainage water, soil, and plant samples. The PG used in
the treatment had 510 ⫾ 40 Bq kg⫺1 of 226Ra. The 226Ra concentrations
in drainage waters from PG-amended plots were similar (between
2.6 and 7.2 mBq L⫺1) to that reported for noncontaminated waters.
Although no significant effect due to PG was observed, the U concentrations in drainage waters (200 mBq L⫺1 for 238U) were one order
of magnitude higher than those described in noncontaminated waters.
This high content in U can be ascribed to desorption processes mainly
related to the natural adsorbed pool in soil (25 Bq kg⫺1 of 238U). This
is supported by the 234U to 238U isotopic ratio of 1.16 in drainage waters
versus secular equilibrium in PG and P fertilizers. The progressive
enrichment in 226Ra concentration in soils due to PG treatment cannot
be concluded from our present data. This PG treatment does not
determine any significant difference in 226Ra concentration in drainage
waters or in plant material [cotton (Gossipium hirsutum L.) leaves].
No significant levels of radionuclides except 40K were found in the
vegetal tissues.
P
hosphogypsum (PG) is the main waste of phosphoric
acid factories, which use phosphate rock as raw material. Concentrations of 238U in phosphate rocks are
usually high. Uranium-238 activity concentrations ranging from 700 to 1000 Bq kg⫺1 have been described in
these materials (Bolı́var et al., 1996a). Radium isotopes,
essentially 226Ra, are also present in phosphate rock,
with activity concentrations ranging between 1000 and
1300 Bq kg⫺1 (Bolı́var et al., 1996a). About 85% of U
present in phosphate rock passes to resulting phosphoric
acid, while about 90% of the 226Ra remains in the PG
wastes (Bolı́var et al., 1996a).
The Spanish fertilizer industry produces annually 3
million Mg of PG, that are the result of the processing
of 2 million Mg of phosphate rocks. This production is
located in Huelva (southwestern Spain). The activity
concentrations of natural radionuclides in PG are about
R. El-Mrabet, J.-M. Abril, and R. Periáñez, Dpto. Fı́sica Aplicada I,
Univ. de Sevilla, EUITA, Ctra Utrera Km 1, 41013 Seville, Spain.
G. Manjón and R. Garcı́a-Tenorio, Dpto. Fı́sica Aplicada II, Univ.
de Sevilla, ETSA, Avda. Reina Mercedes s/n, 41012 Seville, Spain.
A. Delgado and L. Andreu, Dpto. Ciencias Agroforestales, Univ. de
Sevilla, EUITA, Ctra Utrera Km 1, 41013, Sevilla, Spain. Received
12 April 2002. *Corresponding author (jmabril@us.es).
Abbreviations: ICP–MS, inductively coupled plasma–mass spectrometry; PG, phosphogypsum.
Published in J. Environ. Qual. 32:1262–1268 (2003).
1262
EL-MRABET ET AL: RADIONUCLIDES IN DRAINAGE WATER AND MARSH SOILS
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soils and Soil Analysis
The experimental site was located in the Marismas de Lebrija, in the reclaimed marsh soils of the estuarine region of
the Guadalquivir River, southwestern Spain (36⬚56⬘ N, 6⬚7⬘ W).
Reclamation of soils involved draining (constructing till drains),
leaching, and PG amendments. After reclamation, these marsh
soils can be classified as Aeric Endoaquepts (Soil Survey Staff,
1998). More detailed information about the area, reclamation
practices, and soils can be obtained in Moreno et al. (1981)
and Domı́nguez et al. (2001).
Soil in the experimental site was sampled at four different
depths (0–30, 30–60, 60–90, and 90–120 cm). For each depth,
a composite sample was made from 32 soil cores randomly
taken in the plot. Soil samples were air-dried and ground to
pass a 2-mm screen. Particle size analysis was performed by
using the pipette method, following treatment with a HOAc–
NaOAc buffer (pH 4.75) to remove carbonates (Gee and
Bauder, 1986). Organic carbon was determined by dichromate
oxidation. The total calcium carbonate equivalent (CCE) was
determined from the weight loss on treatment with 6 M HCl.
The 1:1 extract obtained using the procedure of Rhoades
(1996) was analyzed for electrolytic conductivity, pH, and
cationic composition. In the 1:1 extract, Na, K, Ca, and Mg
were determined, using flame photometry for K and Na, and
atomic absorption spectroscopy for Mg and Ca.
Experimental Design
For the experiment, a randomized block design with two
replications was used. Treatments were (i) control (no amendment applied), (ii) 13 Mg ha⫺1 of PG, (iii) 26 Mg ha⫺1 of PG,
and (iv) 30 Mg ha⫺1 of manure. The last one was used because
manure is a common amendment in the area. Elemental plots
were rectangular (250 ⫻ 20 m) and flat, longitudinally crossed
by three drainage pipelines. The drainage waters were conducted, through a small canal, toward the Guadalquivir River.
Treatments were repeated at two consecutive crop seasons
(1998–1999 and 1999–2000) applying the amendments in October. In the first season, sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. cv. saccharifera Alef.) was cultivated under sprinkler irrigation (sown in
October 1998 and harvested in July 1999; a typical cycle in
the Mediterranean region). Irrigation water was applied at
2.5 mm h⫺1. In this season the total rainfall was 223 mm and
irrigation was 780 mm. Fertilizer was applied to all the plots
at preplant (52 kg ha⫺1 of N, 68 kg ha⫺1 of P, and 43 kg ha⫺1
of K as a mixture of superphosphate [160 g kg⫺1 P], urea, and
K2SO4) and sidedress (100 kg N ha⫺1 as NH4NO3). In the
second, cotton was cropped under furrow irrigation (8–10 mm
h⫺1) from March to October 2000, applying the same preplant
fertilizer and 268 kg ha⫺1 of N at sidedress as NH4NO3 (also
to all the plots). Total rainfall was 160 mm and irrigation was
740 mm during the cotton growing season. Water movement
under furrow irrigation was parallel to drains, avoiding water
movement from one individual plot to other. The application
of P corresponds to 450 kg ha⫺1 yr⫺1 of superphosphate.
Rain, irrigation, and drainage events were registered, and
regular sampling of drainage water was manually done in each
rain or irrigation event during the cropping season (at least
four samples per event). Drainage registration allows the construction of the drainage hydrograph for the season. After
sampling, drainage water was acidified with HNO3 (to prevent
adsorption onto the container walls) and stored at 4⬚C before
radioisotope determination. We aggregated all the samples
from each plot and each irrigation or rain event to get water
volumes around 1 L.
1263
The water balance during the campaigns 1998–1999 and
1999–2000 was determined. The total input of water (rain plus
irrigation) was about 1000 mm. Surface runoff was negligible
and most of the water disappeared by plant transpiration. The
total drainage during the season was estimated integrating the
drainage hydrographs during the crop season.
Radionuclide Study
The studied radionuclides included 137Cs (fallout origin),
228
Ac (natural), and 40K (natural). These are not related to the
PG inputs and thus they can be used as reference. Also, 226Ra,
Th, and U isotopes (natural occurring), were studied; the concentrations of these can be enhanced by the PG treatment.
Soil was sampled selecting three points along each one of
the eight plots (at the center and at 50 m toward the edges
in a longitudinal section) in January 2000 to study the content
of radionuclides after two amendment applications. At each
point, two soil cores were collected at two different depths
(0–30 and 30–60 cm; the last one only in control and 26 Mg
PG ha⫺1 plots). Samples were air-dried and ground to pass a
2-mm screen and measured by ␥ spectrometry. Similar measurements were performed for a nonreclaimed marsh soil (no
agricultural use and no PG applied) close to the experimental
site and that can be considered a soil with similar properties
to the one in the experimental site before reclamation.
The uptake of radionuclides by plants is highly dependent
on the isotope, the plant type, and plant organs (International
Atomic Energy Agency, 1994). To compare the effects of
different amendments on plant uptake, the second crop (cotton) was selected, after two applications of PG when the bioavailability was highest. Radionuclide analysis in plant materials was done by ␥ spectrometry only in cotton leaves. Leaf
samples were taken in September 2000 from the upper part
of 25 plants, washed, and dried in a forced-air oven at 65⬚C,
and ground to pass a 1-mm screen. Additional measurements
for 238U concentrations were performed by ICP–MS for two
leaf samples to check its possible uptake by plants. Radionuclides were determined by ␥ spectrometry in PG and manure,
as well as in samples of two phosphate fertilizers usually applied in the zone. For fertilizers, additional analysis was performed by ICP–MS to determine 238U and 232Th.
For ␥ spectrometry, ReGe and HPGe detectors were used
to measure samples from Blocks 1 and 2, respectively. The
standard geometry for measurements consisted of 50 g of soil
prepared in a Petri dish. To measure the 226Ra through its 186
keV emission it is necessary to solve the interference due to
the 185.7 keV emission from the 235U. In PG and fertilizer
samples it was possible to find out the 235U activity through
its 143.8 keV emission, but for soil samples it was under our
detection limit. The 235U concentration in soil was estimated
through the measured 234Th activity (using its 63.3 keV emission) assuming secular equilibrium with its parent (238U) and
the known isotopic ratio 235U to 238U (Laissaoui and Abril,
1999). Alternatively the 226Ra activity can be measured through
214
Pb, one of its decay products, after achieving secular equilibrium (in encapsulated samples to prevent losses of 222Rn),
but the first method is faster and appropriate enough for our
present purposes.
Radium-226 specific activities in water samples were determined in a volume of drainage water of 0.5 L. For that, the
water was neutralized with NH4OH. Then, 5 mg of BaCl2 was
dissolved in it and about 20 mL of H2SO4 was added to the water.
Under these conditions, RaSO4 coprecipitates with BaSO4 after
20 min of continuous stirring. The sample was then filtered
through Millipore (Bedford, MA) filters (0.45-m pore size).
Activity from the filter was measured using a LB 770 low back-
1264
J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 32, JULY–AUGUST 2003
Table 1. General soil properties.
Texture
Depth
cm
0–30
30–60
60–90
90–120
Sand
Silt
60
182
122
280
g kg⫺1
258
365
395
364
Composition of the 1:1 soil extract
Clay
Type
Organic C
CCE†
pH‡
EC‡
8.65
8.2
8.2
8.4
dS m⫺1
1.8
4.6
5.9
6.9
g kg⫺1
685
460
485
410
clay
clay
clay
clay
6.4
3
3
4
235
360
351
340
Na
K
2.1
2.9
4.9
5.3
mmolc
0.5
0.7
1.1
1.2
Ca
Mg
L⫺ 1
31
25.9
14.9
11.6
20.6
14
18.1
12.3
† CCE, calcium carbonate equivalent.
‡ Determined in the 1:1 soil extract. EC, electrolytic conductivity.
ground gas flow proportional counter (Berthold Systems, Aliquippa, PA) previously calibrated for total efficiency versus
precipitate mass thickness. These procedures have been widely
validated and applied (Morón et al., 1986; Periáñez and Garcı́aLeón, 1993).
The concentrations of U isotopes in water samples were
determined by ␣ spectrometry. A radiochemical method based
on a sequential solvent extraction with tributylphosphate
(TBP) (Bolı́var et al., 1996a) was used to isolate uranium from
the water samples. The method is a part of another sequential
method that allows the separation of uranium, thorium, and
polonium from the same sample (Holm et al., 1984). Uranium232 was added into the water sample to evaluate the radiochemical yield of treatment. Samples were evaporated to dryness and residues were dissolved with 8 M HNO3, and after
that they were filtered. The solutions were then transferred
into a decantation tube containing TBP. Samples were shaken
and left for separation of phases. Polonium remains in the
aqueous phase, whereas uranium and thorium are extracted
by the organic phase. Thorium was recovered from the organic
phase using 1.5 M HCl and xylene. Finally, uranium was backextracted from the organic phase with distilled water. The U
solutions were conditioned and electroplated (Talvitie, 1972;
Garcı́a-Tenorio et al., 1986).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 summarizes the general soil properties. The
soil was clayish and calcareous, with a relatively high
content in soluble salts, especially below the 30-cm
depth. Sodium saturation is also high, with exchangeable
Na percentage higher than 15 in all the samples.
Drainage water for the different treatments is summarized in Table 2. It must be noted that drainage water
increased strongly in the second year, due mainly to
the irrigation system used in the cotton crop (furrow
irrigation). The only significant effect of the amendment
on drainage water was observed in the first season:
drainage was significantly higher (P ⬍ 0.05) when manure was applied. This fact can be explained by the
effect of the organic matter improving soil structure,
although the effect is only evident under sprinkler irrigaTable 2. Drainage water for the different treatments during the
two crop seasons.†
Treatment
1998–1999 Season
1999–2000 Season
mm
Control
PG‡, 13 Mg ha⫺1
PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
Manure, 30 Mg ha⫺1
25
30
29
60
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
4
14
11
30
320
290
290
300
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
60
30
120
140
† Mean and standard deviations for the six tile drains with the same
treatment.
‡ Phosphogypsum.
tion (sugar beet), probably because water loss due to
preferential flow through big cracks is lower than under
furrow irrigation.
Radionuclide Inputs
The PG used in the treatment had 510 ⫾ 40 Bq Kg⫺1
of 226Ra (Table 3). This value is in good agreement with
the previous measurements reported by Bolı́var et al.
(1996a) and Cancio et al. (1993). Thorium-234 comes
from the radioactive decay of 238U. It has a half-life of
24.1 d and different solubility than its parent. When the
rate of removal by water is not significant (and always
after a long storage time of the samples), it is expected
to be found in secular equilibrium with its parent. The
ICP–MS analysis provided more accurate determinations of 238U concentrations in fertilizers (Table 4). Other
radionuclides (40K, 137Cs, 228Ac) were present in PG at
lower concentrations than in soil samples (Tables 3 and
5). At 26 Mg PG ha⫺1, the amendment is incorporating
13.3 MBq ha⫺1 of 226Ra and 1.7 MBq ha⫺1 of 238U (and
half the values for the 13 Mg PG ha⫺1 treatment).
Manure had 40K concentrations comparable with
those found in vegetal tissues (see further). Radium226 was under our detection limits, while the 235U concentration in this sample could be related to some contamination by fertilizers.
Phosphate fertilizers had high 238U concentrations
(Table 4). Superphosphate had a 226Ra concentration
about two times higher than soils, while ammonium
phosphate had a significant 232Th concentration (natural
occurring radionuclide) but nondetectable 226Ra concentrations. The application of 450 kg ha⫺1 yr⫺1 of superphosphate fertilizer (a usual P fertilizer rate in the zone
for intensive agricultural crops; Delgado et al., 2002)
represents the incorporation of 0.27 MBq ha⫺1 of 238U.
Radionuclides in Soils
Cesium-137 is a man-made radionuclide present in
the environment after the atmospheric nuclear weapon
tests with a maximum fallout rate in the early 1960s. In
accordance with its origin, this isotope did not appear
in the deeper layers of the nonreclaimed marsh soil
(Table 5). In the surface horizons of experimental plots,
137
Cs concentrations were lower than in the surface horizon of nonreclaimed marsh soil, probably due to cultural
practices (soil removal and leaching losses due to irrigation). Concentration values were similar to those found
by Bolı́var et al. (1996b) in other agricultural areas of
southwestern Spain.
1265
EL-MRABET ET AL: RADIONUCLIDES IN DRAINAGE WATER AND MARSH SOILS
Table 3. Radionuclide concentrations in phosphogypsum (PG), manure, and P fertilizers, determined by ␥ spectrometry.†
226
Sample
40
Ra‡
137
K
234
Cs
Bq
Superphosphate
Ammonium phosphate
PG
Manure
130 ⫾ 85
ND
510 ⫾ 40
ND
31
51
21
840
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
10
10
10
30
ND§
ND
ND
ND
Th
228
235
Ac
U
kg⫺1
760 ⫾ 180
660 ⫾ 150
65 ⫾ 19
ND
16.3 ⫾ 1.7
ND
4.7 ⫾ 1.8
9⫾2
55
34
15
8
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
5
3
2
3
† Measurement and analytical error (1 standard deviation).
‡ Corrected through 235U activity concentration.
§ Not detected.
Actinium-228 is a naturally occurring radionuclide
from the decay series of 232Th. It was present at lower
concentrations in PG and phosphate fertilizers than in
soils (Tables 3 and 5). Thus, no effect of PG amendment
on 228Ac concentration in soil can be expected. Also,
the natural occurrence of this radionuclide explains the
similar concentrations in surface and subsurface horizons (Table 5).
Potassium-40 concentrations in surface samples, with
an average value of 760 Bq kg⫺1 (30-cm depth), were
significantly higher than those described by Bolı́var et
al. (1996b) in other surface horizons of other soils from
southwestern Spain (ranging 150–560 Bq kg⫺1), but comparable with those observed in subsurface horizons by
these authors. Concentrations did not show a clear pattern with depth. Mean concentrations in the experimental plots were significantly higher (about 20%) than in
the nonreclaimed marsh soils (Table 5). This can be
ascribed to the application of potassium fertilizers and
to the irrigation with saline water in drought periods.
Due to its low energy, the net area of the 63.3 keV
234
Th photo peak cannot be accurately solved with the
HPGe detector, but it is possible with the ReGe. As
the soil samples have been measured several months
after collection, 234Th is in secular equilibrium with 238U.
From Table 5, the soils without PG have a mean 234Th
(⫽ 238U) concentration lower than soils with PG (30 cm),
but experimental uncertainties are large and the samples
measured with the HPGe detector cannot be used for
comparison.
Radium-226 raw data in soils (without correction by
the 235U interference) were similar for all the treatments,
although analyzed subsurface samples and samples
taken in the nonreclaimed soil showed significantly
lower concentrations. The correction of 235U interference was evaluated only for the ReGe data (samples
from Block 1). This correction represented a mean decrease of 20 Bq kg⫺1 in 226Ra activity concentrations. No
significant differences can be established from these
corrected data (Table 5). Under the assumption that
PG was well homogenized through tilling in the surface
horizon of soils (30-cm depth), with a mean bulk density
of 1.3 Mg m⫺3 (Delgado et al., 2002), the background
226
Ra concentration in soils should be increased about
by 3.4 Bq kg⫺1. This value is less than our present experimental uncertainties (the same is true for the 238U input
related to the PG, with a net input of 0.4 Bq kg⫺1 of soil).
and remained constant during the subsequent irrigation
events. Thus, from our data one can reject the hypothesis of an enhancement of U isotope concentrations in the
drainage waters due to the treatment with PG. However,
these concentrations were one order of magnitude
higher than those reported from uncontaminated waters, where the typical levels were lower than 25 mBq
L⫺1 (Garcı́a-León et al., 1995).
The main chemical form of Ra in PG is RaSO4·2H2O,
which presents a poorly soluble form. On the other
hand, PG tends to form large aggregates with a low
surface area. That would inhibit the removal of 226Ra
by the drainage. Indeed, the activity concentrations of
226
Ra found in these waters (Table 7) were similar for
all the treatments and comparable with those obtained
by Garcı́a-León et al. (1995), who reported reference
levels below 3 mBq L⫺1 of 226Ra for natural unpolluted
environments. Nevertheless, Martı́nez-Aguirre and
Garcı́a-León (1994a) measured concentrations ranging
from 2.4 to 13.7 mBq L⫺1 in the Guadalquivir River,
and they increased up to 31 mBq L⫺1 in its estuary.
Consequently, from the present data one cannot conclude a short-term enhancement of 226Ra concentrations
in drainage waters due to the application of PG.
Table 8 summarizes the annual fluxes of U isotopes
and 226Ra related to the drainage waters (estimated from
the mean radionuclide concentrations, from Tables 6
and 7, and the annual drainage, from Table 2). Radium226 fluxes were similar for all the treatments, since activity concentrations and cumulative drainage volumes
(1999–2000 season) were similar for all of them. The
major fluxes of U isotopes were related to manure treatment, since this treatment improved the soil aggregation
and enhanced drainage under sprinkler irrigation (1998–
1999 season) without significantly increasing U concentrations. On the other hand, the 226Ra output throughout
the drainage waters was negligible compared with the
annual inputs related to the PG application, but 238U
Radionuclides in Drainage Waters
† Integration time ⫽ 0.3 s channel⫺1 (0.9 s amu⫺1). Detection limit ⫽ 0.02
ppm. Three measurements were made for each sample, with 2% of
relative standard deviation.
‡ Not detected.
§ Phosphogypsum.
The activity concentrations of U isotopes in drainage
waters were similar for all the treatments (Table 6),
Table 4. Uranium-238 and 232Th activity concentration in P fertilizers and cotton leaves measured by inductively coupled
plasma–mass spectrometry (ICP–MS).†
Sample
238
232
U
Bq
Superphosphate
Ammonium phosphate
Leaves (control)
Leaves (PG§, 26 Mg ha⫺1)
590
496
⬍0.24
⬍0.24
Th
kg⫺1
846
9.0
ND‡
ND
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J. ENVIRON. QUAL., VOL. 32, JULY–AUGUST 2003
Table 5. Radionuclide concentration in soils after two consecutive treatments (two consecutive seasons, 1998 and 1999) and in nonreclaimed marsh soil at different depths determined by gamma spectrometry.†
Radionuclide
Treatment
Control
Control
Manure
PG#, 13 Mg ha⫺1
PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
Nonreclaimed§
Nonreclaimed§
Analytical error‡‡
226
Depth
40
Ra‡
137
K
228
Cs
234
Ac
Th§
226
Ra§,¶
Bq kg⫺1
cm
0–30
30–60
0–30
0–30
0–30
30–60
0–30
30–60
76 ⫾
59 ⫾
72 ⫾
89 ⫾
76 ⫾
72 ⫾
62
42
⬍9
740 ⫾ 20
680 ⫾ 60
740 ⫾ 30
795 ⫾ 5
780 ⫾ 10
745 ⫾ 5
635
620
⬍20
1
4
3
2
4
0
† Means and standard deviations.
‡ Raw data (without correction by 235U interference).
§ Measurement and analytical error (1 standard deviation);
¶ Corrected by 235U interference.
# Phosphogypsum.
†† Not detected.
‡‡ One standard deviation.
234
Th and
226
2.9 ⫾ 1
1.5 ⫾ 0.2
3.4 ⫾ 0.8
2.9 ⫾ 0.5
3.3 ⫾ 0.4
2.6 ⫾ 0.1
11.1
ND††
⬍0.4
36
35
34
39
37
34
⫾ 2.5
⫾ 4.5
⫾1
⫾ 1.5
⫾ 2.5
⫾ 0.5
34
32
⬍2
18
22
21
34
37
28
17
–
⬍10
64
38
59
65
56
51
50
–
⬍11
Ra for Block 1 (ReGe detector).
output is about 20% of the annual input related to the
phosphate fertilizers. Nevertheless, this input represents
less than 0.4% of the estimated 238U inventory in the
top 30 cm of soil (78 MBq ha⫺1), while the input related
to PG is about 2% of this inventory. The higher proportion of applied 238U that is lost compared with 226Ra can
be explained by the nature of compounds added to (or
formed in) soil. Radium-226 is applied as poorly soluble
compounds, meanwhile 238U desorption from sorbent
surfaces can be enhanced by carbonates in soil (Bostick
et al., 2002). The different behavior of 226Ra and U
isotopes is also apparent from their soil to water concentration ratios, with a mean value of 9300 L kg⫺1 for 226Ra
and 140 L kg⫺1 for 238U.
The isotopic ratio 234U to 238U can support a further
discussion, since it can be used as a fingerprint. Following Bolı́var et al. (1996a), the isotopic ratio in phosphate
rock is close to unity (secular equilibrium): 1.04 ⫾ 0.02.
The same result was found by these authors in the phosphoric acid and in the phosphogypsum: 1.03 ⫾ 0.03 and
1.04 ⫾ 0.05, respectively. Moreover, Garcı́a-Tenorio and
Bolı́var (1994) found an isotopic ratio of 0.98 ⫾ 0.04 in
different phosphate fertilizers. In our drainage waters
(Table 5) the isotopic ratio is 1.16 ⫾ 0.04 (by excluding
one anomalous result), which is significantly higher than
the one associated with both inputs (PG and P fertilizer).
This is usually due to the in situ decay of 238U (t1/2 ⫽
4.6 ⫻ 109 yr) to 234Th (t1/2 ⫽ 24.1 d) to 234Pa (t1/2 ⫽ 1.18 m)
and then to 234U (t1/2 ⫽ 2.48 ⫻ 105 yr). Following radioactive decay, the recoiled atom can go through many lattice points and enter lattice defects, pores, and fractures
and is more readily leached (Chu and Wang, 2000). The
preferential leaching of 234U caused by recoil effects is
displayed by a 234U to 238U ratio less than 1 in soil particles
and greater than 1 in filtered waters (Osmond and Cowart, 1976). Due to the varied half-lives, this process cannot operate in the short term. Consequently, although
the superphosphate can contribute in some extent to
the U isotopes found in the drainage waters, the major
contribution may come from the pool in the soil to
explain the enrichment in the isotopic ratio.
Dose Assessment
To estimate the radiological impact of the current
agriculture practices, we have to note that from our data
no significant levels of radionuclides were found in the
vegetal tissues. Potassium-40 is the only radionuclide
Table 6. Uranium isotopes concentrations and isotopic ratios in drainage waters from different treatments and dates, determined by
alpha spectrometry.†
Treatment
Date
238
235
U
U
234
234
U
U/238U
L⫺1
Control
Manure, 30 Mg ha⫺1
PG§, 13 Mg ha⫺1
PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
12 Dec. 1998
22 Jan. 1999
25 Jan. 1999
mean‡
22 Jan. 1999
12 Dec. 1998
22 Jan. 1999
23 Jan. 1999
mean‡
12 Dec. 1998
22 Jan. 1999
24 Jan. 1999
25 Jan. 1999
mean‡
188
164
180
177
200
196
174
207
192
175
170
166
204
179
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
5
5
9
12
7
10
5
8
17
5
6
7
9
17
mBq
7.3 ⫾
5.7 ⫾
7.0 ⫾
6.7 ⫾
6.9 ⫾
8.5 ⫾
7.0 ⫾
9.6 ⫾
8.4 ⫾
7.2 ⫾
7.6 ⫾
5.2 ⫾
7.6 ⫾
6.9 ⫾
0.6
0.6
1.1
0.9
0.8
1.2
0.6
1.2
1.3
0.5
0.7
0.7
1.0
1.1
217
198
201
205
229
148
198
256
201
206
198
192
224
205
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
6
6
10
10
8
11
5
10
54
5
6
7
10
14
1.15
1.21
1.12
1.16
1.15
0.76
1.14
1.24
1.04
1.18
1.16
1.16
1.10
1.15
† Measurement and analytical error (1 standard error). Samples are accumulated water volumes from the six tile drains with the same treatment.
‡ Mean and standard deviations for the different dates.
§ Phosphogypsum.
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
0.04
0.05
0.08
0.10
0.06
0.07
0.04
0.07
0.30
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.14
EL-MRABET ET AL: RADIONUCLIDES IN DRAINAGE WATER AND MARSH SOILS
Table 7. Radium-226 activity concentrations measured by alpha
counting in samples of drainage waters from different treatment
and dates.†
Month (year 2000)
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
Mean§
Control
7.0
6.4
6.9
6.1
7.3
7.2
5.8
6.7
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
0.7
0.8
0.6
1.0
0.4
1.0
0.5
0.6
6.6
6.2
4.7
6.3
6.1
6.7
6.1
6.1
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
0.7
0.9
0.5
0.7
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.7
mBq
5.4
6.4
6.0
5.1
5.0
5.6
2.6
5.2
L⫺1
⫾ 0.4
⫾ 1.0
⫾ 0.4
⫾ 0.4
⫾ 0.7
⫾ 0.5
⫾ 0.3
⫾ 1.2
6.2
7.3
7.2
6.2
6.2
4.4
3.8
5.9
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
0.7
1.1
0.6
0.8
0.7
0.3
0.3
1.3
† Measurement and analytical error (1 standard deviation), samples are accumulated water volumes from the six tile drains with the same treatment and for
all the drainage episodes during the month.
‡ Phosphogypsum.
§ Mean and standard deviations.
detected by ␥ spectrometry in the vegetal tissues (Table 9). Uranium-238 and 232Th, determined by ICP–MS
analysis, were also under the detection limits (Table 4).
These results are from cotton, and although they can
be representative of other crops, a more extensive study
is needed.
The cumulative application of PG may increase the
226
Ra concentration in soils and thus the 222Rn exhalation,
although this has not been studied within the present
work. The red American crab (Cancer magister) has
prospered in this environment, although more frequently it inhabits rice (Oryza sativa L.) fields, where
no reclamation practices (including PG amendments)
are done. In a very conservative dose assessment, we
can consider the consumption of crabs as a critical pathway, with consumption rate, Q, of 20 kg yr⫺1 (four times
the averaged consumption of molluscs and crustaceans
in southwestern Spain). The received dose, E (given in
Sv yr⫺1) will be:
E ⫽ QCDF
where C is the concentration (Bq kg⫺1) in crabs estimated from the mean concentration in water (Tables 6
and 7) and the recommended concentration factors for
molluscs (Fc ⫽ 3.0 ⫻ 10⫺2 m3 kg⫺1 for 238U and Fc ⫽ 1.0
m3 kg⫺1 for 226Ra; National Radiation Protection Board,
1987). The term DF is a factor to convert to doses the
internal irradiation by ingestion (DF ⫽ 6.3 ⫻ 10⫺8 Sv
Bq⫺1 for 238U and DF ⫽ 3.0 ⫻ 10⫺7 Sv Bq⫺1 for 226Ra).
Thus, E ⫽ 5.1 ⫻ 10⫺6 Sv (including the doses from 234U
with the same Fc and DF values than 238U), which clearly
is under the recommended limit.
Table 8. Estimated annual fluxes of radionuclides related to the
drainage waters.†
Radionuclide
238
U
235
U
234
U
226
Ra†
Control
44
1.7
51
22
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
Manure
8
110 ⫾ 50
0.3 3.9 ⫾ 1.8
8
130 ⫾ 60
4
18 ⫾ 9
Table 9. Potassium-40 concentrations in cotton leaves with different treatments determined by gamma spectrometry.†
40
Treatment
PG‡, 13 Mg ha⫺1 PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
Manure
PG‡, 13 Mg ha⫺1 PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
kBq yr⫺1 ha⫺1
60 ⫾ 30
2.5 ⫾ 1.2
60 ⫾ 30
15 ⫾ 4
52
2.0
60
17
⫾
⫾
⫾
⫾
20
0.8
20
8
† Estimated from mean radionuclide concentrations (see Tables 6 and 7)
and drainage (Table 2, 1998–1999 season for U isotopes and 1999–2000
season for 226Ra).
‡ Phosphogypsum.
1267
K
Bq kg⫺1
422 ⫾ 42
483 ⫾ 53
450 ⫾ 4
431 ⫾ 10
⬍20
Control
Manure
PG‡, 13 Mg ha⫺1
PG, 26 Mg ha⫺1
Analytical error§
† Means and standard deviation; two samples per treatment.
‡ Phosphogypsum.
§ One standard deviation.
CONCLUSIONS
The application of PG as soil amendment does not
determine any significant increment in radionuclide
concentration in soils after two consecutive treatments
at the usual rates in the region. For most of the studied
isotopes, there is not any significant difference between
reclaimed (PG amended during 30 yr) and nonreclaimed
(non-PG amended) soils. No significant increment in U
isotopes and 226Ra was detected in drainage waters due
to treatments. The U isotope concentrations in the drainage waters are one order of magnitude higher than those
found in noncontaminated waters. These concentrations
seem to be related to desorption processes mainly related to the natural adsorbed pool present in the soil,
as it is suggested by the 234U to 238U isotopic ratio (1.16
in drainage waters versus secular equilibrium in PG and
P fertilizers). Concentrations of the studied radionuclides in cotton leaves were below the detection limits
in all the cases, except for 40K. The uptake of this isotope
by plants is mainly related to the natural pool of soils,
since the amount applied by amendments and fertilizers
is negligible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was funded by ENRESA (Spanish Public Corporation of Radiactive Residues) and by the Spain’s National
R ⫹ D Plan (Projects AGF97-1102-CO2-01 and AGL20000303-P4-0). Authors wish to thank Cooperativa la Amistad
for making available some facilities and the experimental site.
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