ORIENTALISM, CHANDIGARH & LE CORBUSIER Mohammed Imran Uddin | 440523167 Modern Architectural History | MARC4201 Dr Jennifer Ferng | Dr Rachel Couper June 8th 2016 Uddin 1 ORIENTALISM, CHANDIGARH & LE CORBUSIER Introduction Orientalism is a style of thought based upon ontological and epistemological distinction made between the orient and the occident.1 The methodical exploration of regions east or south of the Mediterranean progressively defined the Orient for the west since the enlightenment through inaccurate cultural representations made in literature and notably in art taking the form of sketches, paintings, etchings and engravings from travelogues as primary sources of knowledge about the orient. Predominantly a prejudice against the Arab-Islamic cultures, orientalism also typifies other diverse cultures that are neighboring under the same labels. Whereas cultures beyond these imaginary geographies are essentialized, they are type casted as exotic, mystical or primitive “others”. This differentiation between the East and the West was the starting point for elaborate theories, epics, novels, social, descriptions, and political accounts regarding the orient, authored by poets, novelists, philosophers. political theorists, economists, and imperial administrators. This “othering” was in part responsible in establishing the notion of western superiority and helped in justifying of its eastern subjugation under unequal imperial relationships. 2 1 2 (Said 1978, 2) (Said 1978) Uddin 2 Rejecting those absolutist world views that were tempered into popular belief since the enlightenment changed as a result of deeper engagement with orient. This brought about rationalist thinking due to questioning of the social and intellectual basis and by introspection of one’s knowledge, practices and claims during the late 19th and 20th Century, heralded the Modernist movement with a motto to “make it new”3. “Oriental” India after centuries of colonial subjugation under the British won its independence in 1947 to embrace freedom and self-governance, unfortunately this entailed its partition with loss of lives, homes and state capitals on both sides. Chandigarh was founded to replace Lahore as the provincial capital for the state of Punjab. This was to be the first definitive realization of under the patronage of its first premier towards building a new Nation. Nehru envisaged to build a whole new city… “symbolic of the freedom of India, unfettered by the traditions of the past… an expression of the nation’s faith in the future”4 . Charles Edouard Jeanerette, lauded as the father of architectural modernism or Le Corbusier as would, was invited to design Chandigarh. Result was a singular vision of an architect and his political patron cast in concrete imposed on to its public much reminiscent of an imperial capital built at New Delhi. This research paper attempts to establish orientalist undertones in Edouard’s work at Chandigarh at its conceptual core, early design conception, the actualization of these ideas at Chandigarh and his extrinsic justifications and orientalist influences during his formative years to comprehension of his critics. 3 4 (Pound 1934) (Nehru 1950) Uddin 3 Chandigarh In July 1947 the independence bill was signed and British rule in India came to an end. When Pakistan came into existence the following year the state of Punjab was cut into two, millions of refugees fled in both directions, ensuing great loss to life and property. The old state capital of Lahore was left on the Pakistani side, Eastern Punjab moved its capital temporarily at Shimla, the summer capital of the British, due its terrain, inaccessibility and its imperialist connotations of the past a new site was proposed. Water, transport, centrality and local availability of raw materials were the critical for the new capital to flourish. Other nearby cities were either impractical or symbolically inadequate. In March of 1948 the government officials assigned to the project choose an “auspicious” site just off the national arterial road located at the southwestern base of the Shivalik range in the Himalayas. This flat gently sloping foot plains encompassed farmlands, villages and temple, one of which was center of worship dedicated to the Hindu goddess of power, Chandi and named the city after.5Independent India’s first planned city was conceived as “a moral and social act to improve the urban condition, its origins are in social reform and its objectives were to restructure urban life”6 . Jawaharlal Nehru, the first prime minister of India gave the city its enthusiasm and nationalistic idealism in an effort to announce India’s modernity and global standing. American urban planner Albert Mayer was recommended by Nehru to the planning commission and his associate Matthew Nowicki as its chief architect to develop the master plan for Chandigarh. Nehru’s vision was of clean open spaces liberating the Indians from the tyranny of the overcrowded and filthy cities as well as from the confines of agricultural village life. Albert who was stationed in India during the second world war and had approached Nehru 5 6 (Khan 2009, 223) (Curtis 1986, 188) (Kalia, Bhubaneshwar: From Temple Town to a Capital City 1994, 121) Uddin 4 with his rural rejuvenation plan to remodel villages and to improve living conditions for the villagers7 and implemented Mayer’s suggestion as a pilot in Uttar Pradesh and was asked to direct. Later he was assigned to the capital project at Chandigarh given his experience, Mayer original plan was subdivided into individual sections with the official buildings located in head towards the north, commercial and business center in the center and industry to the southeast. Nowicki further divided this zoning with a road network with a central spire and branching curved sub roads much like a leaf. The individual “superblocks” were focused inwards and ascribe to the ideals of a garden city. As Norma Evenson comment in her book that the plan “lacks a supra-structure linking the different elements…instead of emphasizing the capital he draws the attention to the superblocks embodying the democratic ideals which must have felt very important in 1950…Mayer openly declared that he wanted to avoid the ‘over scale sterility and stiltedness of New Delhi’”8 After the Nowicki ’s death in a plane crash in Egypt, the officials were tasked to find a replacement and had approached English husband and wife architects Maxwell Fry and Jane Drew who had considerable experience in developing design and technologies for the tropical conditions in West Africa. 9 They in turn recommended Charles Edouard Jeanerette given the scale of the job especially after Mayer had withdrawn from the capital project due to demanding commitments. 7 (Emmett 1977) (Evenson 1966, 12-18) 9 (Khan 2009, 224) 8 Uddin 5 Modernist assertions Edouard came on board reluctantly but knowing all too well that after decades of promoting his revolutionary architectural ideals to the industrialized nations in Europe and America, he was unable to win any large scale projects in comparison to what India had offered albeit at a meager monthly salary, the range of commissions were enticing and his largest commission yet. This new team consisted of Edouard, his cousin Pierre Jeanneret and the English duo as seniors heading a team of impressionable young local architects. Edouard was able to modify Mayer’s initial masterplan to into an orthogonal grid with Nehru as his only auditor. As Maxwell fry much later wrote “ Corbusier, with the three of us (Jeanneret, Drew and Fry), more witnessing than assisting created the plan of Chandigarh in about four days… he laid out the main lines of the city from which he never departed …” 10. Keen on implementing his universal plan that he had developed earlier such as La Ville Radieuse, focusing only on the physical aspects of planning and ignoring the social aspects of his “subjects”. This new plan shifted its focus from Mayer’s plan that celebrated diversity and range of densities to one based on order, hierarchy and discipline. This hierarchical system was organized as the capitol complex, the university, city center and the industrial areas punctuated with large swaths of green” breathing spaces”. In Chandigarh Edouard viewed himself as the “Spiritual Director” of the capital building enterprise and his planning office at the city as a “finishing school” for Indian youth. The construction of Chandigarh was to give “some basic principles concerning (modern) Habitation, which will be as clear as the basic principles of... the plan of Chandigarh 11 . Edouard’s initial impression of India was that of a “bed under the stars” as he wrote in his sketchbook as his technocratic skyscrapers ala Ville Radieuse were reinstated as civic buildings 10 11 (Fry 1995) (Kalia, Chandigarh and Urban India 2009, 152) Uddin 6 at the capitol complex due to rational considerations. Edouard still wielding considerable control to steer the project to suit his aspirations. This was possible only because Nehru, effectively his client and even more so as one of the founding father of this young nation shared complimentary ideals on the envisioned outcomes. Nehru, Cambridge educated and conditioned through the British education and legal system, subscribed to its brand orientalism and derived his nationalistic outlook to build a new India form the same school of thought. As David Kopf, a well-known academic contest of Edward Said, termed it as Indigenous orientalism, 12 where the ideas about the orient are recycled back to the orient, often masquerading as independent thought and further suggest that this was used to devise a new nationalistic identity true to the orientalist notions13 and by ascribing to those projected notions of stagnation, backwardness and poverty Nehru was complicit. Vikramaditya Prakash, an architectural historian who grew up in Chandigarh succinctly describes “if Orientalism was a discourse of the orient, by and for the occident; Nationalism was its stepsister, a mimicry of the occident, by and for the post colony.14 Edouard and Nehru agreed upon to create a modern city but were very different in motivation, Edouard’s modernism was still dwelling upon the poor, primitive and pastoral India whereas Nehru saw the same things as shackles to growth and prosperity and without a doubt this was the opportunity to realise Edouard’s utopic dream. By assigning others senior associate with menial commissions, Edouard saved the best and the most prestigious for himself. The capital complex was the “head” of his anthropomorphic form, with commanding view of the site and the city blocked on the south by massive earth mounds. The buildings at the capitol complex such as the secretariat, the high court bear a family resemblance to their European counterparts with their similar formal features and façade 12 (Narayan 1993, 496-507) (Clarke 1997) 14 (Prakash 2002, 11) 13 Uddin 7 Figure 1 Esplanade leading to the Parliament Assembly Figure 2 Hyperbolic Paraboloid geometry of the assembly in relation to its entrance Uddin 8 articulations, Unité d'habitation at Marseille is one such example. Response to the light, volumetric spatial configurations and strict adherence to the modular, they seem to be part of a global export with minimal modifications. The Palace of Assembly Most iconic of all modernist masterpieces at the capitol complex is the Palace of assembly aligned along the precinct’s main axis as a rectangular block topped by sculptural forms. The Pyramidal shape draws light into the council chambers while an upward swooping hyperbolic paraboloid inspired from the cooling towers at Sabarmati power stations at Ahmedabad shapes the house of Assembly. This popular reference was appropriate an image for Nehru’s policies on modernization and industrialization but is blended with sacral images from across the orient 15 and many local abstractions. The slant plaque on top of the hyperboloid geometry is an upturned crescent suggesting at the cosmic and bull horns, a theme recurrent through the project and this muse is evident in his early sketches of the pastoral lifestyle of a “poor but proportioned” nation. The building is entered from its eastern esplanade, a vast expanse of bare concrete leading up to a giant upturned portico roof gutter ala Ronchamp, this shade is supports by slender deep columns that help as breakers. Set in this faced is a large ceremonial door that was intended to be used only on special occasions. This centrally pivoted 7-meter-wide and 7.7-meter-high door was painted by Edouard himself in his Paris studio and shipped it as 110 enameled painted panels and were installed on site. The door only gets a cursory attention and only due to its 15 Some sketches compare the assembly space to that under the dome of Hagia Sophia with rays of light streaming down. (Curtis 1986, 196) Uddin 9 Figure 3 The Ceremonial door set behind row of columns supporting the parasol Canopy. The general everyday use door shown in red. Uddin 10 enormous size and its vibrant color scheme but the door’s significance is critical in what is depicted on it. As Krustup, an art analyst who extensively studied Edouard’s post-purist paintings and sculptures, labels these as “symbolic text”16 and other preceding similar works in Le Poème de l'Angle Droit as personal portraits and most explicit coalescence of his personal beliefs. The Door The door compositionally is divide into two equal parts, it paints a landscape of red sky with a yellow sun and green terrain below, the margin itself is split forming a double band. The upper band denotes the horizon line with a mountainous silhouette, presumably of the Himalayas. Below is a yellow/ black band, that signifies the two parts of the say. Above the horizon line on the left and right, geography book diagrams signify the solar lunar cycles, the solstices and the equinoxes. In the middle center stage, the, looming over the entire composition are two elliptical arches tracing the trajectories of the summer and winter sun17. The lower half is an idyllic landscape populated with the Modulor Man, animals, natural formations and other cryptic symbols distributed evenly over the entire surface. Starting at the upper left side, we encounter the vision of an uncultivated landscape, dominated by a red, flying falcon like bird, a symbol of the original spirit. At the desert's edge at the threshold of the green landscape stands Corbusier's abstracted human figure, the upright Modular Man. The red of the falcon-spirit, as that of the upright Man, signifies their contiguity with the (red) heaven above. A river meanders on the lower left and as an abstracted ecosystem on the right. In the center is the proverbial 'tree of knowledge,' flowering into the fruits of knowledge. The tree marks the pivotal axis on 16 17 (Krustrup 1991) (Prakash 2002, 74) Uddin 11 Figure 4 The Enamel Painted panels on the ceremonial door Figure 5 The Painting signed by Edouard next to a blue raven. Uddin 12 which the door turns, defining a strong vertical axis in the center in the form of an upward rising event reinforced by the isosceles triangle in the background.18 This growth is indicative of the resurrection of the city such as the” rising of the phoenix from its ashes” of partition. The imagery on the right of this tree enclosed in a rectangle describe the team working on Chandigarh, the cock being Pierre Jeanneret, the goat Jane Drew , a sucking calf as Fry and an opposite facing blue Corbeau19 as Edouard himself. Symbolism & Appropriation The animals are there performing a double symbolic duty alluding to their counterparts in Hindu mythology and adding mystique and primitive allure, a turtle (symbolic of dwelling), the serpent, the fish, and, of course, the bull. The actual motif that was painted is of the Brahma Bull appropriated from a tablet seal belonging to the ancient Indus valley civilization but Edouard’s inspiration of the bull as a symbol grew with the project. In fact he started a series of gouaches titled Taureaux at Chandigarh and else were in his note he wrote “ India has lived under the sign of the bull”20 he may have been referring to Nandi, a Hindu mythological god Shiva’s mount . His initial impression of the site and the country were pastoral images of a woman carrying a baby, cows and water buffalo. With little transformation, the initial impression was to become the only and lasting impression for the final form even though its justification varied leading up to its construction in 1955. The Upturning eastern canopy was rationalized among others as an abstraction of a chatri 18 (Prakash 2002, 88) (Corbeau: Raven in French; literal of his adopted pseudonym, Le Corbusier) 20 (Wogensky 1981, 3# 391) 19 Uddin 13 (canopy) at Fatehpur Sikri and as a shade opening the views to the sky and linking to cosmos and oddly as a giant gutter. The profile of the parasol remains the same throughout as a wide Figure 6 Early Sketch of the capitol complex shown again the silhouettes of the mountains. Figure 7 Bull horns and the Roof Figure 8 Sketch of the unbuilt governor house Uddin 14 Figure 9 Sketch showing bull form, a basic village house with thatched roof and the brick as the elementary building block. Figure 10 Edouard’s sketches of bull in Chandigarh Uddin 15 Figure 12 Edouard’s Sketch of a bull standing on the capitol plain. Figure 11 Southwestern aspect of the assembly showing the profile shaped like a bull. Uddin 16 inverted U. The inverted U form had appeared upon the governor’s palace, it would have been the focal building with the capitol axis leading up to it, had Nehru not deemed it inappropriate and imperialistic, much to Edouard’s dismay. After which he ensured the focus of the complex was on its assembly building. The curve of the assembly, however, is distinctly that of a bull’s horns that very full and forcefully rest on its supports. It does not float; it does not attempt to fly. Its downward thrust is complete like an animal standing firm on the ground. Indeed, if one looks at the assembly from the southwestern aspect its outline would seem like an abstracted bull akin to Edouard’s sketches if slightly distorted. 21 In addition to imprinting his own utopic vision rhetorically and through built form, Edouard was attempting to answer the symbolic “actuality”22 of India through as an icon. Finding his answers in the naturalistic primitivism of India’s Culture, as he descriptively wrote in his sketchbook “…nature, sacred animals, birds, monkeys and cows, and in the village children, adults and old people, the pond the mango tree, everything is present and… poor but proportioned” 23 In concurring with Vikramaditya24, it can be argued that Edouard repeatedly invoked a shallow rural and cosmic image of India and its foundational role in the final design of the assembly building by formulating it in a familiar orientalist metaphors of naturalistic utopia and stagnation, thereby essentializing that it was “the way all the time”. 25 Edouard’s genius as an architect and planner Is mostly interpreted through the lens of modernism influenced by the advent of new material technologies and adaptation to a changing 21 (Prakash 2002, 121) (Prakash 2002, 77) 23 (Wogensky 1981, 2# 448-449) 24 (Prakash 2002) 25 (Wogensky 1981, 2#330) 22 Uddin 17 lifestyle during mid-20th century. abstraction as a modernist device is minimally considered as an influencer of form in his works26. The painting on the ceremonial door has attributions normally associated with primitive art such as the diagrammatic descriptions of the subject matter, outlining of forms, elevational and side representations of human and animals, broad flat areas of colour and expressive distortion of its subject matter. The subject matter is relevant as primitive works ideally pertain themselves to folk, rural and village societies. Thematic of the a simple and pastoral lifestyle as an archetype for the final form. Drawing from these existing rural archetypes of basic idioms and icons, Eduard employs these icons to be apparent to the local population and thinks are only capable of understanding them and may not be able to comprehend any more complex representations. Arranged in the composition are his recurring diagrams about the sun and its cycles and seasonal variations that have had influence on the architecture they were applied on. The door in essence outlines the project in its conception, its influences and the architects involved. Eduard’s intentions for its users is symbolical of passing through this door is to be passing through the spirit of India. As country so diversely profuse with languages, cultures and traditions and its rich history is conveniently ignored and misrepresentation and orientalised as a primitive nation with its mythological quirks as its essential truths. Primitivism is just an extension of the orientalist thought applied to the cultures far east and the misrepresentation of a diverse region as a singular cultural monolith through “sweeping vocabularies of gross generalization”27 allows for the easy distinction and mandates28 its subjugation. 26 (Hurtt 2001), (Said 1978, 232-233) 28 (Said 1978) “… European race to dominion over non-European portions of mankind. “Darwinism was modified to support the view of contemporary Orientals as being degenerate vestiges of a classical ancient greatness”. 27 Uddin 18 Early Influences Chandigarh is not the only project that alleges orientalist prejudice against Edouard, an earlier project from 1932 at Algiers is replete gross generalization and orientalist prejudice of its places and its women. Zeynep Çelik, an architectural historian discusses Edouard’s Obus proposal that effectively segregated the local population and their French colonizers using a level difference between the upper French casbah, protecting its integrity, while restricting the densities of the local populations below and intervening in the patterns of use via a green belt. Cordon sanitaire as it was termed in the imperial rhetoric, Edouard reinterpreted this idea as a green belt while wholeheartedly acknowledging its necessity. 29 She further refutes interpretations by other architectural historians as this being vestiges of orientalist traditions that these critics ascribed to in concurring with the idea of stagnation of the casbah and the dynamism of the European modern city thereby accentuating this Orientalizing difference. she rebuts Tafuri’s commendations of the project as he comments it being a "timeless model ... the metaphor of an ancient time… which is foreign to time, foreign to the modern, indifferent to its destinies."30 Celik’s invaluable interpretation of the rationale behind Edouard’s disposition is, early influences during his formative years. His early impressions about the orient are well documented in his book voyage d’Orient. Edouard’s undoubtedly first encountered the "Orient" through literature, travel accounts, and paintings. paintings. Certain popular authors, among them Théophile Gautier, Pierre Loti and William Ritter, an expert in Eastern European culture,31 another of Edouard’s chief sources was Ernest Renan, who is singled out by Said as 29 (Çelik, Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism 1992, 69) (Tafuri 1982-84) 31 (Ingersoll 1989, 61) 30 Uddin 19 Figure 13 Some of many Edwin Lord Weeks orientalist paintings inspired by his travels in India . n archetypical Orientalist as their names appear time and again in his writings. Furthermore, Uddin 20 the illustrations in travel books and orientalist painting must have shaped Edouard’s expectations.32 There is an unusual similarity in the subject matters of paintings by Edwin Lord Weeks, an American orientalist painter who had trained under Jean-Léon Gerome in Paris, to that of Edouard’s initial sketches at Chandigarh. Although the Weeks travelled through India during the late 19the century and exhibited his large collections in Paris in the following decades. It almost visually alludes that the “orient” had stayed as it was in weeks’ paintings and Edouard’s sketches even after 60 years conforming an orientalist standpoint of stagnation and may have cemented this essential truth about India. The parallels continue on to the ultimate imperial gesture at Chandigarh, where Edouard proved in every instance to be on the side of the white fathers.33 Critical Claims There are parallels that one can easily draw between Chandigarh, intended modern city free from encumbrances of the past, and New Delhi, the new imperial capital designed to display British might. Both were designed by foreign architects to accommodate their new rulers34, both where influenced by the garden city movement and developed personalized versions, both of these were hierarchical in distribution and density, both were singular and staunch visions not only of their planner but also of their clients, both used local inspiration to embellish their dogmatic visions. They may seem quite stark in their formal appearances, even though the projects were built only 30 years apart, the underlying motivation and perceptions of their ‘subjects’ is fundamentally inferior and orientalist in nature. 32 (Çelik, Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism 1992, 60-61) (Ingersoll 1989, 61) 34 (Khosla 2009) 33 Uddin 21 As Curtis assays “he (Edouard) fixed the city plan quickly, blending together the principles of the Ville Radieuse, with vistas and boulevards stemming from the Baroque (or even from the example of Lutyens' New Delhi) which he adjusted to the requirements of a democratic state government for the Punjab. Like his British predecessor, Le Corbusier sought a synthesis of Eastern and Western values in his designs for the monuments, but where Lutyens had had the job of anchoring the rule and splendor of the British presence, Le Corbusier had the complex task of expressing the traditions and the capacity for innovation of a newly independent India”. The extent of this expression and its sources have been criticized extensively by the scholars, Sunil Khilnani a professor of politics, resonate concisely the view of many critics as he writes in his book 35 “Le Corbusier remained blithely unencumbered by any understanding of the world he was designing for, his role was that of the prophetic artist, and played it to perfection. The initial plan was outlined after a bare glimpse of the site…”. Edouard’s in his sketchbook also wrote about the “advantages of slavery in high and noble architectures” 36 which is rather telling of his disposition. In the light of the above, it is evident that there are orientalist undertones in Edouard’s work at Chandigarh at its conceptual core, contrary to the expectation from a founding modernist architect. He was engaged in various ways in reinstating the orientalist control over the nonwestern “other”. Though he was greatly inspired by indigenous ways and unified them in his works as seen in various examples before. Like any orientalist he was a great admirer of the other, but in spite of being given the chance did not reverse the position of power. 37 35 (Khilnani, The Idea of India 2003, 132) (Wogensky 1981, 3#16-17) 37 (Ingersoll 1989) 36 Uddin 22 Bibliography Akcan, Esra. 2014. “Postcolonial Theories in Architecture.” In A Critical History of, edited by Elie G. Haddad and David Rifkind, 119-140. Ashgate. Çelik, Zeynep. 1992. “Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism.” Assemblage (The MIT Press ) 17: 58-77. Accessed May 18, 2016. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3171225. Çelik, Zeynep. 2002. “Speaking Back to Orientalist Discourse.” In Orientalism's Interlocutors, edited by Mary Roberts Jill Beaulieu, 19-42. Durham & London: Duke University Press. Clarke. 1997. Curtis, William J R. 1986. “Le Corbusier in India: The Symbolism of Chandigarh.” In Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms, by William J R Curtis, 188 -201. Oxford: Phaidon Press Limited. Doshi, Balakrishna V. 2009. “Le Corbusier: A Personal Reading.” In Le Corbusier : Chandigarh and the Modern City, edited by Hasan-Uddin Khan, Julian Beinart and Charles Correa. Mapin Publishing. Emmett, Robert C. 1977. Guide to the Albert Mayer Papers on India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Evenson, Norma. 1966. Chandigarh. Berkely, CA: University of California Press. Fry, Edwin Maxell. 1995. “Chandigarh- a New capital City.” Architectural Record, June: 139148. Hurtt, Steven W. 2001. “Le Corbusier: Symbolic Themes at Chandigarh.” In Celebrating Chandigarh, edited by Jaspreet Takhar, 305-317. Chandigarh : Chandigarh Perspectives. Uddin 23 Ingersoll, Richard. 1989. Letters to the Editor. Vol. 4, in Journal of Architectural Education, 61. Taylor & Francis, Ltd. Kalia, Ravi. 1994. Bhubaneshwar: From Temple Town to a Capital City. Carbondale. IL: Southern Illinois University Press. Kalia, Ravi. 2009. “Chandigarh and Urban India.” In Le Corbusier : Chandigarh and the Modern City, 152. Mapin Publication. Khan, Ayesha. 2009. “Postscript: A Chandigarh Refresher.” In Le Corbusier : Chandigarh and the Modern City, 223. Mapin Publisher. Khilnani, Sunil. 2003. The Idea of India. London: Penguin. Khilnani, Sunil. 1997. “Three.Cities.” In The Idea of India, 107-150. Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Khosla, Romi. 2009. “Imperial Chandigarh.” In Le Corbusier : Chandigarh and the Modern City. Mapin Publishing. Krustrup, Mogens. 1991. Porte Email / The Enamel Door : Le Corbusier Palais de l'Assemblee de Chandigarh. Kobenhaven: Arkitektens Forlag. Moos, Stanislaus von. 1979. “VI Public Buidings.” In Le Corbusier: Elements of a Synthesis, by Stanislaus von Moos, 255. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Narayan, Kirin. 1993. “Refractions of the Field at Home. American Presentations of.” 476597. Nehru, Jawaharlal. 1950. Hindustan Times. New Delhi, 8 July. Orient. n.d. Orient. Vers. Unabridged. Random House. Accessed June http://www.dictionary.com/browse/orient. Pound, Ezra. 1934. Make It New: Essays by Ezra Pound. London: Faber and Faber. Prakash, Vikramatiya. 2002. Chandigarh's Le Corbusier. Seattle: Mapin Publishing. Said, Edward. 1978. Orientalism. New York: Vintage. 2016. Uddin 24 1982-84. Machine et memoir:The City in the Work of Le Corbusier. Vol. 32, in The Le Corbusier Archive, by Manfredo Tafuri, edited by H. Allen Brooks, translated by Stephen Sartarell. New York . Wogensky, Andre. 1981. Le Corbusier Sketchbooks Volume 1-4. New York & Cambridge: MIT Press in Collabration with the Foundation Le Corbusier.