Le Corbusier's Chandigarh

UCL History of Art MA 2017-18, HARTG008: Vision, Tourism, Imperialism Tourism: Art and Travel in the British Empire - Essay 2, WKYS5 Le Corbusier’s Chandigarh. Seeking modernism in Post-Independence India. Details of the entrance portal, source:https://www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures , accessed 20 April 2018. 1 Introduction The events from the 15th of August 1947, marking India’s independence from the United Kingdom, transformed the subcontinent during the following decades. Before their departure from the country, colonial leaders decided to separate the Muslim population from the Hindu majority, therefore North-Western and Eastern territories were brutally divided and geographically set aside.1 Around one million Muslims previously inhabiting Indian territories were forced to relocate to the modern-day nations of Pakistan and Bangladesh. The borders of the newly created countries were drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe and the state of Punjab was placed between two nations: India and Pakistan.2 Pakistan claimed ownership over the state capital of Lahore so, Punjab’s new capital had to be created. The capital was supposed to be a symbol of the new image of India: an independent, prosperous, and modern country. The Punjabi government decided to build a capital city that was to be located approximately 180 miles north of New Delhi.3 According to the Prime Minister of India, Jawaharlal Nehru, this new city should reflect the modernity and progress of the nation.4 For the project, Nehru appointed the American architect Albert Mayer and his Polish collaborator Maciej Nowicki. The initial design was to resemble the Garden City model.5 However, Nowicki died unexpectedly in an accident in August 1950 and Mayer decided to withdraw from the project.6 Subsequently, the Chandigarh government began their search for a replacement. The architect responsible for the new project was Le Corbusier, who also hired his cousin Pierre Jeanneret as a site architect. Le Corbusier decided to follow the preliminary plan sketched by Mayer and Nowicki. The plan of the city placed an emphasis on the symbiosis between green spaces and the industrial architecture. Le Corbusier did not only use the model of the Garden City but also reused his own concept of the design of his French project Ville Radieuse, although in the case See: Kaushik Roy, ​Partition of India: Why 1947? ​(Oxford: UOP India, 2011). See: Peter Lyon, ​Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An Encyclopedia​ (Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO, 2008). 3 Jason Burke, ‘Le Corbusier's Indian masterpiece Chandigarh is stripped for parts’ in ​The Guardian​ (2011), available on www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/mar/07/chandigarh-le-corbusier-heritage-site, accessed 21 April 2018. 4 Edward Mallot, ​Memory, Nationalism, and Narrative in Contemporary South Asia​ (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2012), p.37. 5 David Gordon, ​Planning Twentieth Century Capital Cities​ (London: Routledge, 2006), p.230. 6 Ravi Kalia, ​Chandigarh: The Making of an Indian City​ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), p.64. 1 2 2 of Chandigarh, the towering glass skyscrapers were replaced by sculptures reflecting Chandigarh’s governmental purpose.7 Le Corbusier decided to apply the same principles of his European architectural projects on previously untouched Punjabi territory. Interestingly, Chandigarh’s system of grand boulevards resembles that of Le Corbusier’s architectural aspirations for the urban planning of modern Paris.8 Le Corbusier also intended to apply his concept of ​Unité d'Habitation by building residential high-rises for the city’s government employees. However, his proposal wasn’t accepted by the government. Le Corbusier reused the modernist archetypes from his previous European projects and applied them into the new, non-Western environment. Plan of Chandigarh, source: www.architecturalmoleskine.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/chandigarh-and-le-corbusier-i.html, accessed 20 April 2018. 7 8 ​Jon T. Lang, ​A Concise History of Modern Architecture in India ​(Telengana: Orient Blackswan, 2002), p.62. Ibid. 3 The plan of Chandigarh brought to light discussion regarding the notion of modernity in India, as many scholars argue, the idea of Indian modernism differentiates from the Western understanding of the term. While European modernity rejected historicity, modernism in India reuses the past to shape its present. It is interesting how a prominent modernist architect, Le Corbusier applied European architectural modernity into a new, ‘other’ environment. He blended the European notion of modernism with Indian cultural identity. However, is Corbusier’s project a representation of the authentic Indianness or is it rather a projection of Indianness perceived solely through the European gaze? The concept of modern and Indian civilisation appears to be both in the clash and coalescence. Modernism in India is linked to the process of archivisation - artists and architects appear as archaeologists, etnographs and archivists. What is more, art and architecture in India is inseparable from ideological claims and political implications. Thus, it is interesting to observe city such as Chandigarh, which is a blend of Western and Indian modernity. In his architecture, Le Corbusier tends to avoid historical referencing although, in the case of Chandigarh, he made use of symbolism associated with the traditional Mughal paradise garden. 9 In this context, it can be argued that Chandigarh is perceived as an example of anachronism, which appears to be a central part of Indian modernism. This paper will discuss the idea of modernism in territory as complex as India, with a focus on the city of Chandigarh. It will be examined how Chandigarh operates within the notion of national identity in India, and specifically, whether the new capital evokes Indianness or is another example of European hegemony, placed even after the era of colonialism, within postcolonial reality. 9 David Wild,​ Fragments of utopia: collage reflections of heroic modernism​ (London: Hyphen, 1998), p.63. 4 Chandigarh and Indian ‘Modernism’ Le Corbusier’s architectural practice combined various, often contradictory elements that not only generated a unique, characteristic, and recognisable style, but also manifested the notion of identity by bringing together elements of diverse historical, socio-political, and cultural backgrounds. In his architecture, Le Corbusier combined contradictories such as history and modernity, male and female, vernacular and modern, colonial and postcolonial. Since his formative period, Le Corbusier was interested in working between these polarities, significant is the design of the Villa Schwob from 1916, in which his interests in juxtaposing various contradictory forces became the most poignant.10 However, it was his late work conducted in India, which brought to light his creative obsession for blending polarities: Chandigarh is a representation of this obsession. The city was described by the Prime Minister Nehru as ‘symbolic of the freedom of India, unfettered by the traditions of the past… an expression of the nation’s faith in the future.’11 Chandigarh is viewed as a symbol of independence and the memory of the tragic events of the Partition. The city is a representation of both exhilaration and tragedy. Yet the name of the newly created capital evokes the past events that led to its establishment: Chandigarh derives from the name Chandi, the Hindu goddess of power.12 ​ ​Peter Serenyi, ‘Timeless but of Its Time: Le Corbusier's Architecture in India’ in ​Perspecta​, Vol. 20 (1983), pp. 91-118 (3). 11 Gyanesh Kudaisya, Tan Tai Yong, ​The Aftermath of Partition in South Asia​ (London: Routledge, 2004), p.190. 12 Ravi Kalia, op.cit., p.210. 10 5 Le Corbusier with the plan of Chandigarh, source: www.chandigarh.gov.in/knowchd_gen_plan.htm, accessed 20 April 2018. Since the decision of building a new capital city for East Punjab was finally confirmed, Prime Minister Nehru had a plan of building a new city, which would be a completely new creation, liberated from the painful history and the traditions of the past, but obviously there were also practical reasons for the decision. None of the already existing towns were suitable to become the capital and none of them were prepared for the expansion of the new government or to house the increasing number of migrants from Pakistan. The Indian government subsequently began their search for an appropriate city planner. The decision was made to hire a foreign architect, because the colonial British government did not support or train local architects.13 In August 1948, the Indian government began their ​Jon T. Lang, Madhavi Desai, Miki Desai, ​Architecture & Independence​ (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997), p.191. 13 6 search for a planner who would design ‘an administrative centre accommodating half a million people and expandable to one million.’14 The government decided to offer the role to the New York architect Albert Meyer who, interestingly, had been lieutenant colonel in India during World War II.15 Mayer’s architectural practice was based on the garden city movement and ‘its reaction against... the sterility and monotony of the classical-geometric approach to planning’.16 For the project of Chandigarh, Meyer proposed a fan-shaped outline spreading across two rivers. He located provincial government buildings in the upper edge of the city on one of the riversides, and placed the central business district in the centre of the city. Then, according to his plan, the system of main roads would surround the residential buildings, each containing a green space located in the centre. Albert Mayer decided to involve his partner, Nowicki who was responsible for the architectural control. However, after the tragic events in 1950 when Nowicki died in a plane crash, Mayer withdrew from the project. Therefore, a new architectural team had to be found for the realisation of Mayer’s plan. The Indian government subsequently selected a new team: an English architect couple, Jane Drew and Maxwell Fry, and French architect Le Corbusier and his cousin Pierre Jeanneret. Le Corbusier was appointed as the ‘architectural advisor’ while Drew, Fry and Jeanneret became ‘senior architects’.17 ‘Le Corbusier took charge of developing the master plan, designing the capitol complex, and establishing architectural control. Jeanneret and Fry concerned themselves with directing the actual construction of the city and designing the remainder of the city's buildings’.18 Norma Evenson, ​Chandigarh​ (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966), p. 8. Ravi Kalia, op.cit., p.25. 16 Norma Evenson, op.cit., p.13. 17 Ibid., p.26. 18 Ibid., p.27. 14 15 7 Le Corbusier at The High Court, 1955, source: www.grahamfoundation.org/grantees/5050-casablanca-chandigarh-a-report-on-modernization, accessed 20 April 2018. Le Corbusier then began his biannual trips to India, starting on the 18th of February 1951.19 This date is written in Le Corbusier’s sketchbook which he carried with him during his trips to India. Le Corbusier’s diaries also include many architectural sketches of the buildings in their formative stages. 20 Le Corbusier was primarily appointed to create the master plan of the city and the capitol complex. However, later he also undertook a project of designing the city’s business centre and several additional buildings. However, most significant buildings designed by Corbusier in Chandigarh are the governmental buildings placed within the capitol complex: The Secretariat, the Assembly Building, and the High Court. The construction of the new capital took several years, and it was fully completed by September 1953 when all the governmental departments finally moved from the city of Simla to the new buildings in Chandigarh.21 ​Peter Serenyi, op.cit., p. 4. Ibid. 21 ​S. C. Bhatt, Gopal K. Bhargava, ​Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories​ (New Delhi: Gyan Publishing House, 2006), p.20. 19 20 8 As Norma Evenson noticed, Le Corbusier’s plan differed from the one proposed by Mayer’s team. To her, ‘it is in the emphasis on a monumental axial composition that the second plan of Chandigarh differs most noticeably from the initial scheme. Although in both designs the capitol area was planned to stand against the mountains, only in Le Corbusier's plan was there an effort to provide a single monumental approach linking the body of the city to its symbolic head and relating along a single axis the two main public areas of the city, the capitol complex and the civic centre’.22 The Capitol Complex, source: https://www.dezeen.com/2016/08/07/le-corbusier-capitol-complex-unesco-world-heritage-listing-chandigarh-india -benjamin-hosking/, accessed 20 April 2018. Le Corbusier’s plan is recognisable mostly because of its monumental Capitol Complex. However, also worth mentioning are the 240 acres of the city itself, which were designed to function as a place to live and work. Le Corbusier designed the Northern zones of the city as an 22 ​Norma Evenson, op.cit., p.32. 9 area for civic administration, while the Southern zone was meant to serve the district’s administration. All areas of the city, i.e. the Capitol Complex, the university, and the industrial area, are connected by a network of fast traffic roads.23 At central point of the city centre, Le Corbusier placed a central chowk which in its cross shape, congregates two pedestrian ways: North-East to South-West and North-West to South-East. The chowk is designed to be vehicle-free and ‘is ideally suited for religious activities and other festive congregations that are so important to the Indian way of life. The chowk is connected to other spaces of the City Centre by a network of pedestrian ways’.24 Chandigarh’s chowk, source: www.dronestagr.am/chandigarh-the-city-beautful/, accessed 20 April 2018. 23 24 ​Ravi Kalia, op.cit., p.11. Ibid, p.111. 10 Le Corbusier’s project of the city appears as a peculiar blend of various aspects, such as modernism, vernacular, and an established Corbusian style, all projected and studied within different context, i.e. postcolonialism and non-Western. Le Corbusier, one of the most canonical architects of the twentieth century, designed the city that defines him as a ‘visionary iconoclast’.25 Although, considered as a great architect of modernism, he was disappointed with the products of industrial revolution, one of the key elements of the establishment of modernism in Europe, and became interested in the juxtaposition of the aesthetics of industrialism with vernacular architectural practices, specifically popular in non-Western environments.26 Since an early age, Le Corbusier was fascinated with vernacular as opposed to Western aesthetics.27 His trip to the Balkans in 1911 was significant in the development of his future recognisable architectural style, during which, 23 year old Le Corbusier, had the opportunity to discover local folklore and vernacular styles, distinct in relation to Western architecture.28 However, it was the master plan of Chandigarh that allowed him to pursue his interest in combining the architectural vocabularies, of the East and the West. William Curtis described Chandigarh as a ‘prodigious feat of abstraction in which devices from the classical tradition - the grand order and the portico - were fused with Le Corbusier’s own system of forms in concrete and in turn cross-bred with Indian devices like the 'chattrť (a dome on slender supports), trabeated terraces, balconies, and loggias of Fatehpur Sikri’.29 In creating the plan of Chandigarh, Le Corbusier referred to the archetype of Mughal gardens. He then used the traditional Indian elements and ‘reworked [them] into a new orchestration of urban spaces’.30 ​To Curtis, Chandigarh represents the synthesis of ‘the East and the West, the ancient and the modern’.31 Chandigarh uses Western concrete building materials, and architectural structures that resemble their Western archetypes. As noted by Peter Serenyi, the construction of the High Court can be 25 Shaun Fynn, ​Chandigarh Revealed: Le Corbusier's City Today​ (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2017), p.7. 26 Francesco Passanti, ‘The Vernacular, Modernism, and Le Corbusier’ in ​Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians​, vol.556 (1997), pp. 438-451. 27 Ibid. 28 Ibid. 29 ​William J. Curtis, ​Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms​ (London: Phaidon, 1986), p.200. 30 Puteri Shireen Jahnkassim, Norwina Mohd Nawawi, ‘Allusions to Mughal urban forms in the monumentality of Chandigarh’s capitol complex’ in ​Journal of Architecture and Urbanism​, vol. 40 (2016), pp. 177-190 (183). 31 ​William J. Curtis, op.cit. 11 compared to the Basilica of Constantine.32 To Serenyi, the construction that ‘provided the point of departure for the design of the building [in Chandigarh].’33 In his early sketches of the High Court, Le Corbusier used Basilica’s great barrel vaults as the most dominant element of the design.34 However, eventually, he replaced the Roman vaults with sun breakers, the inspiration for which was de Stijl architecture.35 Because of this, Chandigarh might appear as an eclectic city, combining elements from both occidental and oriental tradition. However, to Norma Evenson, Le Corbusier’s Master Plan appeared as a mere and direct importation of Western styles in non-Western context. According to her, the fact that Le Corbusier applied the Western ‘modernist’ forms to still largely agrarian and semi-industrialised areas of India, resulted in the emphasis and representation of India still being a pre-modern and pre-industrial country.36 Nevertheless, as it was accurately noted by Atreyee Gupta, modernism remains a Western imperative and it has a different notion in non-Western environments.37 According to Vikramaditya Prakash, modernism in India was shaped by its decolonisation and independence.38 Chandigarh is a representation of this national desire for ‘modern’ and ‘independent’ but it is also Le Corbusier’s own, European interpretation of what modernism is. Chandigarh is therefore a combination of the elements deriving from two opposite worlds - the East and the West. Interestingly, modernism was the first ‘international style’ of architecture. The term first appeared in the book ​The International Style: Architecture Since 1922 written in 1932 by architectural historian Henry Russell Hitchcock and architect Philip Johnson.39 The adjective ‘international’ signifies something occurring, pertaining between nations. In terms of architecture, ‘international’ would then be something universal, which can be applied into different political and geographical contexts. Surprisingly, for their case studies, Hitchcock and Johnson provided examples of architecture exclusively, except for Japan, from Western Peter Serenyi, op.cit. Ibid. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Norma Evenson, op.cit. 37 Atreyee Gupta, ‘Dwelling in Abstraction. Post-Partition Segues into Post-War Art’ in ​Third Text​, vol.31 (2017), pp. 433-457. 38 ​Vikramaditya Prakash​,​ Chandigarh's Le Corbusier: The Struggle for Modernity in Postcolonial India​ (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2002). 39 Henry Russell Hitchcock, Philip Johnson, ​The International Style: Architecture Since 1922​ (New York: W. W. Norton, Incorporated), 1932. 32 33 12 European and American countries. It is worth noting that in 1932 around 80% percent of the existing countries were colonies or commonwealths belonging to major European imperialist nations.40 None of those countries were mentioned in the book. Therefore, in this context, ‘the international style’ does not really percolate between the nations but rather between colonial empires. The book omits all the other many different culturally and historically countries which, even by adjusting to the colonial force and adapting the ‘modernist’ Western inventions, they still managed to preserve their own ‘modes of building and shelter; modes that today we would call vernacular architecture’.41 The High Court, source: www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures , accessed 20 April 2018. 40 Anthony D. King, ‘Internationalism, Imperialism, Postcolonialism, Globalization: Frameworks for Vernacular Architecture’ in ​Perspectives in Vernacular Architecture​, vol.13, no.2 (2006/2007), pp. 64 - 75. 41 Ibid, p.4. 13 In his ​Modern Architecture and the End of Empire​, Mark Crinson discussed the adaption of modern architecture to Persia, Iraq, Ghana, Malaya and Hong Kong.42 Zeynep Celik, among other scholars, wrote about how French colonial authorities in Algeria employed Le Corbusier to develop his modernist experiments there.43 Finally, Jon Lang, Norma Evenson, and in particular, Peter Scriver and Vikram Prakash argued that modernist design was part of the colonial and capitalist force that contributed to the construction of major cities in India.44 All of the mentioned examples prove that the implementation of modernism in colonial countries was dependent extensively on colonial power. The introduction of modernism in those countries had an effect on imposing certain architectural styles, ‘being modern required, for the bourgeoisie, a modern and even modernist architectural environment’45, but it also increased an awareness of being ‘the other’ which, furthermore, led to the establishment of new, simultaneous architectural practices: the ‘vernacular’. As noted by James Holston, modernism in the colonial countries was also tightly associated with the complex social, cultural and political aspects.46 In Chandigarh, modernism as the one claiming to be opposed to history, supposed to be the liberation from the oppressions of colonial past. However, does the choice of hiring the European, modernist architect stand in favor of moving away from the past? Maybe it was, in fact, a return to it? Chandigarh represents a struggle between being independent and Indian, and being ‘modern’ that is ‘in time’ with already ‘developed’ modernist and Western countries. Drawing on Homi Bhabha’s ‘mimic men’ theory, Chandigarh appears as a product of mimicry. However, in this case, the mimicry is reversed. It is performed not by the ‘colonised’ but by the Western architect, Le Corbusier.47 It can be argued that Le Corbusier mimics ‘native’ styles by applying them to the plan for Chandigarh, i.e. chattri or loggias and balconies, and he Mark Crinson, ​Modern Architecture and the End of Empire​ (London: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2003). Zeynep Celik, ‘Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism’ in ​Assemblage​, no.17 (1992), pp. 58-77. 44 Jon Lang, ​Concise History of Modern Architecture In India​ (New Delhi: Permanent Black 2010); Norma Evenson, ​The Indian Metropolis: A View Toward the West​ (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989);​ ​Peter Scriver, ​ Amit Srivastava, ​India: Modern Architectures in History​ (London: Reaktion Books, 2015); Vikram Prakash, op.cit. 45 Anthony D. King, op.cit., p.5. 46 ​James Holston, ​The Modernist City: An Anthropological Critique of Brazilia ​(Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1989). 47 ​Homi K. Bhabha,​ The Location of Culture​ (London: Routledge, 2004). 42 43 14 juxtaposes them with elements of ‘modern’ which, in turn, indicates Chandigarh's Indian Government desire to mimic the West. Chandigarh was created not only for strictly practical and political reasons, but also to stand as a symbol of national healing from the trauma of the colonial past and the Partition. To Nehru, the new capital represented the new nation of India, ‘unfettered by traditions of the past’.48 The city therefore projects a national atmosphere of ‘memory and forgetting, trauma and recovery’. 49 This is probably why Nehru was so keen to create a city that will be necessarily ‘modern’, and detached from history. The Capitol Complex, source: www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures , accessed 20 April 2018. See: The Official Website of Chandigarh Administration, www.chandigarh.gov.in/knowchd_gen_historical.htm, accessed 22 April 2018. 49 ​Edward Mallot, op.cit., p.32. 48 15 Referring to Henri Lefebvre’s claim that ‘(social) space is a (social) product’ meaning that a change within society creates and organises new patterns of physical environments, Chandigarh appears as a physical consequence of change within the Indian nation.50 To Lefebvre, ‘A revolution that does not produce a new space has not released its new potential; indeed it has failed in that it has not changed life itself’.51 Therefore, the project of Chandigarh is not only a symbolic representation of the new, rebuilding sense of India’s national identity but it also helps ‘usher in a new Indian age’.52 Therefore, as noted by Nihal Perera, ‘The modernist city… became a dehistoricised, decontextualised and unfamiliar space employed to transform society’.53 Chandigarh is then ‘dehistoricised’, but at the same time its building structure helps to ‘transform society’. Srirupa Roy discusses the establishment of the new towns in independent India: she writes, ‘They [towns] were described as entirely new kinds of places inhabited by new kinds of people who would directly participate in the grand project of building the nation’.54 Chandigarh is therefore something more than just a physical space; it is a projection of the nationalist self-definition. Henri Lefebvre, ​The Production of Space​, translated by ​Donald Nicholson-Smith (Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell, 1991). 51 Ibid., p.54. 52 Edward Mallot, op.cit., p.33. 53 ​Nihal Perera, ‘Contesting visions: hybridity, liminality and authorship of the Chandigarh plan.’ in ​Planning Perspectives​, vol.19 (2004), pp. 175 -199 (186). 54 Srirupa Roy, ​Beyond Belief: India and the Politics of Postcolonial Nationalism ​(Durham: Duke University Press, 2007), p.133. 50 16 Conclusion The Punjab legislative assembly chamber., source: www.theguardian.com/cities/gallery/2017/apr/07/the-city-le-corbusier-built-inside-chandigarh-in-pictures , accessed 20 April 2018. The purpose behind the creation of Chandigarh was to relocate all the governmental buildings to the new capital, which would represent the spirit of the independent nation of India. The reasons for designing the project of the new city were not only practical, such as the lack of an existing city that would make a decent location for the new capital, but mostly metaphorical. Chandigarh was created as a city that would help the Indian nation recover from the painful events of colonialism. Its seemingly ahistorical design was created as a tribute to the new, modern nation, liberated from its traumas. However, Nehru’s desire for the creation of a city completely detached from its national history, was not entirely fulfilled. Chandigarh, although designed as ‘modern’, still resembles the past. In his project, Le Corbusier applied 17 modernist designs, but he blended them with Indian history and tradition. Moreover, in the design of Chandigarh he also applied Western histories, i.e. Basilica of Constantine. Therefore, Chandigarh can not be perceived as entirely ‘modern’, as understood through Western discourse. Chandigarh appears as a heterotopic location which does not belong to the East nor the West, and neither to the present nor the past. 18 Bibliography 1. Bhabha,H., ​ The Location of Culture​, London, 2004. 2. Bhatt, S.C., Bhargava, G., ​Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories​, New Delhi, 2006. 3. Burke, J., ‘Le Corbusier's Indian masterpiece Chandigarh is stripped for parts’ in ​The Guardian (2011), available on www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2011/mar/07/chandigarh-le-corbusier-heritage-site​, accessed 21 April 2018. 4. Celik, Z., ‘Le Corbusier, Orientalism, Colonialism’ in ​Assemblage​, no.17 (1992), pp. 58-77. 5. Crinson, M., ​Modern Architecture and the End of Empire​, London, 2003. 6. Curtis, W., ​Le Corbusier: Ideas and Forms​, London, 1986. 7. Evenson, E., ​Chandigarh​, Berkeley, 1966. 8. Evenson, N., ​The Indian Metropolis: A View Toward the West​, New Haven, 1989. 9. Fynn, S., ​Chandigarh Revealed: Le Corbusier's City Today​, New York, 2017. 10. 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