Methodology

Methodology / Dress History / Historiography Barthes, R. 2006. The Language of Fashion. Oxford, Berg. Roland Barthes, widely regarded as one of the most subtle and perceptive critics of the 20th Century, was particularly fascinated by fashion and clothing. The Language of Fashion brings together all Barthes’ untranslated writings on fashion. It presents a set of essays revealing the breadth and insight of Barthes’ long engagement with the history of clothes. The essays range from closely argued essays laying down the foundations for a structural and semiological analysis of clothing to a critical analysis of the significance of gemstones and jewellery, from an exploration of how the contrasting styles of Courrges and Chanel replayed the clash between ancient and modern to a discussion of the meaning of hippy style in Morocco, and from the nature of desire to the role of the dandy and colour in fashion. Breward, C. 1998. ‘Cultures, identities, histories: fashioning a cultural approach to dress’, Fashion Theory, 2(4), 301-313. Part of a special issue on methodology. Research in historical dress was applied to art historical studies in British academia during the post war period. The dating of clothing and its representation in paintings was seen as a useful tool for authentication and general connoisseurship. The emphasis on creating linear chronologies and stylistic progressions has to some extent influenced the nature of fashion history writing since. Various approaches have been adopted since the late 1970s establishment of new art historical thinking, in which social and political contexts were prioritized over concerns of authorship and connoisseurial value. The arising debates undoubtedly challenged assumptions that had originally underpinned the serious study of fashion. Many of the defining aspects of new art historical approaches, which drew on ideas from Marxism, feminism, psychoanalysis and structuralism or semiotics, encouraged debates incorporating problems of social identity, the body, gender and appearance/representation. Breward concludes that the cultural studies slant often makes dress historians defensive. It is a field full of disagreements, as it is so difficult to reach a consensus on what the study of culture actually entails. An interdisciplinary area where certain methods have converged, it allows us to understand cultural phenomena and social relationships that were not accessible through other disciplines, thus enriching our knowledge of fashion, which has always played a central role in cultural and social processes. Breward, C. 2008. ‘Between the museum and the academy: fashion research and its constituencies’, Fashion Theory, 12(1), 83-93. This article takes a personal perspective on the shifting relationship between fashion research generated in the British higher education sector and in the museum context over the past ten years. It identifies the impact of new interdisciplinary approaches and funding opportunities and argues for the positive benefits of collaboration between the two professional fields The article reflects on the author’s experience of working on three distinct exhibition projects at different styles of institution and indicates how the curatorial process enriches and is enriched by a reflexive understanding of research. Burman, B. and Turbin, C. eds. 2003. Material Strategies: Dress and Gender in Historical Perspective. London, Blackwell. Gordenker, E. E. S. 1999. ‘Is the history of dress marginal? Some thoughts on costume in seventeenth-century painting’, Fashion Theory, 3(2), 219-240. This article introduces some of the problems and challenges facing the historian of dress when looking at Dutch and Flemish art. It addresses three specific examples of seventeenth-century paintings in which the costume has been overlooked, misinterpreted or misunderstood: a servant’s costume in The ‘Kitchen Maid’ by Joachim Wtewael, Anthony van Dyck’s portrayal of male dress; the painter’s attire in Johannes Vermeer’s ‘Art of Painting’. In each case, the discussion not only deals with surviving garments, but with their representation and an awareness of how they would have been worn. In doing so, the importance, as well as some of the pitfalls, of writing about past fashions emerge. Jarvis, A. 2009. ‘Reflections on the development of the study of dress history and of costume curatorship: a case study of Anne Buck OBE’, Costume, 43, 127-137. On 12 May 2007, almost exactly two years after her death, the Costume Society held an Anne Buck Memorial Study Day in London entitled ‘Studying Four Hundred Years of Fashion’. This paper was written and delivered as the introduction to the Study Day. It attempted, through an examination of Anne Buck’s work as curator of a costume collection, in particular as Keeper of the Gallery of English Costume, Manchester, from 1947 to 1972, to assess her outstanding contribution to the study of dress history and to the development and use of dress collections in museums; and to consider her legacy to historians and curators today, thirty-five years after her retirement. McNeil, P. ed. 2008. Fashion: Critical and Primary Sources. Oxford Berg. McNeil, P. 2008. ‘‘We’re not in the fashion business’: fashion in the museum and the academy’, Fashion Theory, 12(1), 65-81. This article examines relationships between the museum fashion exhibit, viewing publics, and historians. It takes as a case study ‘AngloMania: Tradition and Transgression in British Fashion’, held at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, May 3 – September 4 2006, as an example of a possibly new type of exhibition merging art-historical research with contemporary styling and viewing practices. Palmer, A. 1997. ‘New directions: fashion history studies and research in North America and England’, Fashion Theory, 1(3), 297-312. Voids in fashion scholarship can be partly explained by the fact that the study of dress often carries negative associations. The traditional study of dress history has been largely based on old art-historical methods of stylistic analysis, without integrating this with economic or social history. A contributing factor is that there is little formal academic training that addresses fashion or costume history; and fashion has to fight to gain recognition as a legitimate area of study. The article compares the teaching of fashion history in England and North America, and Palmer uses some sample case studies to illustrate the validity of employing a multidisciplinary methodology that is based on material culture. She concludes that material culture analysis has to be set within a broader academic framework and not just be for its own sake. Liaison with scholars in other areas should be encouraged, as it is through cross-disciplinary interaction that more dynamic research can be pursued. Palmer, A. 2008. ‘Untouchable: creating desire and knowledge in museum costume and textile exhibitions’, Fashion Theory, 12(1), 31-63. This article examines various intellectual and physical challenges of exhibiting costumes and textiles in European and North American museum settings where artifacts cannot be handled or physically experienced by visitors. It describes different museological and commercial solutions and suggests reasons for the various approaches taken to collections and on-going rotating displays. It also describes the author’s own experiences with costume and textile displays in different institutions in the USA and Canada since the 1980s. Rexford, N., Cunnington, P., et al. 1988. ‘Forum: research and publication’, Dress, 14, 68-82. A panel discussion on research in costume history and its publication, at the Costume Society of America’s meeting in Cincinnati, 1988. Ribeiro, A. 1994. ‘Antiquarian attitudes – some early studies in the history of dress’, Costume, 28, 60-70. Based on a paper, ‘Antiquarians and the history of dress: from Randle Holme to J R Planché’, given in September 1992 at the Anglo-Dutch conference on Textile History held at Tilburg, on ‘Social Aspects of Textiles and Clothing’. Ribeiro, A. 1998. ‘Re-fashioning art: some visual approaches to the study of the history of dress’, Fashion Theory, 2(4), 315-325. Part of a special issue on methodology. This article argues that a study of art history is one of the key approaches to the study of dress history. A knowledge of art history provides an essential ‘databank of images’ through which we can access and visualize clothing. It is through art that we can best perceive the changes in dress and appearance that define fashion; this cannot be evidenced as easily in extant garments or written documents. There are close links between dress and art. Both are non-verbal languages and both are social and visual experiences, both private and public. They record and interpret aspects of human life, and provide valuable testimony to the culture, manners and vision of the times in which they exist. Steele, V. 1998. ‘A museum of fashion is more than a clothes-bag’, Fashion Theory, 2(4), 327-335. Part of a special issue on methodology. One of the most valuable methodologies used to study fashion history is the interpretation of objects, as it provides unique insights into the historic and aesthetic development of fashion. A specific methodology for this was devised by Jules Prown, and articulated in the Winterthur Portfolio. In this article Steele attempts to explain Prown’s methodology which comprises three sequential stages: description, deduction, and speculation. She also describes E. McClung Fleming’s model for artefact study as it supplements Prown’s approach. Steele illustrates Prown’s approach by describing how she used it to study a woman’s dress in the collection of the Wadsworth Atheneum in Hartford, Connecticut. She then uses the methodological approaches to justify fashion museums. Steele concludes that the interpretation of objects, also called material culture methodology, can provide a powerful tool to address the problems that frequently beset fashion museum exhibitions – whether antiquarian or superficial. Styles, J. 1998. ‘Dress in history: reflections on a contested terrain’, Fashion Theory, 2(4), 383-389. Part of a special issue on methodology. This article is concerned with the difficulties, conceptual and methodological, of reinserting dress into history. The author reflects on the tensions between object-based and other modes of scholarship that have dogged the history of fashion and dress. These tensions are strong and intractable, most obviously because they often reflect professional divisions between those who study surviving garments and accessories (museums) and those who study dress through images and words (higher education). Styles concludes that what is required is a new self-consciousness about the range of issues that the history of dress now embraces. It is now a point of intersection for scholars from a variety of disciplinary backgrounds, and this is what underpins its respectability. Fashion requires a commitment to a mode of enquiry combining elements of both conceptual and empirical work – and a willingness to monitor and reflect on other approaches. Tarrant, N. E. A. 1996. ‘The portrait, the artist and the costume historian’, Dress, 22, 69-77. The author reflects on the use of portraits by the costume historian, with particular reference to Allan Ramsey’s work. Tarrant, N. E. A. 1999. ‘The real thing: the study of original garments in Britain since 1947’, Costume, 33, 12-22. This is a revised version of the paper given in July 1997 at the Fiftieth Anniversary Conference for the opening of the Gallery of English Costume at Platt Hall, Manchester, in 1947. It is dedicated to the Gallery’s first Keeper, Anne M Buck, in anticipation of her ninetieth birthday. Taylor, L. 1998. ‘Doing the laundry? A reassessment of object-based dress history’, Fashion Theory, 2(4), 337-358. Part of a special issue on methodology. This article outlines the disputes and debates that have taken place within the field of dress history in Europe and North America over the last twenty years, set in the context of the ‘Great Divide’ between object-centred, curatorial/collector based approaches and ‘academic’ social/economic/cultural studies methodologies. This divide was seen to (mostly) male social/economic historians, who place no value on close assessment of garments or fabrics, set against (mostly) women curators and collectors, who see close object study as the crucial basis of any social/consumption analysis. A second context is the history of the reluctance, within museums of decorative art, such as the Victoria and Albert Museum to accept fashionable Euro-American dress within their collections. In a riposte to these attitudes, discussion lays out the significant, pioneering collecting/curatorial role undertaken internationally by women dress historians, such as Doris Langley Moore, Anne Buck, Yvonne Deslandres and Madelaine Delpierre, Irene Lewisjohn, Aline Bernstein and Polaire Weissman in the 1930s-50s, faced, as they usually were, with demeaning nicknames such as the ‘frock girls’. Finally, through an account of recent good practice case studies, this text addressed positive multi-disciplinary developments in the academic and museums worlds apparent by 1997, which, it was argued, were starting to overcoming the negativities of this ‘Great Divide’ between ‘academic’ and object-centred dress history. Taylor, L. 2004. Establishing Dress History. Manchester, Manchester University Press. A study of the historiography of dress and of dress collections in a museum context. Tseëlon, E. 2001. ‘Fashion research and its discontents’, Fashion Theory, 5(4), 435-451. Until recently, fashion has not been seen by Academia as a worthy topic for serious study, as it is in media discourse. Other than in fashion columns, fashion issues feature in ways that underline their perceived triviality. The field of fashion studies exhibits the symptoms that are common to subjects in search of a discipline. This article highlights some of the main disadvantages that characterize research in fashion studies – unfruitful appropriation of the natural science method, misuse of theory, and meta-theoretical confusion – and discusses each in turn. Warwick, A. and Cavallaro, D. 1998. Fashioning the Frame: Boundaries, Dress and the Body. Oxford, Berg. The body has been the focus of much recent critical attention, but the clothed body less so. In answering the need to theorize dress, this book provides an overview of recent scholarship and presents an original theory of what dress means in relation to the body. Identity relies on boundaries to individuate the self. Dress challenges boundaries: it frames the body and serves both to distinguish and connect self and ‘Other’. The authors argue that clothing is, then, both a boundary and not a boundary, that it is ambiguous and produces a complex relation between self and ‘not self’. In examining the role of dress in social structures, the authors argue that clothing can be seen as both restricting and liberating individual and collective identity. In proposing that dress represents ‘a deep surface’, a manifestation of the unconscious at work through apparently superficial phenomena, the book also questions the relationship between surface and depth and counters the notion of dress as disguise or concealment. The concept of the gaze and the role of gender are approached through a discussion of masks and veils. The authors argue that masks and veils paradoxically combine concealment and revelation, ‘truth’ and ‘deception’. Here the body and dress are both seen as forms of absence, with dress concealing not the body, but the absence of the physical body. meth·od·ol·o·gy (mth-dl-j) n. pl.meth·od·ol·o·gies 1. a. A body of practices, procedures, and rules used by those who work in a discipline or engage in an inquiry; a set of working methods: the methodology of genetic studies; a poll marred by faulty methodology. b. The study or theoretical analysis of such working methods. 2. The branch of logic that deals with the general principles of the formation of knowledge. 3. Usage Problem Means, technique, or procedure; method. method·o·logi·cal (mth-d-lj-kl) adj. method·o·logi·cal·ly adv. Usage Note: Methodology can properly refer to the theoretical analysis of the methods appropriate to a field of study or to the body of methods and principles particular to a branch of knowledge. In this sense, one may speak of objections to the methodology of a geographic survey (that is, objections dealing with the appropriateness of the methods used) or of the methodology of modern cognitive psychology (that is, the principles and practices that underlie research in the field). In recent years, however, methodology has been increasingly used as a pretentious substitute for method in scientific and technical contexts, as in The oil company has not yet decided on a methodology for restoring the beaches. People may have taken to this practice by influence of the adjective methodological to mean "pertaining to methods." Methodological may have acquired this meaning because people had already been using the more ordinary adjective methodical to mean "orderly, systematic." But the misuse of methodology obscures an important conceptual distinction between the tools of scientific investigation (properly methods) and the principles that determine how such tools are deployed and interpreted. The American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition copyright ©2000 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Updated in 2009. Published by Houghton Mifflin Company. All rights reserved. methodology [ˌmɛθəˈdɒlədʒɪ] n pl -gies 1. the system of methods and principles used in a particular discipline 2. (Philosophy) the branch of philosophy concerned with the science of method and procedure methodological [ˌmɛθədəˈlɒdʒɪkəl] adj methodologically adv methodologist n Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged© HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003 meth•od•ol•o•gy (ˌmɛθ əˈdɒl ə dʒi) n., pl. -gies. 1. a set or system of methods, principles, and rules used in a given discipline. 2. a branch of pedagogics dealing with analysis of subjects to be taught and of the methods of teaching them. [1790–1800; < New Latin] meth`od•o•log′i•cal (-dlˈɒdʒ ɪ kəl) adj. meth`od•o•log′i•cal•ly, adv. Random House Kernerman Webster's College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved. methodology 1. the science of method or orderly arrangement and classification. 2. any system created to impose order. See also logic. — methodological, adj. See also: Classification 1. the science of method or orderly arrangement and classiflcation. 2. any system created to impose order. See also logic. — methodological, adj. See also: Order and Disorder a division of logic devoted to the application of reasoning to science and philosophy. See also classification; order and disorder. — methodological, adj. Noun 1. methodology - the branch of philosophy that analyzes the principles and procedures of inquiry in a particular discipline methodological analysis epistemology - the philosophical theory of knowledge 2. methodology - the system of methods followed in a particular discipline method - a way of doing something, especially a systematic way; implies an orderly logical arrangement (usually in steps) scientific method - a method of investigation involving observation and theory to test scientific hypotheses RESEARCH METHODOLOGY S. Rajasekar School of Physics, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirapalli – 620 024, Tamilnadu, India_ P. Philominathan Department of Physics, Sri AVVM Pushpam College, Poondi, Thanjavur – 613 503, Tamilnadu, India V. Chinnathambi Department of Physics, AKGS Arts College, Srivaikundam – 628 619, Tamilnadu, India In this manuscript various components of research are listed and briefly discussed. The topics considered in this write-up cover a part of the research methodology paper of Master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) course and Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) course. The manuscript is intended for students and research scholars of science subjects such as mathematics, physics, chemistry, statistics, biology and computer science. Various stages of research are discussed in detail. Special care has been taken to motivate the young researchers to take up challenging problems. Ten assignment works are given. For the benefit of young researchers a short interview with three eminent scientists is included at the end of the manuscript. I. WHAT IS RESEARCH? Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals, nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge. Only through research is it possible to make progress in a field. Research is done with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning. Research is in fact ubiquitous. For example, we know that cigarette smoking is injurious to health; heroine is addictive; cow dung is a useful source of biogas; malaria is due to the virus protozoan plasmodium; AIDS (Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome) is due to the virus HIV (Human Immuno deficiency Virus). How did we know all these? We became aware of all these information only through research. More precisely, it seeks predictions of events and explanations, relationships and theories for them. A. What are the Objectives of Research? The prime objectives of research are (1) to discover new facts (2) to verify and test important facts _Electronic address: rajasekar@physics.bdu.ac.in (3) to analyse an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect relationship (4) to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand scientific and nonscientific problems (5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and (6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life. B. What Makes People do Research? This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless there are some motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following: (1) to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like better employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc. (2) to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or university or become a scientist in a research institution (3) to get a research position in countries like U.S.A., Canada, Germany, England, Japan, Australia, etc. and settle there (4) to solve the unsolved and challenging problems (5) to get joy of doing some creative work (6) to acquire respectability (7) to get recognition (8) curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event 2 (9) curiosity to find new things (10) to serve the society by solving social problems. Some students undertake research without any aim possibly because of not being able to think of anything else to do. Such students can also become good researchers by motivating themselves toward a respectable goal. In the words of Prof.P.Balaram [Current Science, 87(2004)1319] Ph.D. degree is a passport to a research career. The Ph.D. period often influence a research scholar to make or to break in a scientific career. C. Importance of Research Research is important both in scientific and nonscientific fields. In our life new problems, events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically implementable solutions and suggestions are required for tackling new problems that arise. Scientists have to undertake research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and applications. Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena. Some important avenues for research are: (1) A research problem refers to a difficulty which a researcher or a scientific community or an industry or a government organization or a society experiences. It may be a theoretical or a practical situation. It calls for a thorough understanding and possible solution. (2) Research on existing theories and concepts help us identify the range and applications of them. (3) It is the fountain of knowledge and provide guidelines for solving problems. (4) Research provides basis for many government policies. For example, research on the needs and desires of the people and on the availability of revenues to meet the needs helps a government to prepare a budget. (5) It is important in industry and business for higher gain and productivity and to improve the quality of products. (6) Mathematical and logical research on business and industry optimizes the problems in them. (7) It leads to the identification and characterization of new materials, new living things, new stars, etc. (8) Only through research can inventions be made; for example, new and novel phenomena and processes such as superconductivity and cloning have been discovered only through research. (9) Social research helps find answers to social problems. They explain social phenomena and seek solution to social problems. (10) Research leads to a new style of life and makes it delightful and glorious . Emphasizing the importance of research Louis Pasteur said “I beseech you to take interest in these sacred domains called laboratories. Ask that there be more and that they be adorned for these are the temples of the future, wealth and well-being. It is here that humanity will learn to read progress and individual harmony in the works of nature, while humanity’s own works are all too often those of babarism, fanaticism and destruction.” (Louis Paster – article by S.Mahanti, Dream 2047, p.29–34 (May 2003)). In order to know what it means to do research one may read scientific autobiographies like Richard Feynmann’s “Surely you are joking, Mr.Feynmann!”, Jim Watson’s “The double helix”, “Science as a way of life – A biography of C.N.R. Rao” by Mohan Sundararajan, etc. II. RESEARCH METHODS AND RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Is there any difference between research methods and research methodology? Research methods are the various procedures, schemes, algorithms, etc. used in research. All the methods used by a researcher during a research study are termed as research methods. They are essentially planned, scientific and value-neutral. They include theoretical procedures, experimental studies, numerical schemes, statistical approaches, etc. Research methods help us collect samples, data and find a solution to a problem. Particularly, scientific research methods call for explanations based on collected facts, measurements and observations and not on reasoning alone. They accept only those explanations which can be verified by experiments. Research methodology is a systematic way to solve a problem. It is a science of studying how research is to be carried out. Essentially, the procedures by which researchers go about their work of describing, explaining and predicting phenomena are called research methodology. It is also defined as the study of methods by which knowledge is gained. Its aim is to give the work plan of research. A. Importance of Research Methodology 3 in Research Study It is necessary for a researcher to design a methodology for the problem chosen. One should note that even if the method considered in two problems are same the methodology may be different. It is important for the researcher to know not only the researchmethods necessary for the research under taken but also the methodology. For example, a researcher not only needs to know how to calculate mean, variance and distribution function for a set of data, how to find a solution of a physical system described by mathematical model, how to determine the roots of algebraic equations and how to apply a particular method but also need to know (i) which is a suitable method for the chosen problem?, (ii) what is the order of accuracy of the result of a method?, (iii) what is the efficiency of the method? and so on. Consideration of these aspects constitute a research methodology. To understand the difference between research methods and methodology let us consider the problem of finding the roots of the quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0. (1) The formulas often used for calculating the roots of eq.(1) are x+ = −b + pb2 − 4ac 2a , (2) x− = −b − pb2 − 4ac 2a · (3) These formulas are, however, p inaccurate when |b| _ b2 − 4ac. The equivalent formulas are x+ = −2c b + pb2 − 4ac , (4) x− = −2c b − pb2 − 4ac . (5) When |b| _ pb2 − 4ac one must proceed with caution to avoid loss of precision. If b > 0, then x+ should be computed with the formula given by eq.(2) and x− should be computed with the formula given by eq.(3). If b < 0 then x+ should be evaluated using eq.(4) and x− should be evaluated using eq.(5). Here the two formulas constitute the method of finding roots of the equation of the form given by eq.(1). If you use the formulas given by eqs.(4– 5) instead of the formulas given by eqs.(2–3) (often used and familiar to us) to compute the roots then you should clearly explain why the formulas in eqs.(4–5) were chosen and why the other formulas given by eqs.(2–3) were not considered. This is what we mean by a research methodology. That is, research methodology tells you which method or formula or algorithm has to be used out of the various existing methods or formulas or algorithms. More precisely, research methods help us get a solution to a problem. On the other hand, research methodology is concerned with the explanation of the following: (1) Why is a particular research study undertaken? (2) How did one formulate a research problem? (3) What types of data were collected? (4) What particular method has been used? (5) Why was a particular technique of analysis of data used? The study of research methods gives training to apply them to a problem. The study of research methodology provides us the necessary training in choosing methods, materials, scientific tools and training in techniques relevant for the problem chosen. Assignment: (1) List out at least 10 methods which you have learned in your UG and PG courses and write their purpose or application. (2) Distinguish between research methods and research techniques. (3) Distinguish between research methods and research methodology with an example of your own choice. III. TYPES OF RESEARCH Research is broadly classified into two main classes: 1. Fundamental or basic research 2. Applied research A. Basic Research Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and reasons for occurrence of a particular event or process or phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure science are termed as basic research. Basic researches some times may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the basis for many applied research. Researchers working on applied research have to make use of the outcomes of basic research and explore the utility of them. Research on improving a theory or a method is also referred as fundamental research. For example, suppose 4 a theory is applicable to a system provided the system satisfies certain specific conditions. Modifying the theory to apply it to a general situation is a basic research. Attempts to find answers to the following questions actually form basic research. Why are materials like that? What they are? How does a crystal melt? Why is sound produced when water is heated? Why do we feel difficult when walking on seashore? Why are birds arrange them in ‘>’ shape when flying in a group? Fundamental research leads to a new theory or a new property of matter or even the existence of a new matter, the knowledge of which has not been known or reported earlier. For example, fundamental research on (1) astronomy may lead to identification of new planets or stars in our galaxy, (2) elementary particles results in identification of new particles, (3) complex functions may leads to new patterns or new properties associated with them, (4) differential equations results in new types of solutions or new properties of solutions not known so far. (5) chemical reactions leads to development of new compounds, new properties of chemicals, mechanism of chemicals reactions, etc. (6) medicinal chemistry leads to an understanding of physiological action of various chemicals and drugs. (7) structure, contents and functioning of various parts of human body helps us identify the basis for certain diseases. B. Applied Research In an applied research one solves certain problems employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most of the experimental research, case studies and interdisciplinary research are essentially applied research. Applied research is helpful for basic research. A research, the outcome of which has immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a research is of practical use to current activity. For example, research on social problems have immediate use. Applied research is concerned with actual life research such as research on increasing efficiency of a machine, increasing gain factor of production of a material, pollution control, preparing vaccination for a disease, etc. Obviously, they have immediate potential applications. Some of the differences between basic and applied research are summarized in table 1.1. Thus, the central aim of applied research is to find a solution for a practical problem which warrants solution for immediate use, whereas basic research is directed towards finding information that has broad base of applications and thus add new information to the already existing scientific knowledge. C. Quantitative and Qualitative Methods The basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or even both. Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. Here a process is expressed or described in terms of one or more quantities. Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon involving quality. It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and uses words. Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the situation. We measure and weigh things in the study of substance or structure. Can we measure or weigh patterns? We cannot measure or weigh patterns. But to study patterns we must map a configuration of relationships. That is, structures involve quantities whereas patterns involve qualities. If one wishes to investigate why certain data are random then it is a qualitative research. If the aim is to study how random the data is, what is the mean, variance and distribution function then it becomes quantitative. Explaining how digestion of food takes place in our body is a qualitative description. It does not involve any numbers or data and quantities. The detection of a particular compound is a qualitative analysis. This can be done by carrying out physical or chemical tests. Determination of exact amount of a par- TABLE I: Differences between basic and applied researches. Basic research Applied research Seeks generalization Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to generalize Aims at basic processes Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference Attempts to explain why things happen Tries to say how things can be changed Tries to get all the facts Tries to correct the facts which are problematic Reports in technical language of the topic Reports in common language 5 ticular compound present in a volume is essentially quantitative analysis. This can be done by volumetric, gravimetric and calorimetric methods or instrumental methods. Experimental and simulation studies are generally quantitative research. D. Other Types of Research Other types of research include action research (fact findings to improve the quality of action in the social world), explanatory research (searching explanations for events and phenomena, for example finding answer to the question why are the things like what they are?), exploratory research (getting more information on a topic) and comparative research (obtaining similarities and differences between events, methods, techniques, etc.). For discussion on these types of research see refs.[1–3]. Assignment: (4) List out at least 10 theoretical and applied methods which you have learned in your UG, PG courses and write their features in two or three sentences. (5) Write at least 20 questions in your subject the investigation of which forms basic research. Then point out how many of them have already been solved and how many were found in applications. (6) Distinguish between theory and experiment. (7) Write a note on importance of theory in basic and applied researches. (8) Bring out the importance of inter-disciplinary research. IV. VARIOUS STAGES OF A RESEARCH Whenever a scientific problem is to be solved there are several important steps to follow. The problem must be stated clearly, including any simplifying assumptions. Then develop a mathematical statement of the problem. This process may involve use of one or more mathematical procedures. Frequently, more advanced text books or review articles will be needed to learn about the techniques and procedures. Next, the results have to be interpreted to arrive at a decision. This will require experience and an understanding of the situation in which the problem is embedded. A general set of sequential components of research is the following: 1. Selection of a research topic 2. Definition of a research problem 3. Literature survey and reference collection 4. Assessment of current status of the topic chosen 5. Formulation of hypotheses 6. Research design 7. Actual investigation 8. Data analysis 9. Interpretation of result 10. Report In the following sections the above mentioned various stages of research are discussed in detail. V. SELECTION OF A RESEARCH TOPIC AND PROBLEM The starting point of a research is the selection of a research topic and problem. Identifying a suitable topic for work is one of the most difficult parts of a research. Before choosing a research topic and a problem the young researchers should keep the following points in mind. • Topic should be suitable for research. • The researcher should have interest in it. • Topic should not be chosen by compulsion from some one else. Topic and problem can be fixed in consultation with the research supervisor. In our country often research supervisors suggest a topic and state a problem in broad view. The researcher has to narrow it and define it in operational form. One may ask: Is it necessary that the topic of a Ph.D. should be different from M.Sc. project and M.Phil dissertation? The answer is not necessary. If a student is able to get a supervisor working in his M.Sc.project or M.Phil dissertation topic then it would save about six months in the duration of his Ph.D. work. A. Can a Researcher Choose a Topic by himself? A youngster interested to start a research career wishes to know whether he/she has freedom to do research in the topic of his/her own interest. The style of research in our country and various other factors like the infrastructure facility available in a research institute, time limit, our commitment to family and social set up hardly allow a young researcher to choose a topic by himself for his PG project, M.Phil. dissertation and Ph.D. thesis. However, many research supervisors give complete freedom to choose a problem in the topic suggested by him for a Ph.D. research work. Because the normal time duration of M.Phil dissertation is about 6-8 months, it is better to work on the problem suggested by the supervisor. 6 If a student wishes to do research (for Ph.D. degree) with fellowship then he cannot have freedom to choose a topic since he has to work on a project the goal of which is already defined by the project investigator. On the other hand, after choosing a topic of his own interest he has to find a supervisor who is working in that topic or interested in guiding him. In this case one has severe limitation in our country for getting a fellowship and for registering for a research degree. If a student is not very much particular about the fellowship he has a chance to do research in the topic of his own interest. A researcher in India after two years of research experience with few (two or more) publications can apply for a senior research fellowship (SRF) to CSIR (Council for Scientific and Industrial Research) (for details see its and other relevant web sites). He can prepare a project under the direction of his Ph.D. supervisor which can lead to a fellowship. For details see the book ‘How to get scholarships, Fellows and Stipends’ by K.D.Kalaskar (Sultan Chand and Sons, New Delhi)) Considering the above, a researcher should make-up his mind so as to work in a topic suggested by the supervisor. However, a research problem may be chosen by a researcher himself. This has several advantages. In this case • the researcher can pursue his/her own interest to the farthest limits, • there is an opportunity to spend a long time on something that is a continuous source of his pleasure and • the results would prove better in terms of the growth of the investigator and the quality of the work. If the researcher is not interested in the topic and problem assigned to him but is working on it because of supervisor’s compulsion, then he will not be able to face and overcome the obstacles which come at every stage in research. B. Identification of a Research Topic and Problems Some sources of identification of a research topic and problems are the following: (1) Theory of one’s own interest (2) Daily problems (3) Technological changes (4) Recent trends (5) Unexplored areas (6) Discussion with experts and research supervisor Suppose one is interested in the theory of nonlinear differential equations or quasicrystals or fullerenes. Then he can find a research guide who is working in this field or interested to work in this field and then choose a problem for research. Our daily experiences and day to affairs have rich openings on various aspects such as the daunting tasks of AIDS, air pollution, afforestation and deforestation, child labor, problems of aged citizens, etc. Technology in various branches of science, business and marketing changes rapidly. For example, in the early years, computers were built in larger size with vacuum tubes. Then evolution in electronic technology replaced them by integrated circuits. Recently, scientists have developed quantum dots. Now the interest is in developing efficient, super-fast and miniaturized computing machine made up of material whose particle size of the order of nano (10−9) meter or even smaller. Similarly, another fascinating topic namely, thin film has multiple fields of applications. Recent research on fullerenes resulted in many practical applications. Choosing a topic of current interest or recent trends provides bright and promising opportunities for young researchers to get post-doctoral fellowship, position in leading institutions in our nation and abroad. In each subject there are several topics which are not explored in detail even though the topic was considered by scientists long time ago. For example, string theory, quantum computing, nano particles, quantum cloning and quantum cryptography and gene immunology are fascinating topics and are in preliminary stages. The supervisors and experts are working on one or few fields over a long time and they are the specialists in the field considered and well versed with the development and current status of the field. Therefore, a young researcher can make use of their expertise in knowing various possible problems in the topic the solving of which provide better opportunities in all aspects. Don’t choose a topic simply because it is fascinating. In choosing a topic one should take care of the possibility of data collection, quantity of gain, breadth of the topic and so on. The topic should not be too narrow. For example, the study of social status and sexual life of married couples of same sex (man-man marriage and woman-woman marriage) is interesting and of social relevance. But the intricate problem here is that we do not find enough number of such couples to study. This is a very narrow topic at the same time we will not get enough data to analyze. On the other hand, the changes in the social life of aravanis in recent times is a valuable social problem and one can collect enough data. 7 Further, one has to study advanced level text books and latest research articles to identify problems. Is it necessary to know all the methods, techniques, concepts in a research topic before identifying a problem for investigation? This is not necessary. After learning some fundamental concepts, recent developments and current trends of a topic, one can identify a problem for research. Then he can learn the tools necessary to solve it. C. Definition and Formulation of a Problem After identifying a problem, in order to solve it, it has to be defined and formulated properly. For this purpose, one can execute the following. • State the problem in questionnaire form or in an equivalent form • Specify the problem in detail and in precise terms • List the assumptions made • Remove the ambiguities, if any, in the statement of the problem • Examine the feasibility of a particular solution Defining the problem is more important than its solution. It is a crucial part of the research study and should not be defined in hurry. D. How do you Asses Whether the Defined Problem as a Good Problem? A problem in its first definition may not be appealing. It may require redefinition in order to make it a good problem. That is, by suitably rewording or reformulating the chosen problem, it can be made to meet the criteria of a good problem. This is also important to solve the problem successfully. To this end a researcher can ask a series of questions on the problem. Some are: (1) Is the problem really interesting to him and to the scientific community? (2) Is the problem significant to the present status of the topic? (3) Is there sufficient supervision/guidance? (4) Can the problem be solved in the required time frame? (5) Are the necessary equipment, adequate library and computational facilities, etc. available? If the answers to these questions are satisfactory, then the researcher can initiate work on the chosen problem. In addition, discuss the problem with the current doctoral students and obtain the scope of the problem and other related aspects. E. How are these Questions Important and Relevant to a Researcher? The researcher should be interested on the problem for the reasons mentioned earlier at the end of the Sec.(VA). The problem should also be interesting to the supervisor so that the researcher can get the necessary guidance from him. Otherwise sometimes the researcher may find it very difficult to convince the supervisor on the importance and significance of the results obtained. More importantly, the problem must be of interest to scientific community and society. If not then the researcher will find great difficulty to publish his findings in reputed journals and convince the funding agency. Next, the status of the problem, particularly the importance of finding its solution should match with the current status of the field. But, if the problem investigated is of not much interest to science and society then publications will become useless to him in his research career. Specifically, they cannot help earn a post-doctoral fellowship, respectability and a permanent job in an institution. A researcher needs proper guidance and encouragement from the supervisor regularly. This is important for keeping the research in right track, to overcome the difficulties which come at various states of research and also to have moral support. A researcher should avoid working under the guidance of a supervisor having serious health problems or family problems, committed his large time to administrative work and strong involvement in nonacademic matters. Another important point is that before initiating research work on a problem, a rough estimate on costs and time required to complete the work must be made. A problem suitable for Ph.D. degree should not be taken for M.Phil. degree. A problem suitable for M.Phil. degree is not appropriate for Master’s degree. If the collection of data or resources or related information takes many years, then the topic is obviously inappropriate for Ph.D. degree. Controversial subjects should not be chosen. Problems that are too narrow or too vague should be avoided. Finally, the researcher must make sure that the necessary experimental setup and materials to perform the actual research work are available in the department where research work is to be carried out. Without these, if the researcher initiated the work and has gone through certain stages of work or spent one or two years in the problem then in order to complete the task he would be forced to buy the materials and instruments from his personal savings. 8 VI. LITERATURE SURVEY After defining a problem, the researcher has to do literature survey connected with the problem. Literature survey is a collection of research publications, books and other documents related to the defined problem. It is very essential to know whether the defined problem has already been solved, status of the problem, techniques that are useful to investigate the problem and other related details. One can survey (1) the journals which publish abstracts of papers published in various journals, (2) review articles related to the topic chosen, (3) journals which publish research articles, (4) advanced level books on the chosen topic, (5) proceedings of conferences, workshops, etc., (6) reprint/preprint collections available with the supervisor and nearby experts working on the topic chosen and (7) Internet. A free e-print service provider for physics, mathematics, nonlinear science, computer science and biology is http://www.arXiv.org No research shall be complete unless we make use of the knowledge available in books, journals and internet. Review of the literature in the area of research is a preliminary step before attempting to plan the study. Literature survey helps us (1) sharpen the problem, reformulate it or even leads to defining other closely related problems, (2) get proper understanding of the problem chosen, (3) acquire proper theoretical and practical knowledge to investigate the problem, (4) show how the problem under study relates to the previous research studies and (5) know whether the proposed problem had already been solved. Through survey one can collect relevant information about the problem. Clarity of ideas can be acquired through study of literature. Apart from literature directly connected with the problem, the literature that is connected with similar problems is also useful. It helps formulate the problem in a clear-cut way. A review on past work helps us know the outcome of those investigations where similar problems were solved. It can help us design methodology for the present work. We can also explore the vital links with the various trends and phases in the chosen topic and familiarize with characteristic precepts, concepts and interpretations. Further, it can help us formulate a satisfactory structure of the research proposal. Because a Ph.D. thesis or M.Phil. dissertation is a study in depth aiming contribution to knowledge, a careful check should be made to ensure that the proposed study has not previously been performed and reported. The earlier studies which are relevant to the problem chosen should be carefully studied. Ignorance of prior studies may lead to a researcher duplicating a work already carried out by another researcher. A good library will be of great help to a researcher at this stage. One can visit nearby research institutions and avail the library facility. Review the latest research papers and Ph.D. theses to acquire recent trends. VII. REFERENCE COLLECTION As soon as the survey of available source begins, the preparation and collection of references preferably with annotations should be undertaken. The important source of reference collection is the journal called Current Contents. This comes once in a week. It is available in hard copy and also in floppy diskette. Almost all the universities and institutions buy this document. It contains the table of content of research journals and magazines in various subjects. It provides title of articles, names of the authors, date of publication, volume number, starting page number of the articles and address of the author from whom one can get the reprint of the article. If the title of the article indicates that the paper is in the topic of one’s interest then he can take a copy of the article if the journal is available in the local library. Otherwise, he can get it from a document delivery service centre. For example, in India INFLIBNET provides this service through six institutions. For details visit the following web sites: http://web.inflibnet.ac.in/index.isp http://www.iisc.ernet.in/ http://www.jnu.ac.in/ One can obtain a research article on paying the charge fixed by the INFLIBNET provided the particular journal is available in it. Articles can also be purchased from the publishers on payment. Alternatively, reprint of the article can be had from the author by sending a letter/card to the author. A format of reprint request card is shown below. 9 ————————————————————————- Front Side Place : Date : Dear Dr./Prof. I would appreciate in receiving a reprint of your following article and other related preprints/reprints, if any. Title : Journal name : Volume number : Page(s) : Year : With kind regards, Yours sincerely, ————————————————————————- ————————————————————————- Reverse Side Sender’s Address To ————————————————————————- The references from current contents or from journals can be noted on a separate card or sheet with the names of authors and the title of the paper/book, etc. For a research paper, its title, journal name, volume number, starting and ending pages of it and year of publication should be noted. For a book, publisher’s name, place of publication and year of publication must be written down. Instead of cards, nowadays one can store the details of the references in computers and have a copy in two or three floppy diskette. The references can be classified. For example, sources dealing with theory, dealing with experimental techniques, concerned with numerical methods, etc. can be grouped separately. The copies of the research articles can also be classified and bounded. Cross references (that is research articles or books referred or cited in a research report) should also be collected and classified. These also provide useful information. VIII. ASSESSING THE CURRENT STATUS Generally, it is not difficult to know the current status of research work in a specific topic. The current status of the chosen topic can be identified by reading the relevant journals and the recent papers, discussions in conferences, seminars and workshops. One can perform inquiries at several important places known for research on proposed topic. A study of the current literature in the chosen topic explores the current status of it. More importantly, review articles point out not only to the basic aspects and features of the topic concerned but also give a brief account of its present status. For this purpose, one can survey the journals (for a topic in physics) such as Physics Reports, Reviews ofModern Physics, Physical Review Letters, Review section of American Journal of Physics, Pramana, Current Science and Proceedings of recently conducted seminars and conferences, etc. Rapid communication and Letter sections of international journals publish articles which are very important and fall in recent trends category. There are several areas in internet where the papers just submitted to journals are placed. One can download such articles free of cost. These articles indicate the recent trends in a particular topic. Some relevant web sites are listed below. http://arxiv.org/ http://www.ams.org/global-preprints/ http://front.math.ucdavis.edu/math.AG/ http://www.ma.utexas.edu/mp−arc/ http://www.clifford.org/anonftp/clf-alg/ IX. HYPOTHESIS Researchers do not carry out work without any aim or expectation. Research is not of doing something and presenting what is done. Every research problem is undertaken aiming at certain outcomes. That is, before starting actual work such as performing an experiment or theoretical calculation or numerical analysis, we expect certain outcomes from the study. The expectations form the hypothesis. Hypotheses are scientifically reasonable predictions. They are often stated in terms of if-then sentences in certain logical forms. A hypothesis should provide what we expect to find in the chosen research problem. In other words, the expected or proposed solutions based on available data and tentative explanations constitute the hypothesis. Hypothesizing is done only after survey of relevant literature and learning the present status of the field of research. It can be formulated based on previous research and observation. To formulate a hypothesis the researcher should acquire enough knowledge in the topic of research and a reasonably deep insight about the problem. In formulating a hypothesis construct operational definitions of variables in the research problem. Hypothesis is due to an intelligent guess or for inspiration which is to be tested in the research work rigorously through appropriate methodology. Testing of hypothesis leads to explanation of the associated phenomenon or event. What are the criteria of a good hypothesis? An hy10 pothesis should have conceptual clarity and a theoretical orientation. Further, it should be testable. It should be stated in a suitable way so that it can be tested by investigation. A hypothesis made initially may become incorrect when the data obtained are analyzed. In this case it has to be revised. It is important to state the hypothesis of a research problem in a research report. We note that if a hypothesis withstands the experiments and provides the required facts to make it acceptable, not only to the researchers performing the experiments but to others doing other experiments then when sufficiently reinforced by continual verification the hypothesis may become a theory [4]. X. MODE OF APPROACH Mode of approach means the manner in which research is to be carried out. It should keep the researcher on the right track and make him complete the planned work successfully. One should sharpen the thinking and focus attention on the more important aspects of the study. The scientific thinking must be more formal, strict, empirical and specific and more over goal oriented. In order to make steady progress in research and to asses the progress of the research work, a research design is very helpful. A. Research Design For a scientific research one has to prepare a research design. It should indicate the various approaches to be used in solving the research problem, sources and information related to the problem and, time frame and the cost budget. Essentially, the research design creates the foundation of the entire research work. The design will help perform the chosen task easily and in a systematic way. Once the research design is completed the actual work can be initiated. The first step in the actual work is to learn the facts pertaining to the problem. Particularly, theoretical methods, numerical techniques, experimental techniques and other relevant data and tools necessary for the present study have to be collected and learnt. It is not necessary that every theory, technique and information in the topic of research is useful for a particular problem. A researcher has to identify and select materials which are useful to the present work. Further, the validity and utility of the information gathered should be tested before using them. Scientific research is based on certain mathematical, numerical and experimental methods. These sources have to be properly studied and judged before applying them to the problem of interest. B. What are the Possible Approaches to be Followed by a Researcher? A researcher can exercise the following aspects regularly throughout the research carrier. These will keep him in right track and tightly bind him to the research activity. (1) Discussion with the supervisor, experts and colleagues about the research work, particularly, the problem and its origin, objectives and difficulties faced in the execution of the problem. (2) Reading of the latest research papers, relevant theories and possible application to the present problem and to overcome the difficulties faced. (3) Review of the work reported on the similar problems. (4) Theoretical calculations, setting-up of an experimental setup, numerical calculations, computer programs, preparation of graphs, tables and other relevant work related to the research should be done by a new researcher by himself without assistance from others. (5) Have a practice of periodically writing the work done, results obtained and steps followed in a work. This is important because sometime we may think that a particular aspect will be a center piece of the problem under investigation. But once we make a write-up of it, this aspect or part of it may turn out to be only of marginal importance. In fact, writing of the progress of the work will help us better understand our work and forms a solid basis for further progress. It also points out to the gaps in our work. (6) Participation and presentation of research findings in national and international meetings. These regular practices provide useful information like new ideas and can help the researcher (1) sharpen and focus attention, (2) confining to the formulation and (3) in the interpretation of the solution obtained. Each and every bit of task related to the research work has to be done by the researcher. A young researcher should not do the entire work in collaboration with others. The researcher is advised to perform all the works starting from identification of the problem to report preparation by himself under the guidance of supervisor. Particularly, collaboration work with experts and senior researcher may be avoided. (However, he can discuss his problems with them). This is important to acquire (1) enough knowledge, 11 (2) confidence and (3) training to carry out research independently after getting Ph.D. degree. Part of the dissertation should demonstrate the researcher’s originality. The dissertation should reflect the efforts of a single researcher. Keeping this in mind one should avoid collaboration as far as possible in the young stage. Prof.Balaram wrote “There are guides who have no interest in their discipline and leave their wards to their own devices. Surprisingly, it is these guides who produce some of the most resilient scientists, self-taught men and women, who develop great confidence in their abilities” [Current Science 87(2004)1319]. A researcher should provide new information to the supervisor and avoid getting information from the supervisor. He should learn and collect many information related to his work. He should definitely avoid embarrassing the supervisor and senior researchers by asking doubts often. A good supervisor or a senior researcher does not provide answers to your questions but gives appropriate directions to clarify your doubts. During the course of research, one should focus the mind mainly on the research work. Don’t allow the personal life to interfere with research. Diversions to other activities should be avoided. Further, after working about say three years and when the time has came to consolidate the work done so far a researcher should not start to work on an entirely new topic. He can complete his thesis work and then work on new topic of his interest. The woman Nobel Laureaute Maria Goeppert Mayer said,“If you love science, all you really want is to keep on working.” A researcher must be clear in his thoughts. He should know what he has to find out. In order to perform the work successfully the researcher should acquire proper training in the techniques of research. The training equips the researcher with the requirements of the task. Further, he should be clear about his task and possess intellectual insight. Then only he is able to find out the facts that would help him in his task. Make your research a part of your every day life. Think about your research work in background mode, ideas will come out even when you are seeing a movie, traveling to a place, sight-seeing and shopping. Ted Gottfried the author of biography of Fermi said, “Scientific research is like sports. To score, the focus of the scientist must be narrow and intense to the exclusion of everything else around him. The batter never takes his eye off the ball, the hoopster shuts out everything but the court, the golfer always follows through–and the scientist focuses his complete attention on the task at hand and nothing else.” A young researcher should also have persistence, tolerance and self-control over the unpleasant outcomes such as not getting an expected result, not recognized by the supervisor and rejection of a research article from a journal. “Don’t get dejected when your paper is rejected”– Prof.P.R. Subramanian. Some times one may complete a piece of work within a week which he might have expected to finish it in a month time. On the other hand, at some times one may get stuck with a particular part of the work and unable to make a substantial progress, say, in three months. Avoid feeling remorseful at these circumstances and maintain a high tolerance for poor results. Remember that failure and wasted works are also part of the research career. Young researchers should create good relationship with their seniors and colleagues. C. Getting Joy in Doing Research To get a deep insight on the topic or the research problem a suggestion from Dr K.P.N. Murthy is that one should enjoy doing research and approach it as an entertainment and a mode of getting happiness. In the research career one should treat doing research as a way of life and not just a job. In order to achieve a goal in the research one has to work harder. The harder one works the happier one feels. One need not try to conquer the world of science. One has to come in order to work and to find his way. Initially one must work hard. Getting insise a research topic or a research career is like a pushing a door. It is hard to push the door open. But when one understand it it is ver interesting and joyful. Chandrasekhar pointed out that in the arts and literature quality of work improves with age and experience while in science generally it does not. He felt that it is because of doing science in isolation, very narrow focus on immediate goals and insufficient broad in interests and pursuits. In order to continue research even at old age one should develop the spirit of experiencing the beauty of science. The spirit of experiencing it is not restricted to only the great scientists. Chandrasekhar said, “This is no more than the joys of creativity are restricted to a fortunate few. They are instead accessible to each one of us provided we are attuned to the perspective of strangeness in the proportion and conformity of the parts of one another and to the whole. And there is satisfaction also be gained from harmoniously organizing the domain of the science with order, pattern and coherence.” Professor G.Baskaran stressed that group discussion is indeed an important component of doing research particularly in small and isolated institutions. He said, “One cannot explain the power and usefulness of group discussions – it has to be experienced. When I was a student at the Indian Institute of Science (I.I.Sc.), Bangalore, a few of us students of physics from I.I.Sc. and National Aeronautic Laboratory were introduced to this joyous 12 experience by S.K.Rangarajan, formerly a Professor of chemistry, in whose house we assembled virtually every evening to discuss such grave issues as amorphous solids and renormalization group. Each one of the discussants has made a mark” (Current Science, 75(1998)pp.1262). For a discussion on emotional factors see, for example, ref.[5]. D. Crucial Stage of Ph.D The crucial period for a research scholar doing full-time Ph.D. is the last year of the programme. During this period one should concentrate on completing the final work for his thesis and writing of various chapters. Generally, a research fellowship is for fixed period of time, it might have ended before the final year of the Ph.D. programme. We have noticed many scholars converted the full-time programme into part-time and joined in a job. If the job is a permanent one then one can join in the job and continue the research. But joining in a temporary position may highly change his research career. This would delay the submission of his Ph.D. thesis and he may loose the interest in research. There are examples with students capable of getting a post doctoral fellowship but failed to even continuing the research. Therefore, a research scholar should have a clear plan of what he has to do in the next few years or so. Even if the fellowship is not available at the finishing stage of Ph.D. thesis we have friends and our well wishers to give financial support to some extend. XI. ACTUAL INVESTIGATION One should aim at doing good research. What is good research? Which universities and research institutions in your country do the best research? How do you distinguish the great from a good, a black hole from an ordinary hole, a superconductor from a normal conductor, supernova from mere stars, poles from ordinary points, linear differential equations from nonlinear ones? To distinguish one from another we can use various quantities. Like wise, to identify the best from among the available, one can use various quantities to measure the quality of them. For example, to identify a best research the quality of the one’s research publications, number of citations of his publications, projects completed, books published, contribution made to the science and society, etc. can be considered. Research work (1) published in reputed international journals, (2) cited by other researchers working in the same or similar topic and (3) which added new information to the existing knowledge on a topic are generally considered as good. At the beginning of research career a young researcher should aim to produce a good research, particularly, his research findings should distinguish him from other researchers and keep him one among the top young researchers in the nation. In order to encourage young researchers and motivate them to produce high quality of research work awards are given yearly by certain academic and research bodies in each country. For example, in India, Indian President Award, Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Young Scientist Award and many other awards are given every year. Some Conference/ Seminar organizers also provide best papers award to young scientists. A. What are the Points to be Kept in Mind in Order to do a Good Research? Actual investigation should lead to original contribution and not involve objectionable duplication. Originality is the basic credit point of any research. Therefore, actual investigation must be directed towards obtaining novel results. A researcher should develop new ideas and obtain deep insight into the problem in order to get novel and new results which are the characteristics of a good research. Trivial analysis should not be performed. Recently introduced theories, experimental techniques and numerical algorithms have to be used instead of outdated methods. Before applying any method, the researcher should familiarize with the features of the method. It it not worthwhile to continue in a particular direction if the results are trivial and less informative. If similar problems have already been done, for instance about ten years ago, then a researcher should not consider it as important but could treat it as a useful exercise. We do research by conceiving information and openings from important research papers published by other researchers in the topic of interest and continue in our own directions. The work of some other researchers might have formed the basis of our research. Similarly, our research outcomes should help other researchers. That is, the work should be such that it should invite others to read and more importantly use it and cite it in their research work. Our work should lead to recognition and respect. It should fetch joy and benefits others and as well as us. As pointed out by ProfessorM.Lakshmanan, generally, each and every work of us may not produce novelty, but if we work towards novelty then definitely in the course 13 of research there would come a fascinating and exciting breakthrough. The researcher must remember that ideally in the course of a research study, there should be constant interaction between initial hypothesis, observation and theoretical concepts. It is exactly in this area of interaction between theoretical orientation and observation that opportunities for originality and creativity lie. Actual work finally leads to results and conclusions of the research undertaken. For proper results it is necessary that various steps of the work should be scientifically taken and should not have any flaw. Developed computer algorithms must be tested for the problems for which results are already available. The work should be free from mistakes. Important analysis must be repeated in order to make sure that they are free from human mistakes. Professor Devanathan suggests that a researcher should check, recheck, cross check, ... all the results before submitting a research paper to a journal . Before beginning to write a part of the work done and the results obtained check and recheck the data and the results by repeating the experiment, rerunning the programs and going through the theoretical derivations and arguments. When analysing the data, appropriate statistical tools have to be employed. The number of data used, units of the data, error bars and other necessary details must be noted in the graphs. As many statistical tools as possible should be used. Appropriate curve fitting can be done. Necessary interpretations on the results of statistical analysis have to be made. In the case of development or modification of a theory and proposal of a new method the assumptions made, basic idea, and calculations should be clearly stated and analyzed. Various special cases of the theory or method must be identified. The validity, efficiency and applicability of it must be demonstrated with examples. Merits and demerits have to be identified. Comparison of the proposed method with the already existing and widely used similar methods should be performed. In any experimental work, mere measurement of certain quantities is not enough. The interpretation of the kind of data observed and explanation for the particular pattern must be made. On the basis of interpretation general principles underlying the process can be formulated. One has to check whether the generalizations are universal and true under different conditions. Some common errors made in research are [6] (1) Selective observation (2) Inaccurate observation (3) Over-generalization (4) Made-up information (5) Ex post facto hypothesizing (6) Illogical reasoning (7) Ego involvement in understanding (8) Premature closure of inquiry (9) Mystification For a very interesting discussion on the above aspects with examples refer to the ref.[6] XII. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION The next step after performing the actual research work on the chosen problem is preparation of results and conclusion of the performed work. Predictions, results and conclusion are ultimate goals of the research performed. There are two indispensable rules of modern research. The freedom of creative imagination necessarily subjected to rigorous experimentation. In the beginning any experimental research on a specific subject, imagination should give wings to the thought. At the time of concluding and interpreting the facts that were collected observation, the imagination should be dominated and prevailed over by concrete results of experiments. Proper interpretations of the results must be made. Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the actual research work. It also means drawing of conclusion. Conclusion is based on the study performed. It would bring out relations and processes that underlie the findings. The utility of the outcome of the research greatly lie on proper interpretations and is the hardest part of solving a scientific problem. Interpretation of results is important because it (1) links the present work to the previous, (2) leads to identification of future problems, (3) opens new avenues of intellectual adventure and stimulates the quest for more knowledge, (4) makes others understand the significance of the research findings and (5) often suggests a possible experimental verification. The basic rule in preparing results and conclusion is to give all the evidences relevant to the research problem and its solution. A bare statement of the findings are not enough. Their implications must be pointed out. Discuss your answers to the following questions with experts: (1) Are the supporting evidences sufficient?, and if not, What to do? 14 (2) How many pieces of evidence are required? Instead of producing all, is it possible to restrict to one or two pieces of evidence? If so, what are they? and (3) Why are they sufficient? and so on. Such directions can help us minimize work and the quantity of presentation of the report. Do not rely on a bogus evidence which would increase the chances of errors. The investigator has to give suggestions. These should be practical and based on logic, reasoning and fact. The suggestions should be such that they can be actually implemented. The researcher should not be in hurry while preparing the results and conclusion. After preparing them the researcher may ask the following questions: (1) Are the quantitative and qualitative analysis performed adequate for the conclusion drawn? (2) Are the results and conclusion general? (3) Are the results and conclusion valid only for the particular situation considered in the present work? (4) Is the conclusion too broad considering the analysis performed? (5) Is any evidence which weaken the conclusion omitted? The results and conclusion prepared can be revised based on the answers to the above questions. Each and every statement made in the results and conclusion sections must be based on evidence obtained from theoretical or experimental analysis. Baseless statements should never be made. Assignment: (9) For each of the following topics write at least two questions, the answers to which must be available in the respective topics. For example, for the topic, “introduction”, a relevant question is ‘why am I doing it?’. (i) Introduction, (ii) Review of a research topic, (iii) Methodology, (iv) Research design, (v) Results, (vi) Discussion and (vii) Conclusion. XIII. PRESENTING A SCIENTIFIC SEMINAR-ORAL REPORT A. What is an Oral Report? What are the Importance of an Oral Report? Presentation of one’s research work in a scientific meeting is an oral report . Scientific meetings include conference, seminar, symposium, workshop, departmental weekly seminar, etc. Researchers in certain research institutions not only discuss their own work but also have discussions on very recently reported work of other scientists. An oral report provides a bridge between the researcher and audience and offers greater scope to the researcher for explaining the actual work performed, its outcome and significance. It also leads to a better understanding of the findings and their implications. In an oral report, the researcher can present the results and interpretations which are not clearly understood by him and may request the experts in the audience to give their opinions and suggestions. Oral reporting at a conference or a seminar requires more elaborate preparation than the written report. A Nobel prize winner Paul Dirac said, “A person first gets a new idea and he wonders very much whether this idea will be right or wrong. He is very anxious about it, and any feature in the new idea which differs from the old established ideas is a source of anxiety to him. Whereas some one else who hears about this work and talks it up doesn’t have this anxiety, an anxiety to preserve the correctness of the basic idea at all costs, and without having this anxiety he is not so disturbed by the contradiction and is able to face up to it and see what it really means.” B. Points to be Remembered in Preparing an Oral Report Before starting the preparation of an oral report, an outline can be drawn based on the time duration of the report and the quality of the audience. Departmental seminar is usually 45 minutes duration. In other meetings time duration is fixed by the organizer based on the number of days of the meeting, number of speakers and the status of a speaker. For a long time report, that is, 45–60 minute presentation, one may have enough time to (1) introduce the topic, (2) discuss the definition of the problem, (3) describe the method and technique employed, (4) give technical details, and (5) present results and conclusion. Consequently, these aspects can be prepared in detail. For a 15–30 minute, oral presentation one cannot find enough time to discuss complete details of the work. In this case less informative material must be dropped. Methods and techniques used can be presented very briefly without going into technical details. Much time should be reserved for results, conclusion and further directions. 15 Prepare a write-up of the oral presentation. It is a good and very helpful practice to write the talk before presenting it orally. Then evaluate the written material. Ask: (1) Why should the audience listen to your presentation? (2) Is the presentation match with the standard of the audience? Revise the presentation until you get convincing answer to the above two questions. Oral presentation can be made effective and attractive by using modern visual devises, power-points, slides and transparency sheets. Title of the report, author’s name, plan of the presentation, very important content of it and conclusion can be printed in the slides or sheets possibly point by point with bold and sufficiently large size letters. Important formulas, equations, tables, figures and photographs can be prepared using transparency sheets or slides. Slides and transparency sheets should not contain running matters. Researcher should not simply read the content in the sheets. That is, the descriptive portion of the report should not be prepared on the sheets. An abstract or a short write-up of the presentation may be circulated to the participants of the meeting. Sophisticated softwares developed for preparing the text on transparency sheets/slides are available in internet and can be freely downloaded. In order to make the presentation, more lively, the researcher could use multimedia. Nowadays, the use of power-point of Microsoft Windows is common. It is an easy and compact utility software especially for preparing classroom presentations. The following are the web sites from which one could download the software at free of cost: http://www.office.microsoft.com/downloads http://www.lb.com/download-free-power-pointpresentation. org One could use the audio aspects also to facilitate his presentation in a better way. While presenting the topic, the researcher should strictly follow the class room teaching methodology. For example, one should allow interaction; don’t restrict the vision of the audience of a particular section, don’t forget to modulate the voice as and when required and don’t violate the time frame. One or two rehearsals of the report in the presence of colleagues, supervisor and collaborators can be exercised in order to (1) complete the presentation within the allotted time, (2) improve the quality of presentation and (3) maintain the fluency of the presentation. During a long presentation, the speaker can stop the presentation at various stages, seek comments and questions from the audience and then proceed. This will make the presentation attractive, interesting and also allow the audience to clarify their doubts so that they can follow the work. XIV. ART OF WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER AND THESIS A. What is a Research Report? Research reporting is an oral or a written presentation of important and useful aspects of the research work done. Scientific writing, a thesis or a paper, is intended to present clearly the purpose and outcome of a specific research investigation. It is the last but a major part of the research study. A report helps the researcher get feedback from other researchers and experts working in the same field. It also evaluates the success and originality of the researcher’s work. Without a report, a research study is incomplete and of no use. A report essentially conveys the outcome of a research work to interested persons. Brilliant work and most striking findings are of little value if they are not effectively communicated to the scientific world. As pointed out by Eli Maor, in academic matters the iron rule is publish or perish. Some times delaying a publication of a result one would lose his claim. B. What are Research Paper or Article and Ph.D Thesis or Dissertation? A research paper is a report published in a journal or magazine or conference proceedings, etc. Whereas a Ph.D. dissertation is a report of the entire work done by a researcher to a university or an institution for the award of the degree of doctor of philosophy. A Ph.D. dissertation is a lengthy, original and substantial document. It should contain original contributions. Essentially, the role of a Ph.D. dissertation is to demonstrate the research person’s original thinking and contribution to the topic of research. It should also clearly point out the research competence of the researcher in his research field. M.Phil. dissertation is designed as a practice for Ph.D. thesis. It will help the researcher learn and understand the present status of the topic and make him capable of working at the Ph.D. level. The work done for an M.Phil. dissertation need not be publishable in journals. C. Why Should a Researcher Report his Findings? Every research investigation is carried out with certain objectives. The outcome of a research work may 16 add new information to a theory or may have technological applications. Sometimes the researcher may not be aware of the theoretical development on practical applications. His research results may be useful to another research problem. Some other researchers may be working or planning to work on the same or similar type of research work. Several researchers doing same research work is a waste of time unless the solution of the problem is needed very urgently and is of great use. Repetition of a work should be avoided by the research community as much as possible. Unless a researcher reports his work to the world, the correctness, validity and originality of the work is under a question mark. The outcome of a research work will become known to the scientific community only through publications. In view of these, it is important to report a work in an appropriate journal or magazine and in scientific meetings like conferences, seminars and symposia. Identify possible publications of your research findings after making a considerable progress on a research problem. Don’t be confined with a mere Ph.D. degree. D. Characteristics of a Good Report A good report results from slow, pain taking and accurate inductive work. To attract a reader, the reading matter of a report should be clear and interesting. It should not be obscure and dull. The write-up should be logical, clear and concise. The basic quality or characteristics of a good scientific report/paper and thesis are the following: (1) good presentation (2) good organization of various chapters/sections (3) accuracy (4) clarity (5) free from contradictions and confusion. Further, a Ph.D. dissertation should be a formal and should have high level of scholarship. XV. OUTLINE OF A REPORT What are the considerations to be kept in mind while preparing a report? (1) First, an outline of a report has to be prepared. (2) A sketch of what information to be conveyed must be made. (3) Then, one can write down various topics, subtopics to be considered and what material to be presented in them. (4) The sentences which are to be expanded, reworded and verified for its validity can be marked. The outline of the report helps us concentrate on (i) what is to be presented, (ii) logical relationships between different parts of the report, (iii) smooth flow of the content and (iv) continuity in the presentation. The outline can be discussed with the guide, collaborators, colleagues and experts in local area. Based on their comments the structure of the report can be modified. A three stage preparation of a report is generally done by researchers. They are (1) First draft – Rough draft . (2) Second draft – Rewriting and polishing of the rough draft . (3) Third draft – Writing the final draft . A. First Draft In this stage a researcher can write (1) what has been done in the research study, (2) procedure, method, theory and technique applied, (3) technical difficulties faced and how they are overcome, (4) broad findings and (5) concluding remarks. Tables and charts can be typeset using computer and kept separately in order to avoid rewriting them. Conclusion should be precise, clear and objective. Further directions may be pointed out. Since a research paper is identified by its title it should be brief and not more than above 10-15 words. A subject index of a paper is primarily based on the words in the title. Therefore, few key words which are helpful to classify the paper can be included appropriately in the title. How does a reader decide whether to read the content of a paper or not? Abstract serves the purpose. By reading the abstract a reader would decide whether the content of the paper is useful to him. Therefore, the abstract should have positive information about the content of the paper and summary of the work reported in it. Further, if the abstract has final results and main conclusion of the paper then a reader who has a general interest in the subject can know the outcome of the paper without reading the entire text by referring the abstract itself. 17 B. Second Draft This is the most important and difficult part of the writing. Extreme care must be taken in writing this draft. Unclear points, jargons, weakness of the report have to be identified and revised. Over-generalization of outcomes should be avoided. For example, Hermitian operators have real eigenvalues. Generalizing it as eigenvalues of operators are real or concluding that to have real eigenvalues, operators should be Hermitian are incorrect. Similarly, complex analytic functions satisfy Cauchy–Riemann conditions. It doest not mean that functions satisfying Cauchy–Riemann conditions should be analytic. How do you avoid over-generalization? For some details see, for example, ref.[5]. Attention must be paid to the arguments made, logical flow of work presented, the quality of supporting evidences and conclusion drawn. Do these in each chapter. Don’t do the entire second stage at a single stretch. Give sufficient time between revisions of two consecutive chapters. During the break time think over the revision made in the previous chapter or section. More importantly, grammar must be checked. A careful spell check must be made. Use simple words as far as possible. Indecisive words such as perhaps, somewhat, rather, etc. should be avoided. Usage of some particular words repeatedly, for example, ‘very’, ‘extraordinary’, ‘invariably’ should be avoided. Expressions such as ‘it seems’, ‘there may be’, ‘since’, ‘putting’, etc. should be replaced by appropriate equivalent words. Style, presentation and grammar can be improved by asking your friends, colleagues to read and give their critical comments, suggestions and correct English grammar. In some universities the report is first read by an English teacher. He corrects the grammar and give suggestions. After this only a researcher can submit the thesis. Complicated and lengthy sentences have to be rewritten and broken. Similar sentences or sentences conveying same information must be eliminated. Check whether the words used clearly convey exactly the meaning intended. S. Chandrasekhar said, “I always sought to present my findings in as elegant, even literary, a form as possible. I select some writers in order to learn. For example, I read Henry James or Virginia Woolf, and I don’t simply read the text as a novel; I see how they construct sentences, how they construct paragraphs, how one paragraph goes into another and so on.” (J. Horgan, Current Science, 67 (1994) pp.500-01). Proper references of related work should be included. Trivial matters and obvious conclusion should not be included and if there are such sentences then they should be dropped. C. Third Draft This is the last stage. In this stage, one can concentrate on final touches and finishing. This should be in the direction of making the report weighty, authoritative, attractive and convincing. Similar words and format should be avoided in successive sentences. Make sure that the script clearly shows the originality of the author and importance of the outcome of the study performed. In all the three stages of report preparation one should follow a proper style of writing. Use clear and unadorned English appropriate for the readers. One has to be aware of to whom the research report is intended. The report is not for the supervisor. It is better to avoid the use of personal pronoun. Use of “I” and “the author” should be avoided. Some supervisors like to use “we”. For an interesting fun about the usage of “I” and “we” see p.106 of “Why are things the way they are?” by G. Venkataraman (University Press, Hyderabad, 1992). Both active and passive voice should be used wherever necessary or appropriate. However, when using them one should check whether the meaning is strictly correct. For example, when writing “The experimental results agree with the theory” we must check whether we are strengthening the experimental result or the theory. Care must be taken in using present and past tenses. Use past tense to describe the data collection and work done by others and you. For interpretation, assessments and discussions present tense is appropriate. Between various stages it is advisable to give gap of few days so that one can leisurely think of the manuscript and record how to revise it. This will avoid unnecessary tension and half-hearted write up. XVI. LAYOUT OF A RESEARCH REPORT / PH.D. THESIS / M.PHIL. DISSERTATION The layout of a research report is the list of various parts of the report/thesis. Generally, a research report should consist of the following three components: (1) Preliminary pages (2) Main text (3) End matters A. Preliminary Pages Preliminary pages include title of the report, acknowledgement, certificate page, list of publications and table of contents. Acknowledgements are written to thank those who have helped the researcher during their course of investigation. For a book it is in the form of preface or forward. Acknowledgement should be brief, simple, modest 18 and given only to substantial assistance provided by the guide, head of the department, staff of the department, agencies which provided financial support, collaborators and institutions where part of the work has been carried out. Acknowledgements made for routine participation by members of the researcher’s family, librarian, friends, clerical helpers and god are normally considered superfluous. Acknowledgement should be made at the time of public viva-voce also. There is a chance for a researcher to forget to say acknowledgement at the end of the presentation. To avoid this he may do it at the beginning of the presentation. An important point is to consider the tone to adopt so that you sound genuine. Every research report should have an abstract . It is a necessary part of any scientific and nonscientific research report. In a research article it appears next to the author’s name and affiliation. In the case of Ph.D. thesis, before its submission an elaborated abstract of the thesis called synopsis has to be submitted to the institution where registration for Ph.D. degree is made. Abstract and synopsis convey the essence and brief details about the report. It should contain a very short statement of the problem, methodology and procedures adapted in the work and results of the study in a very condensed form. The abstract can act as a tool to control the flow of ideas in the thesis. It can help you link in a logical way the reasons for the research and aims of the work. It should contain answers to the questions: What was done in the project? Why is it of interest? How was it done? What were the outcomes of the work done? What is the significance of the results? One should emphasize the original contribution in the abstract. The abstract of a Ph.D. thesis will be about three or four pages. Table of contents gives title of the chapters, section headings, title of appendices and their page numbers. In the certificate page the researcher should undertake that the work reported has not been reported earlier by him or by any one else for the award of any degree. It should also mention that the work is done by the researcher and not copied from any other source. All the preliminary pages should be numbered with lower-case roman numbers. B. Main Text The main text presents the details of the research work and results. This part of the thesis should provide the following, about the research work: (1) Introduction (2) Actual research work performed and the findings (3) Summary and conclusion. 1. Introduction The purpose of the introduction is to give a brief outline of the field of research. In this part one can bring clearly the importance of the field and the current status of it. It should contain an overview of the problem, its importance, statements about the hypothesis or specific questions to be explored. This is followed by a preview of the scheme of the following chapters, that is an outline of plan of the work. Here, aim of each of the chapters and their contents can be briefly stated. Related and relevant work done by others must be pointed out. Various concepts and definitions of scientific and technical terms necessary for understanding the research work undertaken are to be defined and explained. Details of statistical tools or quantities used in the study can be given in a separate chapter. Irrelevant and less informative materials need not be presented. For example, regular and irregular behaviour of solution of a system or differential equation can be characterized by calculating the statistical tools such as Lyapunov exponents, correlation function, correlation dimension, power spectrum, periodicity of the solution and probability distribution. If the power spectrum is not used in a research work then there is no need to discuss in detail the systematic way of calculating it. Similarly, suppose the effect of noise in a theoretical model equation is studied by including, say, Gaussian random numbers in the simulation. There are many methods available to generate Gaussian random numbers. If the Box–Muller method is used then it can be described. In this case describing other methods, for example, rejection technique is redundant to the present thesis report. The theory and experimental set up used should be clearly described with proper references. Define the technical terms used in the dissertation either by a reference to a previously published definition or by a precise definition. Such a definition should be given only once in the report. The introductory chapter(s) should be prepared in such a way that it should interest the reader in the subject matter of research. It should not be aimless, confused and laking in precision. Introductory part may contain one or two chapters. To be precise, the introductory part should cover the following aspects: (1) Features of the topic (2) Present status of the field (3) Some unsolved problems (4) Statement of the problem undertaken (5) Importance and justification of the present problem 19 (6) Preview of the scheme of the following chapters and their interrelationship Definition of various scientific terms used, and (7) Methodology used. 2. Actual Research Work This is the heart of the research report/thesis. The actual research work undertaken, difficulties faced, technical details, results, conclusion and future direction form the main part of this portion. This part can be presented in a few chapters. Each chapter should contain introduction, research work, results and conclusion. Materials should be organized systematically and presented under appropriate headings and subheadings. First, write the chapters that describe your actual research work. After this, prepare the conclusion and introduction parts. When writing the actual work collect the terms and note down the matter which are to be defined and described in the introduction. As Professor P.R. Subramanian points out, for preparing the Ph.D. thesis report one should not simply copy word by word from his research articles. Even if the content of the thesis is the work reported in his research publications, the student should reword the material without changing the meaning, give much more details, explanations, suggestions and possibly a better reorganization of the content. Wherever possible, the results should be presented in the form of figures, illustrations and tables. They can make the report quite attractive. Tables should be as precise as possible. All the figures should clearly specify the variables of the axes, units used and other necessary information. Figure caption should not be a reproduction of sentences of the text. It must clearly state what it is. Figures should be clearly explained in the text. Data should be fitted to an appropriate mathematical expression. Nowadays, sophisticated softwares are available for curve fitting. After making a curve fit or plotting a set of data, proper explanation for observed variation of the data should be given. A set of data measurement without any analysis and discussion is of no use. Extreme care must be taken in type setting mathematical equations, variables and parameters involved in the study. Italic or Greek letters or mathematical symbols can be used for variables and parameters. For example, x or X should not be used as a variable name. The correct usage is x or X (or typeset in italics). All the equations should be centered and numbered. Vectors should be clearly specified by an arrow over the name or by bold face name. Equations should not be repeated. Jokes or puns should not find a place in the report. Use “correct” or “incorrect” to refer to the results of others. Don’t use the words “bad”, “terrible” and “stupid”. Avoid use of “today”, “modern times”, “soon”, “seems”, “in terms of”, “based on”, “lots of”, “type of”, “something like”, “just about”, “number of”, “probably”, “obviously”, “along with”, “you”, “I”, “hopefully” and “may”. There is no need to mention the circumstances in which the results are obtained. Assignment: (10) Reword/rephrase the following and give the reason for the change: (a) Dinesh and Geethan [1] reported that ... (b) The following algorithm represents a major breakthrough .... (c) Even though the above method is not earthshaking .... (d) Geethan and I obtained .... (e) There is a method to calculate .... (f) The program will use the data after it stored them to a CD ... (g) The method is started by calculating the value of _ .... 3. Conclusion At the end of each of chapter, one can place a brief summary of the outcome of the work presented in that chapter under the heading conclusion. They should be clear and precise. The relevant questions which are still not answered and new questions raised by the work of the present chapter have to be mentioned. Whether the answers to the questions are obtained or not, if obtained in which chapter(s) they are presented should be specified. Mention possible future research. It is important to make a connection between two consecutive chapters either at the end of the first or at the beginning of the second. Chapters should not look like reports of isolated work. There should be a link between consecutive chapters and the link should be clearly brought out. C. End Matters The end part of the report generally consists of references, appendices, computer programs (if they are not easy to develop) and copies of research publications that came out from the research work done. 20 1. Appendices Appendices are supplementary contents which are not placed in the main report in order to keep the continuity of the discussion; however, they are relevant for understanding the particular part of the report. An appendix may present (1) a brief summary of a theory or a numerical method used which can be found elsewhere, (2) a lengthy mathematical derivation or a large set of equations, (3) technical details and (4) a list of values of constants and parameters used in the work. Appendices can be placed at the end of report after references. They should be numbered by capital alphabets. 2. References/Bibliography References or bibliographies are sources consulted. Each reference should contain name(s) of author(s), title of the paper, journal name, volume number of the issue in which the article appeared, starting page number, end page number and year of publication. In the case of a book source its author(s), title, publishers’s name, place of publication, year of publication and edition should be given. Some examples are given below. (1) Suppose the reference is the paper of K. Murali, Sudeshna Sinha and W.L. Ditto with title “Implementation of NOR gate by a chaotic Chua’s circuit” appeared in the journal called ‘International Journal of Bifurcations and Chaos’ in the year 2003, the volume number of corresponding issue is 13 and the starting and ending page numbers of the article are 2669 and 2672 respectively. The above article can be specified as (without mentioning the title of the article) K. Murali, Sudeshna Sinha and W.L. Ditto, Int. J Bifur. and Chaos 13 (2003) 2669–2672. (2) For an article which appeared in a conference proceedings a typical format is given below: R. Harish and K.P.N. Murthy, “Intermittency and multifractality in iterated function systems”. In: Nonlinear Systems. Eds. R. Sahadevan and M. Lakshmanan (Narosa, New Delhi, 2002) pp. 361–371. In the above “Intermittency....” is the title of the report of R. Harish and K.P.N. Murthy. “Nonlinear Systems” is the title of the conference proceedings edited by R. Sahadevan and M. Lakshmanan. The proceeding was published in the year 2002 by Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi. In the proceedings the article appears from the page 361 to page 371. (3) A book can be noted down as, for example T. Kapitaniak, “Controlling Chaos” (Academic Press, San Diego, 1996). (4) A Ph.D. thesis can be referred as shown below: S. Parthasarathy, “On the analytic structure and chaotic dynamics of certain damped driven nonlinear oscillators”. Ph.D. thesis. (Bharathidasan University, 1993, Unpublished). (5) For an unpublished manuscript downloaded from internet one can note down the web site where it is available (see for example the references 5 and 6 of the references section of this manuscript). References can be either in alphabetical order according to author’s name or the order in which they are referred in the report. Make sure that each reference cited in the text is correctly entered into the list of references. Repetition of references in the list should be avoided. D. Typing the Report Typing should conform to the set of requirements of the institution. The thesis should be double line spaced and not more than 25 lines per page. It may be typed on both sides. Chapter heading must be in large size with bold face. Each paragraph should be right margin aligned. Important terms when used first time can be in italic letters and bold face. First word of a sentence should not be an abbreviation. Latest softwares such as LATEX or WORD can be used for thesis, dissertation and report preparation. One could download the software LATEX a free of cost from the web sites: 1) http://www.ctan.org 2) http://www.miktex.org If a report is prepared keeping all the above precautions in mind, there is every likelihood of it becoming useful for proper study. Such report enables the reader to comprehend the data and to determine for himself the validity of the conclusion. Before or immediately after submitting hard copies of the Ph.D. dissertation to a university, show it to your colleagues, teachers, scientists of your department, your parents and friends. XVII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We acknowledge valuable discussion with Professor M. Sivasankaran Nair, Dr K. Balasubramanian and 21 Dr E. Subramanian. We are very grateful to Professor P.R. Subramanian and Dr K.P.N. Murthy for a critical reading of the manuscript and their suggestions which greatly improved the presentation of the manuscript. We are thankful to Prof.V.Devanathan, Dr.K.P.N.Murthy and Dr.Sudeshna Sinha for their suggestions to young researchers. REFERENCES: 1. C. R. Kothari, Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques (Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1985). 2. P. Saravanavel, Research Methodology (Kitab Mahal, Allahabad, 1987). 3. E. M. Phillips and D. S. Pugh, How to get a Ph.D.? (UBSPD, New Delhi, 1993). 4. R. Spangenburg and D. K. Moser, The History of Science in the Eighteenth Century (University Press, Hyderabad, 1999) 5. http://www.cs.indiana.edu/mit.research.how.to/ section3.12.html 6. http://www.camden.rutgers.edu/camden/TEC/ index.html “It seems to me that scientific research should be regarded as a painter regards his art, a poet his poems, and a composer his music.” – Albert A. Michelson. “The average Ph.D. thesis is nothing but transference of bones from one graveyard to another.” – Frank J. Dobie. When I got by B.S., I would be able to “bullshit”... When I got by M.S. I would have “more shit”, and that finally, upon reaching my Ph.D., it would be “piled higher and deeper.” – S. Baker. “Works are of value only if they give rise to better ones.” – Alexander von Humboldt. A Short interview with three eminent scientists. 1. Interview with Professor V. Devanathan What are the requirements for a successful research career? Prof. V. Devanathan : Motivation and innate interest in the topic of his research pursuit are the requirements for a successful research career. If a person takes the research not by compulsion but by his own choice, then he will not feel it as a burden but pursue it as a hobby. “Science is at its best when it is a part of a way of life” - this is the inscription that is found on the foundation stone of Institute of Mathematical Sciences, Chennai and truly describes the correct aptitude for a successful research career. Is it possible for an average student to come up with novel results in a research problem? If so, what kind of approach he should follow? Prof. V. Devanathan : Usually, the assessment of a student as good, average or bad is based on his performance in the examinations. There are some who are good in examinations with a good memory for reproduction but lack in deeper understanding of the subject and originality in approach. There are some who are not so good in examinations but show originality in thinking and follow unconventional or novel approach to the subject. There are a few who are good both in examinations and research. So, an average student with an ability of average performance in the examinations, need not feel different if he has originality in thinking and self-confidence. During a research career, a young researcher may come across disappointing moments like not getting expected results, rejection of a research article from a journal, etc. What kind of mode of approach a researcher should have to face such situations? Prof. V. Devanathan : “Success begets success and failure begets failure.” Success and failure are like two sides of a coin and one is bound to face them alternatively in the course of one’s research career. Elation at the time of success and depression at the time of failure are usually mitigated if one works in collaboration with others. At the time of depression, the co-workers come to the rescue and prop up the sagging spirit. In our manuscript we have mentioned the following: Each and every bit of work has to be done by the researcher. A young researcher should not do the entire work in collaboration with others. The researcher is advised to perform all the work starting from identification of the problem to report preparation by himself under the guidance of supervisor. Please give your views on this point. Prof. V. Devanathan : At the initial stages, the researcher gets the support of the research group in which he is working and he acquires the knowledge of the group effortlessly. The weekly informal seminars, if conducted within the group, will increase the pace of learning and help to clarify and crystallize the problems. This process of learning is made easier if the young researcher works in collaboration with others. This is true both for theoretical and experimental work. At present, the experimental work is almost a team work and successful research group 22 is one in which the group leader allots the specified work to individuals taking into account his ability and expertise. 2. Interview with Dr K.P.N. Murthy The common belief is that research is laborious and painful. Many times you have mentioned: “Doing research is an entertainment.” Please, elaborate on this statement of yours. Dr K.P.N. Murthy : Research not only constitute a discovery or creating a new paradise but also consist of obtaining a personalized understanding of a phenomenon. The struggle that you go through for obtaining an insight into a phenomenon or getting a hold of a nuance and the extessy that you get when you get an understanding of a phenomenon or obtaining a new way of explaining of that phenomenon may be unmatched. This ecstasy is nothing to do with what yours creative have impact on science and society. However, it is the ecstasy of what Einstein got when he created special theory of relativity or Feynman when he created quantum electrodynamics or Raman when he found the so-called Raman lines. It is this makes the research an enterprise of joy. It is that makes a research an entertainment. Is it necessary for a beginner of research to learn all the aspects of theoretical, experimental and numerical techniques involved in a topic before he take-up an actual research problem? Dr K.P.N. Murthy : A certain basic knowledge about physics and mathematics is must for starting research. That is it. Several things you learn doing research. Ignorance of even some of the basic elements is no hindrance for creativity. What is required for doing good research is an enthusiasm, a commitment and willingness to go back to basics and learn them right. Before preparing the final write-up of your research work, you have the practice of discussing the salient features of your findings with a few other researchers. How are you benefited from this? Dr K.P.N. Murthy : After you have completed a piece of work I find it is a good practice to discuss with your colleagues the important findings that you have made. I have always realized that I got a better understanding of what I have done when I tried to explain to my colleagues about my work in a convincing way. The very act of speaking of what you have done removes the cob-webs in your understandings. I always make it to give a seminar on my work to a larger audience before submitting it to a journal for publication. I feel this is a very good and helpful practice. “Enjoy doing research and approach it as an entertainment and a mode of getting happiness.” This is your suggestion to young researchers. Please, brief it for the benefit of youngsters. In what way will this be helpful to a researcher? Dr K.P.N. Murthy : In any human enterprise it is important that one likes what one does. The hard work that you have put in a problem does not tired you and rest be assured if you approach a research problem with joy and you will get a good result. Publication of that result and the acceptance that you get from your colleagues become secondary. The satisfaction that you obtained by doing a job well is a reward by itself. I would say that youngsters should have this attitude towards whatever they do. 3. Interview with Dr Sudeshna Sinha Despite unavoidable tasks a woman of our country has, you have become one of the leading scientists in theoretical physics. What are your advice and suggestions to young researchers particularly to young women researchers? Dr Sudeshna Sinha : It is indeed somewhat harder for women to concentrate on career planning - especially when their children are young. One will have to accept that household tasks will always be there. The hardest thing is not really the number of hours of work one can put in - but the quality of concentration one can achieve. Here discipline comes in. Since women will probably manage to get fewer hours of academic work done every day - they need to really plan the academic work they hope to achieve every single day. So it is most beneficial to discipline oneself into shutting off all daily chores from one’s mind for some hours every day. The point is to learn efficiency – and to appreciate that one does not have the benefit of unlimited time (as others will make justifiable demands on your time – like children). Also women may find it hard to pursue academic work at certain points in their life - but they must preserve the self-confidence and will to return to academic after such times are over. They must realize that in 3–4 decades of working life – a few years is not a big deal. They should not think that a break in career is irreversible. Publishing in reputed journals (like Physical Review Letters) is a dream or prestige for many physicists. What are the secret of yours for regular publications in reputed journals? What type of problems one has to take up for getting published in top-level journals? Dr Sudeshna Sinha : With journals like Physical Review Letters one must remember two things: First, always try and make a case of the general interest of your results. The commonest grounds for rejection is lack of broad interest . This is very subjective of course, and being Indian does not help. But still, at the outset, one should make an attractive statement of the general scope of one’s work (that is, try to answer this hypothetical question: Why should someone not doing research in this exact narrow sub-field be interested in reading my paper). Second point is persistence. Take all criticisms of the paper 23 seriously (and don’t reply needlessly aggressively to the referees) and try to answer all the criticisms. Then resubmit, and don’t give up till the last round! How could a beginner of research come up with novel results? Dr Sudeshna Sinha : Well, I think coming up with novel results is not entirely in one’s hand. There is an element of good fortune here! If the guide of the young researcher can identify a problem that is technically easy to tackle – but whose results can be of considerable potential interest – then there is a good chance for the young researcher to get a novel result. But this is not in the hands of the young researcher, and most often not in the hands of the guide either (as it depends on the subject, timing etc.). In this matter I always tell my students: whether you get a novel result tomorrow is a matter of luck, but in a career spanning several decades, if you work steadily and think deeply about the subject, it is almost assured that at some point or the other, you will get a good idea which will lead to a novel result! To get a deep insight into the topic or problem of research, what are the ways a young researcher can follow? Dr Sudeshna Sinha : One should not just passively read papers or books! One should try to work it all out in some detail. While reading passively one feels one has understood – but only when one is trying to solve something does one gain any real understanding. In fact it is a great idea to look at the title and abstract of a paper, and then ask oneself how one would have attempted to work on such a problem and only then look at what the authors have done. http://arxiv.org/pdf/physics/0601009.pdf http://www.prenhall.com/divisions/ect/app/Diamond_temp/source_files/dia76827_ch05.pdf CHAPTER 5 In the past, fashion merchants were more likely to base their decisions on intuition than the scientific approaches used today. They often purchased what they believed best suited the needs of their customers in terms of style, quality, function, and price. They offered the services they felt were appropriate to their companies and hoped that consumers would patronize them. For many merchants, these methods worked well. They established successful businesses and enjoyed the fruits of their labor. Others were less fortunate and were forced to close their doors because they were unable to attract enough shoppers to make their businesses profitable. Were the successful merchants just luckier than the unsuccessful ones? While unseasoned people may talk about success in terms of luck, educated retailers speak in terms of being prepared to tackle problems, such as focusing in on the right location, designing the appropriate environment, selecting the merchandise assortment that suits the market’s needs, and providing the services required by the clientele. They know that success comes from expertise, not luck! Those who specialize in fashion retailing have more concerns than their counterparts in other retail operations. Not only must they face the various problems associated with retailing in general but they must also deal with the sudden changes in fashion, color, seasons, weather conditions, and so forth. The concept of “survival of the fittest” surely applies to the fashion retailer. To meet the challenges of each day’s problems, most of the major fashion operations, be they the brick-and-mortar giants, off-site ventures, or the multichannel organizations, prepare themselves by studying the marketplace. They must learn as much as possible about consumer behavior, the demographics of trading areas, potential customers’ lifestyles (discussed in the preceding chapter), the types of services that will make their clientele want to return, and what consumers want in terms of price, style, and quality. Many fashion retailers are able to address these and other problems and will continue to do so through a number of retailing research methods employed by in-house research teams and/or external agencies. 97 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research After reading this chapter, you should be able to discuss: ■ Several areas of research used by fashion retailers to solve their problems. ■ The various steps used in the research procedure. ■ The differences between the observation and questionnaire techniques for gathering data. ■ How primary and secondary data are distinguishable from each other. ■ The role that the Internet plays in retail research. ■ Why focus groups have become an important research tool for merchants to use in making merchandising decisions. ■ How questionnaires are developed that help retailers assess their potential markets. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 97 98 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing This chapter addresses research theories and techniques that bring the right information to the world of retailing. THE NATURE OF RETAILING RESEARCH Retailers must make a variety of decisions concerning store location, merchandising, advertising and promotion, customer services, human resources, sales methods, and competition. They must study each area so that they will be able to function in the most profitable manner. The following sections list the types of questions retailers should consider about these areas; some of them relate exclusively to brick-and-mortar establishments and others relate more to off-site or on-site ventures. Store Location 1. What is the size of the trading area? 2. What are the demographics of the trading area? Specifically, what are the inhabitants’ ages, occupations, education levels, and income? 3. What are the competing stores, and can the trading areas support another profitable store? 4. Is the particular type of retail environment appropriate for the intended business? 5. Do the available parking facilities provide a sufficient number of spaces? 6. Is there a public transportation network that will bring shoppers who do not have their own transportation? 7. Are there competing shopping centers that are more conducive to the consumers’ needs? 8. Do compatible stores surround the specific site under consideration? The Consumer 1. Will the consumers’ needs be satisfied with the company’s merchandise assortment? 2. Does the consumer in the proposed trading area have the finances to purchase at the retailer’s price points? 3. Will the store’s hours of operation fit in with the time the consumer wants to shop? 4. Is the target market psychographically segmented to fit the company’s merchandising philosophy? 5. Are the consumer’s shopping habits in line with the merchant’s policies? 6. Are those within a particular sociological group matched to the store’s image? 7. Will the targeted market order from the company’s Web site? 8. Is the catalog’s format appropriate for the intended consumer? Merchandising 1. Does the merchandise mix feature the right brand assortment? 2. Does the store have an assortment of private-label merchandise that will help meet the challenges of competing discounters and off-price organizations? 3. Is the price structure appropriate for the targeted market? 4. At what time during the seasonal periods should new fashion merchandise be introduced to satisfy the shoppers’ needs? 5. How many times in a year must the inventory turn over for the company to be profitable? 6. Should markdowns be handled as the need arises, or should they be taken at more traditional times such as after Christmas? dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 98 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 99 The consumers are key to the success of any retail operation, and their needs must be assessed. (Courtesy of Façonnable USA) The right merchandise mix must be determined to meet consumer needs. (Courtesy of Façonnable USA) 7. Is an automatic markdown system an appropriate vehicle for the company? 8. Would more frequent markdowns help turn the inventory at a faster rate? 9. Should the number of merchandise resources be restricted to just a few or should numerous ones be utilized? dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 99 100 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing Advertising is essential to bringing the company’s name to the shopper. (Courtesy of Lord & Taylor) Advertising and Promotion 1. Which of the available media should be used to advertise the company’s merchandise, image, and special events? 2. What proportion of the promotional budget should be spent on newspaper advertising? 3. Should advertising be purely promotional, or should a percentage be set aside for institutional purposes? 4. How often should catalogs be sent to the customers? 5. What format should be used for special promotions on the company’s Web site? 6. What types of special events should the company utilize to attract customer attention? 7. Should visual merchandising be handled by a professional in-house team, store managers who follow the preplanned approaches designed by a visual team, or by freelance experts? dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 100 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 101 8. Would the store be better served with the use of a traditional format that could be easily changed for the seasons, or would an “environmental” concept be better? Advertising effectiveness is paramount to the success of most retail organizations. To ensure that they make the best use of their advertising budget, many fashion retailers use professional research organizations. One such company is Gallup & Robinson. Fashion Retailing Spotlights GALLUP & ROBINSON Gallup & Robinson (G & R) is an advertising and research firm founded in 1948 by Dr. George Gallup and Dr. Claude Robinson to apply proven research methods to the study of advertising effectiveness. G & R has become a pioneering leader in providing advertisers and ad agencies with a broad range of research capabilities for assessing the effectiveness and efficiency of their advertising. This in turn helps businesses maximize the return on what they spend on advertising. G & R innovated many of the techniques that are now standard in the industry.With an unmatched experience base of more than 200,000 tested ads and commercials the company has become one of the primary resources for communications research. G & R specializes in copy research, tracking, concept testing, medium influences and media research, claims substantiation, spokesperson and icon testing, events and sponsorship research, and custom communications research. Its expertise covers every aspect of advertising, including the comparatively new interactivity that is now becoming popular on many retailers’ Internet Web sites. G & R uses specific tools that they have developed.These include the following: InTeleTest: —Commercials are tested via VCR cassettes among widely dispersed samples in an at-home, inprogram context. In-View: —Invited viewing for obtaining on-air performance. Respondents can be invited to view the show in which the commercial is airing or has been placed into for testing. Magazine Impact Research Service: —The industry standard for magazine ad testing.Ads are tested using an at-home, in-magazine context among widely dispersed samples.The system offers standardized measures with flexible design options.Test ads either naturally appear in the magazine or are inserted for testing. FasTrac: —A pretesting service for television and print ads. It combines qualitative and quantitative analysis in a mall-intercept environment, providing a full range of multiple, in-depth measures. G & R’s leadership and expertise has enabled it to retain its position as one of the world’s major resources for advertising and promotion research. Customer Services 1. Would a staff of personal shoppers increase sales? 2. Should gift-wrapping be free, or should a fee be charged for each package? 3. Should there be a shipping charge for Internet purchases? 4. Would a child-care center be beneficial to overall sales? 5. Would the use of foreign language speaking sales associates help to increase sales? 6. What types of eating facilities would be appropriate? 7. Should there be a charge for alterations? 8. Should expanded shopping hours be instituted once a week to accommodate working men and women? dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 101 102 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing If alterations are important to a company’s sales, their costs must be assessed. (Bill Burlingham, Pearson Education/PH School Division) Human Resources 1. Which sources of personnel provide the best employees? 2. What type of motivational techniques will reduce employee turnover? 3. What training methodologies are most appropriate to teach new employees about company policies? 4. What role should the human resources department play in the selection of employees? 5. Which benefits and services will motivate employees to stay with the company? Sales Methods 1. Is self-service a viable alternative to personal selling? 2. Should employees be assigned to specific merchandise classifications, or should they be placed in the busiest areas as the needs arise? 3. Should computer stations be used in place of sales associates in some areas? dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 102 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 103 Competition 1. Should the company institute a system whereby it can assess competitor’s inventories? 2. Should the number of competitors in a trading area be evaluated before any final location decisions are made? While these are by no means the only questions that confront both on-site and off-site retailers, retailers should address them before making major decisions. THE RESEARCH PROCESS In cases where retailers need to make significant decisions concerning any of the aforementioned areas, they may engage in some type of formal research. Whether the research is conducted by in-house staff, as is the case of the industry’s giants, by an independent organization, or by an outside consultant that works with the company’s own research team, the methodology is the same. The stages and tools that researchers use for retail problems are virtually the same as those used for other business situations. Identifying the Problem The first stage is to identify the problem or area of concern. It might be about determining the consumers’ level of acceptance of private-label merchandise and whether or not the company should change its in-stock percentage of these items. Another area may center around restructuring price points and the potential problems associated with such change. Still another area could be the impact of separating the company’s brick-and-mortar merchandising operations from those used for their off-site ventures such as catalogs and Internet Web sites. Whatever the situation, the problems must be identified before further action may take place. Defining the Problem After the problem is identified generally, it must be defined specifically. For example, if the retailer wanted to concentrate on the price point problem stated in the preceding section, the researchers would need to know if the new restructuring is in the entire store or in a specific department. In the private-label dilemma, the researchers need to know if the retailer is focusing on every department or just menswear. Narrowing the stated problems that have been identified is a necessity so that researchers will be better able to solve the problem. For example, the three problems identified in the previous section could be more specifically stated as follows: 1. Will private labeling be accepted in the shoe department? 2. Would the store benefit from trading up in the dress department, eliminating the lower price points and adding higher ones? 3. Should the merchandising for off-site divisions include children’s wear? Once the problem is narrowly defined, the research team can continue onto the next phase of the study. Gathering Data After specifying the problem, the process moves to the stage of collecting data. This is an extremely important area of the study, because the divisions are based on this information. The data comes from two sources, secondary and primary. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 103 104 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing Before making any buying decisions, the buyer is able to study company records by accessing merchandising data. (Courtesy of Ellen Diamond) SECONDARY DATA Data that is already available to the researcher is classified as secondary data. It may come from such sources as the company’s own records, studies that were conducted by governmental agencies and trade associations, private research organizations, and periodicals. Company Records. A great deal of information is continuously generated by the company’s computer, which keeps track of records such as sales figures for every department and merchandise classification, customer returns, vendor analysis, employee turnover rates, and sales associates’ commissions. Each of these are important when studying retail problems. Governmental Agencies. Various government agencies provide general information that could help retailers researching a problem. At the federal level, for example, the Census Bureau, undertakes periodic studies of the general population, housing, and businesses, all of which provide valuable information for the merchant who is considering expanding the company. The Department of Commerce generates a great deal of timely information on business conditions that is appropriate for retailer use. The monthly Catalog of U.S. Governmental Publications produces a host of materials, free of charge, on topics including regular reports on new home construction, employment figures, and cost-of-living adjustments. By logging onto these governmental agencies’Web sites or by utilizing a search engine such as www.askjeeves.com, researchers can access a wealth of pertinent information. State and local governments provide a great deal of secondary information that researchers can use to find out about business conditions in the retailer’s more immediate trading area. Trade Associations. There are many trade associations that deal with various specific aspects of retailing, such as the Institute of Store Planners, (www.ispo.org), and the International Mass Retail Association, (www.imra.org). However, the National Retail Federation (NRF) www.nrf.com, the retail world’s largest association, provides a wealth of information on every conceivable area that affects retailers and their operational needs. In addition to offering a forum that retailers from around the globe attend to learn about the latest industry dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 104 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 105 innovations, NRF regularly conducts studies that are important to the retail community. NRF members may obtain copies of its research that may help them with their own problems. Private Research Organizations. There are numerous research organizations that engage in original studies, two of which, Gallup & Robinson and the Olinger Group, are discussed in separate spotlights in this chapter. Their Web sites, www.gallup-robinson.com, and www.olingergroup.com, offer a great deal of information on their research services. A.C. Nielsen, another major research firm, specializes in broadcast surveys. By examining its rankings of TV programs in terms of viewership, major fashion retailers are able to assess which programs they should advertise on. Periodicals. Numerous trade papers and magazines regularly engage in research projects that retailers find useful. Fairchild Publications is a leader in fashion news with its Women’s Wear Daily and Daily News Record publications. Almost every issue of these publications provides meaningful information regarding the state of the fashion industry. Stores Magazine, published by NRF, presents studies that can assist retailers with their decision making; Visual Merchandising and Store Design, a monthly periodical published by ST Media Group, is especially important for fashion retailers, because its pages cover every detail of store design and display; and Chain Store Age offers the latest developments in that area of merchandising. In addition to these periodicals that are expressly directed at the retail arena, others, such as the Wall Street Journal and the New York Times, often feature articles that may pertain to retailers and their problems. PRIMARY DATA It’s possible that retailers can get enough information from secondary data to make their decisions. If they require more data specific to their particular situation, however, they need primary data. Primary data are the data that must be obtained firsthand through original research. The information is gathered from customers, potential customers, employees, vendors, market specialists such as resident buying offices, and the media through questionnaires, focus groups, and observations. Though valuable, primary research is often very costly to obtain. Questionnaires. The questionnaire is the method most often used for information gathering. It is more costly than any of the other techniques, but by and large it provides the broadest range of data. Questionnaires may be distributed through the mail, filled out by surveyors as they talk to subjects on the phone, completed by online users, and used with intercept surveys (these different types are discussed in the following sections). The type used depends on such factors as the trading area to be examined, the size of the research team available for gathering the information, specific demographics, finances, and the time allocated for the collection of the data. Each does have advantages and disadvantages. When composing the questionnaire, retailers should consider the following: 1. The length of the questionnaire is important. It should be as brief as possible, rarely occupying more than one page. This is particularly true when mailing the questionnaire to respondents. Many potential respondents will discard the questionnaire if it seems to be too long. 2. The language in the questionnaire must be easy to understand. When reading questionnaires received in the mail or posted on the Internet, respondents might misunderstand ambiguous questions or just pass over them, so the questionnaire results are less than perfect. Even in the case of personal or telephone interviews, during which interviewers can clarify a question, interviewer bias might affect the respondent’s answers. 3. Questions must be arranged sequentially for a smooth transition from one to another. 4. Every question must be specific. When words such as “generally” or “usually” are used, there is too much room for interpretation. The two words might have different meanings to the respondents and could alter the reliability of the research. 5. Wherever possible, the answers should be in a multiple-choice format. This makes the data easy to tabulate and does not necessitate researcher interpretation. Where using open-ended questions, provide sufficient space for the responses. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 105 106 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing Mail Questionnaires. When retailers want to survey a very large market and they think that respondents will require more time to study the questions, they use the mail questionnaire. This format is sometimes favored by researchers because it eliminates interview bias. Only the respondent will answer the questions. Costs are generally lower than those of the telephone and personal interview formats, because they do not require paid surveyors. Another advantage is that respondents can complete questionnaires at their convenience. The mail questionnaire has its disadvantages. The rate of response is very low, with a 10 percent response considered excellent. Some retailers offer incentives, such as a nominal amount paid for a completed form or a company discount on a future purchase; this can significantly improve the return rate. Another problem rests with the respondents’ ability to comprehend the questions. If questions are difficult to understand, and there are no interviewers to explain them, this might result in an incomplete response. Away to avoid this pitfall is to first distribute the questionnaire to a small group and have observers determine if these respondents had any doubts about the questions’ meaning. Telephone Questionnaires. When researchers require an immediate response, the telephone survey is the quickest method. It is also fairly inexpensive, as calls can be made from a central location, thus eliminating the field staff needed to make personal interviews. Confusing questions can be explained, although this necessitates using professional, unbiased interviewers. Telephone surveys also allow for follow-up questions, an advantage not available with mail questionnaires. The use of the telephone also has some shortcomings. Interviewees are often reluctant to divulge information of a personal nature over the phone, which can severely limit the number of respondents. Also, with many families composed of dual earners respondents are either not at home or have less time to participate. Many households employ caller ID, to screen their calls. Answering machines also screen calls, and people only return those calls they deem important. Many researchers use computer-assisted calling systems in place of humans to conduct their surveys. Amachine dials a number and a recorded voice describes the research and asks the questions. Some companies are finding that this reduces the cost of interviews, and if the call is unsuccessful, the machine can quickly dial the next number. On-line Questionnaires. These are excellent means for conducting primary quantitative research, because today’s computer-savvy consumer uses the Internet for a variety of reasons, ranging from business to personal use. On-line questionnaires are interactive and less intrusive than other methods. Their benefits include potentially lower costs, rapid information gathering, and respondent completion at their convenience. The rate of return has been found to be greater than that via the mail. On the downside, the responders to on-line questionnaires tend to be from the younger generations. Those in the senior category, sometimes an age group that researchers want to study, are often computer illiterate. Dr. Don A. Dillman, a major contributor to the development of modern mail, telephone, and Internet survey methods, wrote Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method, in which he addresses the profound changes that have taken place in recent years. It is possible to find other materials he has written by searching his name on the Internet. Intercept Surveys. Intercept surveys employ, trained interviewers who are positioned at preselected public locations. One example of this marketing research method is the mall intercept, in which interviewers, positioned in a shopping mall, approach people and ask them to participate in an intercept survey. The interviewer administers the questionnaire to the participant face-to-face. This method is especially successful in researching problems for the fashion retailers that are the “anchors” in the malls. The advantages of intercept surveys include the interviewers’ ability to mediate the process, ensuring accurate questionnaire completion; control of the number of respondents; the ability of the interviewer to observe the respondents’ facial expressions and body language; and the allowance of time for material sampling. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 106 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 107 Dear Charge Account Customer: In our attempt to bring you the timeliest, fashion-forward apparel and accessories, we have always scouted the domestic and international designer markets. Because we believe that many of you appreciate a fashion collection that includes merchandise exclusive to our company, we are developing a new, private label that is designed with you in mind. We will continue to feature all of your designer favorites and those on the cutting edge of fashion along with the new private-label brand. Since we value your judgment and opinions, we would like you to participate in a survey so that our new concept will reflect your fashion needs. Please complete the following form and return it in the provided self-addressed envelope. If you prefer, you may complete the form on our Web site, www.emery’s.com. In either case, if we receive your response within ten days from today, we will show our appreciation by sending you a 20-percent discount certificate that can be used on your next purchase. We want to assure you that your answers will be kept anonymous. 1. What percentage of your fashion needs are purchased from our company? __________________________ 2. In which department(s) do you buy most of your fashion items? __________________________________ 3. What prices, in the following merchandise classifications, are indicative of your fashion purchases? Dresses ____________ , Sportswear ____________ , Suits ____________ , Coats ____________ , Shoes ____________ , Accessories ____________ . 4. Which designer names do you consider to be your favorites? _____________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ 5. In which product classifications would you favor private labels? __________________________________ 6. Would you like the private-label items to be featured along with the regular designer items in the same department, catalog, or Web site page? _____ yes _____ no 7. Could you suggest a name or names for the private label(s)? _____________________________________ ______________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Are you employed outside of the home? ________ men _______ women 9. What is your approximate family income? Under $25,000 ______ $25,000–$34,999_____ $35,000–$44,999_____ $45,000–$54,999_____ $55,000–$64,999_____ $65,000–$74,999_____ Over $75,000________ 10. How would you describe your family status? _______ single _______ newly married _______ married with small children _______ married with grown children (home) _______ empty nester (still working) _______ empty nester (retired) _______ divorced Figure 5.1 A typical fashion retailer questionnaire. The main disadvantages to this type of survey is that sometimes shoppers are too busy to stop and answer the questions. It is also costly, as the interviewer must be paid. Figure 5.1 is typical of a questionnaire used by fashion retailers. In this case, the targeted group is composed of regular customers who have company charge accounts. The questionnaire is designed to determine the fashion needs of the retailer’s existing clientele. Observations. Although not used as frequently as the other research methodology for data-gathering, the observation technique is valuable in specific circumstances. For example those considering prospective locations for their companies must, in addition to studying the typical demographics of the area, determine if there is a sufficient amount of traffic in a dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 107 108 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing particular locale to warrant opening a brick-and-mortar operation there. A traffic count, is undertaken to study not only the amount of vehicular traffic passing the proposed site but also the types of vehicles and the number of passengers aboard each vehicle. Through these recorded observations, it is possible to draw conclusions about the numbers of passersby and their genders, approximate ages, appearance, and so forth, all of which may be meaningful to the location decision. Another type of observation is the fashion count. Some fashion retailers use this method to record the specific styles worn by a particular group to help determine if their fashion projections are in line with customer preferences. This theory is based upon the premise that if people are wearing certain styles, they will buy more of them. Thus, if a large percentage of women in the study are observed wearing leather boots with high heels, this is a signal to the retailer to purchase more boots. The fashion count is particularly important in times of radical fashion change. When evidence from the past five years, for example, indicates that women are happy with longerlength skirts but the industry promotes micro-minis, the buyers may be uncertain of how to replenish their inventories. While fashion-forward retailers must always embrace the latest styles, they must also be aware of the dangers inherent in overstocking what the industry is trying to promote. Too many times merchants have had to take enormous markdowns when they discover that their customers do not always follow the fashion market’s dictates. By taking fashion counts in such situations, retailers can assess the pulse of the consumer market and follow a safer route. Some of the advantages of both traffic and fashion counts are their low costs, the ease in which they are organized, and the little time it takes to gather the data. It is very important that the recorded information be accurate. Traffic counters most often record such information as the types of vehicles that pass the location, the times they pass, and general descriptions of the occupants. The forms they use enable them to quickly note what they have seen. Fashion counters usually record three or four different style elements worn by a preselected group. They are sent out in teams, with prepared forms in hand, to places where people they wish to count congregate. If high fashion eveningwear is being investigated, for example, they go to the opening night of the Metropolitan Opera at Lincoln Center in New York City. If swimwear is the style, the counters go to the resort beaches during the winter season so that buyers can make proper purchases for the summer season. Whatever the situation, they must target the right place if the results of the count are to be meaningful. Figure 5.2 is an example of a fashion count form for swimwear. It is extremely important that all counters be completely familiar with the styles they are counting. They can be trained by showing them photographs or drawings of the styles so they can master these silhouettes before undertaking the research. Focus Groups. Focus group research has become the most common form of all qualitative research methods, providing in-depth information regarding a particular problem or issue by using group dynamics. By using panels of eight or ten, the way the respondents interact with each other provides more robust information than individual responses. In focus group research, the group is guided by a moderator who openly discusses attitudes and ideas about a particular issue. A focus group assembled for a fashion merchant might discuss the fashion assortments carried by the company, the pros and cons of personal shoppers, types of customer service, and so forth. The selected panel may come from any number of sources, such as regular customers, charge customers, or those selected at random who know the company but do not shop there. These groups are sometimes used on a regular basis such as once a month, or are gathered for only one session. The panel is generally given an incentive to participate such as cash payments or discounts for future purchases. Extremely important to the success of focus group research is the selection of the moderator. Moderators should have a background in industrial psychology and the ability to communicate with the participants. Their role is essential to the process, because they guide the conversation and elicit interaction among the group to generate information that dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 108 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 109 Fashion Count Swimwear Style Fabric Type Color 1 piece “maillot” latex white 1 piece “front panel” spandex black 1 piece “high cut sides” woven cotton red 1 piece “boy leg” knitted yellow 2 piece “bikini” jersey orange 2 piece “string bikini” mylar light blue 2 piece “thong” navy blue 2 piece “boy leg” silver other _______________ other _______________ stripe ____________________ ____________________ print ____________________ ____________________ other _______________ ____________________ Location of Survey: _______________________________________ Instructions to Recorder: Place a circle around one appropriate item in each category. If the swimsuit does not fit a particular item, write a description of it in the spaces provided. Figure 5.2 Fashion count form. will be analyzed. Group dynamics are assessed as participants engage in a discussion with each other. In some setups, the retailer can anonymously observe the focus groups from a viewing room, and forward any additional questions to the moderator during the sessions. The benefits of focus group research include gaining insights into people’s shared perceptions, observing the ways individuals are influenced by others in a group environment, providing direct involvement for the client, and observing participants’ facial expressions and body language. Fashion Retailing Spotlights THE OLINGER GROUP The Olinger Group is a marketing research consulting firm specializing in primary research studies for a host of clients in various industries. Its mission is to provide meaningful, understandable, and usable information. The Olinger Group’s Web site, www.olingergroup.com, provides a wealth of information that shows the firm’s different research techniques and methodology so that potential clients can preview the company and see if it meets their needs. The Olinger Group specializes in branding and positioning research.This is particularly important to many of today’s fashion retailers that are either considering entering the private-label arena or are planning to amend their existing private-brand programs.To this end, the company researches image and awareness analysis, brand strengths and weaknesses, comparison to other products in the marketplace, and perceptions about the brand’s attitudes. Olinger uses the intercept survey method, mail surveys, telephone questionnaires, focus groups, and on-line surveys. For retailers as well as other businesses Olinger offers its expertise in the areas of customer satisfaction, employee satisfaction and behavior, awareness and image research, branding and positioning, market segmentation, consumer behavior analysis, and advertising testing and effectiveness. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 109 110 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing Selecting a Sample When a market is being studied, it is neither necessary nor practical to survey everyone in the market. Aresearch sample, or representative group of the body of people to be surveyed, must be selected. Research samples can be drawn from the customer base, such as the company’s charge account clientele, or a potential group of shoppers. In either case a small number of them will be sufficient to help with decision making. The same principle is used to predict the winners of elections. In a presidential election, for example, it is necessary to survey only about 1,000 people to accurately predict the outcome. If a retailer wishes to evaluate the size of a television audience for the purpose of selecting a program on which to place commercial spots, taking a sample of 1,200 families would have the same results as polling the entire population of the country. Careful sample selection is imperative if results are to be on target. Collecting and Tabulating the Data Once a retailer has made the decision to undertake the project and constructed all of the forms, the data must be collected. If the questionnaire is the instrument of choice, the methodology for data collection, such as the mail, telephone, Web sites, or interception, should be decided. In some instances, more than one technique might be used. In the cases of the telephone questionnaire or intercept survey methods, which use information gatherers, they must receive sufficient training so that bias will not enter into the questioning technique and everyone understands the nature of the project. If the observation method is used, the locations where the counts are to be taken should be carefully selected. The observers must be chosen and trained in terms of what they are to record so that they will properly carry out the survey and record accurate results. Focus groups and their moderators must also be carefully chosen to guarantee that the derived information is exactly what the company is seeking. When professional data gatherers are used, they do not require as much training. However, when novices such as college students are used, it is important that they are thoroughly trained in the manner in which to approach the consumer, either on the telephone or inperson; the handling of unwilling participants; the recording procedures; and so forth so that they will obtain accurate data. After the data have been collected, they are compiled and processed. Computers can easily and quickly tabulate the data and make it ready for the marketing research experts to prepare their findings. Data Analysis and Report Preparation The researchers compile and summarize the data collected for the project in a variety of formats. They construct charts, graphs, and other instruments used in research to show their findings and recommendations. Each project requires a different amount of time and effort for data analysis and report preparation. The information gathered from a focus group is simple to analyze, compared with that from major surveys that require hundreds of responses from questionnaires. Whatever the size of the study, the researchers always present the findings in a written report that summarizes all of the stages of the research process, the methodology used in the collection of the data, analysis of the data, recommendations, and an appendix that includes the data and their secondary and primary sources. Making the Decision The information generated from the study and the recommendations of the research team are prepared for company management to examine and evaluate. The researchers, whether they dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 110 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 111 TRENDS IN RETAIL RESEARCH With the enormous amount of competition experienced by today’s fashion merchants, the need for research continues to increase. Every segment of the industry, whether it is the brickand- mortar operations or their off-site counterparts, is being challenged by unprecedented new entries in the field. To better understand consumer markets and their potential as customers, more and more retailers are using research tools. Some of the trends in this area include the following: Increased Use of Focus Groups Because of its cost effectiveness and immediate gathering of information, the focus group will more than likely be the choice of merchants of every size. Many of the major retailers will continue to use their customers in regular sessions to study a wealth of problems. Outside Agency Use With the costs of maintaining an in-house research staff increasing, many merchants will choose outside resources to study their problems. This approach is more practical since research is not required every day and can be addressed by professional marketing research firms as the needs arise. Organizational Studies Many companies have entered the multichannel arena and have yet to determine how to most efficiently address their organizational needs in managing the different channels. Agreat deal of research, for example, will focus on the best way in which to merchandise the different channels. Would it be better to have a single buying team to handle all of the company’s purchases, or would separate teams be better for each of the channels. Human Resources Retention Acknowledging that one of the keys to the success of a retail operation is employee continuity, most retailers regularly face the challenge of employee turnover. With the turnover rates at an all-time high, many merchants will address the ways in which they can motivate their staffs, ranging from upper management to sales associates, to remain with the company. Studies of employee wants and needs will continue to be addressed so that stability will be achieved. Location Analysis Good location is vital to the success of any brick-and-mortar operation. With a wealth of areas available, and the leasing costs spiraling upward, research will continue to determine which sites will be most profitable. are in-house or from outside agencies, do not have the authority to decide what direction the company should take regarding the problem. The management team has the ultimate decision-making power and must carefully examine everything that has been presented to it before taking any steps. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 111 112 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing Chapter Highlights 1. While many nonprofessionals believe that the success of a retail operation is just luck, those with experience understand it is consumer research that plays the most important role. 2. Fashion retailing offers more challenges to their operators than any other retail classification. 3. Retail research spans a wide number of areas including store location, consumer assessment, merchandising, advertising and promotion, customer services, human resources, sales methods, and competition. 4. The research process is a multistepped plan that ultimately brings potential solutions to retailer problems. 5. Initially in the research process, the problem must be identified; it must then be clearly defined so that the research team will be able to offer suggestions regarding solving the problem. 6. Secondary data includes data that is already available to the researcher via such sources as company records, governmental agencies, trade associations, private research organizations, and periodicals. 7. If there isn’t a sufficient amount of information culled from secondary sources, primary research is necessary to solve the problem. 8. Primary research involves the use of such tools as questionnaires, observations, and focus groups. 9. Intercept surveys involve the use of interviewers who are positioned in strategic locations for the purpose of conducting interviews with consumers. 10. Questionnaires can be delivered via the mail, by telephone, on-line, or through personal interviews. 11. Fashion counts are used to record the styles that people are wearing so that the information may be used for future merchandising plans. 12. The focus group has become one of the more important tools for consumer research, because it is comparatively inexpensive to use and the information is immediately obtained. 13. A research sample is a representative group of the body of the people to be surveyed. 14. Once the data has been collected, tabulated, and analyzed, a final report is written by the research team in which suggestions to solve the problem are offered to management. Terms of the Trade retailing research trading area targeted market InTeleTest In-View Magazine Impact Research Service SMALL STORE APPLICATIONS Although research is often reserved for the major retailers, occasionally it is the small merchant who can benefit from such studies. The use of an outside firm to study the problems inherent in running a small operation are generally out of the question, but there are some approaches that will be cost-effective and provide the necessary information for decision making. One of the ways in which a study can be conducted with minimal expense is by using a college class in marketing research. Colleges and universities often serve the needs of their community with research projects that at the same time help their students to gain experience. Questionnaires as well as observation studies are generally within the abilities of students studying market research. Focus groups are cost effective since they could use eight or ten of the retailer’s customers who would be rewarded with a purchase discount. The only expense would come in paying the moderator. These costs could also be minimized if a graduate research or industrial psychology major could be utilized in the study. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 112 CHAPTER 5 Classifications and Methodology of Retail Research 113 FasTrac trading up secondary data trade associations National Retail Federation (NRF) primary data questionnaire intercept surveys mall intercept observation technique traffic count fashion count focus group research sample For Discussion 1. Why is it necessary for retailers to conduct research studies for their companies? 2. What must the retailer learn about the consumer to maximize potential profitability? 3. What are some of the areas of concern for brick-and-mortar retailers to assess before choosing a location? 4. Can advertising and promotion research provide information to the retailer that will make its promotional investments more likely to result in greater sales volume? Explain. 5. How does the “InTeleTest,” developed by Gallup & Robinson, work? 6. Describe some of the retailer’s concerns regarding human resources that require research. 7. What is the first stage of the research process? 8. How do the first and second stages of the research procedure differ from each other? 9. Why is it necessary to conduct secondary research first? 10. From what sources are secondary data obtained? 11. How can trade associations help the retailer save money on a research project? 12. What does the term “primary data” mean? 13. List three techniques used to gather primary data and how they differ from each other. 14. What does the term “intercept survey” mean, and why does it sometimes offer more reliable information than mail questionnaires? 15. What are some of the benefits of using on-line questionnaires? 16. How does a fashion count help a retailer with merchandising problems? 17. Why do some merchants use traffic counts when researching prospective locations? 18. What is a focus group? 19. How can a retailer conduct primary research that is reliable without surveying every individual in the group? 20. Once the data is tabulated and analyzed, what is the final stage of the research project? CASE PROBLEM 1 Cameo Fashions is a small retail organization. It has been in business for twelve years and has been able to expand its operation to five units. Each year, sales have increased, and the company has become extremely profitable. The company’s merchandising philosophy has been fashion forward, providing the latest styling for its customers at price points that would be considered moderate.Dresses, for example, range from approximately $90 to $225, sportswear from $35 to $150, and accessories from $25 to $125. Cameo offers a host of services and enjoys a very loyal customer base. During the last year, the Cameo partners, John, Marc, and David, have become aware of a situation that might be meaningful to their organization. Real estate value has soared, and many dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 113 114 SECTION I Introduction to Fashion Retailing Questions 1. Should the partners follow any of their own beliefs? 2. How should they approach the situation in a more scientific manner? CASE PROBLEM 2 Fashionable Feet is a women’s shoe store that features a variety of footwear for casual, business, and evening dress. It carries many of the popular designer lines with a selection of imports from Spain and Italy. Although it is still a profitable business, the store’s owner, Joy Green, has noticed that sales are not increasing at the rate to which she was once accustomed. In fact, this past year’s financial statement indicated a slight decline in sales. Joy is concerned, since no changes have been made in the operation to warrant the downturn. The store carries the same lines it always has, at prices that have increased only because of inflation, and it has retained virtually the same staff to serve the customers. After careful inventory analysis, Joy, noticed a drop in sales in the casual shoe classification. The customers still enthusiastically responded to the business and dressy shoes but have lately shown a declining interest in the casual collection. Joy was puzzled, since she carries the same casual lines as in the past and in the same styles that were always customer favorites. In two months, she will be faced with making her purchases for the next season and does not know how or if she should adjust her inventory. Questions 1. Should she drop the casual classification totally? 2. How could she,with minimum expense, research the problem? 3. What do you think are the reasons for the decline in casual shoes? EXERCISES AND PROJECTS 1. As a class, decide upon a topic that would best be researched through the use of the observation technique. It might be a fashion or traffic count. Once the subject has been selected, develop a form similar to the one in Figure 5.2. After selecting the appropriate place for the research to be conducted divide into teams and go into the field to collect the data. Sort the data into categories, and prepare a report to show the findings of the study. 2. Contact a fashion retailer in the area to discuss the possibility of doing a research project for the company. It might focus on the company’s merchandise assortment, customer services, or anything of interest to the retailer. After gaining the retailer’s approval to conduct the study on the store’s premises, follow the stages of the research process as outlined in this chapter. Once secondary sources have been studied, develop a questionnaire that should be used at the store’s entrance. After collecting and analyzing the data complete a written report and present it to the company. homes have started to sell for prices never before witnessed in their trading areas.Along with the higher-priced homes has come an influx of more affluent families.Another factor with implications for the company is the construction of three new luxury developments in locations close to three of Cameo’s stores. After a great deal of discussion, the partners remain divided on how to approach the area’s wealthier population. John believes trading up to higher price points would be the best approach. Marc suggests that they have been successful for all these years and should not look for trouble. David believes that a broad price range would be most practical and would accommodate the old and new customers. dia76827_ch05.qxd 11/29/04 7:55 PM Page 114 Chapter 3: Research Methodologies and Resources The Chicago School requires PhD students to conduct empirical research, quantitative, qualitative or combination of both, called mixed methods. Dependent on program requirements, PsyD students may conduct empirical research or may elect to build an applied research dissertation with some empirically based dimension included. This chapter addresses different kinds of research. Several textbooks identified in this chapter will help you. ABA students will want to check Your Program Guidelines to guide you with specific behavior analytic research designs and methods. The Process of Research In essence, there are two basic approaches to doing research. Both begin with one or more questions, but those questions may arise from two different sources, and lead to two different kinds of reasoning: deductive and inductive. These two methods of reasoning have a very different “feel” when you're conducting research. Inductive reasoning, by its very nature, is more open-ended and exploratory, especially at the beginning. Deductive reasoning is narrower in nature and is concerned with testing or confirming hypotheses. Even though a particular study may look like it's purely deductive (e.g., an experiment designed to test the hypothesized effects of some treatment intervention on some clinical outcome), most psychosocial research involves both inductive and deductive reasoning processes at some time in the project. Empirical research uses a dominant reasoning method, either deductive or inductive, to fully drive the study. Applied research takes these reasoning methods often at the beginning at the study to establish the foundation of the study and at the end to analyze the effectiveness of the results. Deductive Reasoning According to Trochim (2005), deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this process is informally called a “top-down” approach, and is most commonly associated with Quantitative Research. Often we begin with thinking up a theory about our topic of interest. We then narrow that down into more specific hypotheses that we can test. We narrow down even further when we collect observations to address the hypotheses. This ultimately leads us to be able to test the hypotheses with specific data — a confirmation (or not) of our original theories. A visual depiction may be helpful: Deductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning Inductive Reasoning works the other way, moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theoretical formulations. As opposed to deductive reasoning, inductive reasoning takes a “bottom-up” approach. The researcher begins with specific observations, and begins to note patterns and regularities in the data. From these, tentative hypotheses or ideas emerge, and eventually some general conclusions or theories can be made. The inductive approach is most commonly associated with Qualitative Research. Once again, a visual representation: Inductive Reasoning Selecting an Empirical Research Method Empirical research can be quantitative or qualitative, inductive or deductive. Empirical research is defined as original data-driven evidence that answers a question or demonstrates results of an outcome. Whether you select quantitative or qualitative empirical research, is dependent on what research question you want answered. The research question informs the methodology, not the other way around. Students have found themselves struggling through the entire research process if they select the method of data collection before having a firm research question.. Here is an example of a dilemma one student found herself in. A student decided she wanted to use Goleman’s emotional intelligence survey before she formulated the question she wanted answered. If the student asks a question like, “What dimensions of emotional intelligence condition success in a mid-level manager?” she is well on her way to conducting quantitative research and the survey would be helpful. If the student asks, “How does emotional intelligence impact employee-employer morale?” she may need to use a mixed methods approach. She may use the survey and conduct interviews. If, on the other hand, the student wants to know, “What personal leadership factors have first time manager found increase employee productivity?” she may want to conduct interviews and conduct a qualitative study, and, based on results, link the results to research on emotional intelligence. No survey would be needed. Often times, students will find that research questions that begin with “how?” lead to qualitative studies. Research questions that ask “how many?” and “how often?” lead to quantitative studies. “What?” and “why?” tends to encourage qualitative studies whereas “is?” and “are?” lead to quantitative studies. Quantitative Research Quantitative research is the most traditional in doctoral studies, dependent highly on testing a theory. It uses deductive reasoning. This type of dissertation involves the following steps: 1) conceptualization of problem; 2) development of hypotheses; 3) placement of topic in the relevant literature; 4) design of the methodology; 5) select measurements; 6) recruit subjects/obtain dataset; 7) selection and execution of statistical procedures; and 8) data analysis and interpretation. Quantitative studies require the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data using quantitative analysis (broadly defined to include original data collected by the student, secondary analysis of preexisting data or archival data, replications and meta-analysis). The interpretation of results must remain within the boundaries permitted by the research model used. A critical component of this type of dissertation will the availability of participants and the potential to locate the number of participants needed in a reasonable period of time. Quantitative investigations can be in the form of a single case time series, or a group design with the appropriate statistical analysis. Before data collection, the issue of statistical power will want to be considered (either via formal power analysis or information consideration based on recommended guidelines for the specific statistical analyses) when finalizing methodology and participant choice. Some strengths of this method include the ability to generalize findings to appropriate populations, advancement of field of psychology and other disciplines, refinement of previous findings and discipline-based applications, and other scholarly benefits. Some weaknesses of this method include difficulty capturing qualitative richness of the material, difficulty recruiting sufficient sample size in timely fashion, and other types of weaknesses related to the specific study design. As an acceptable part of a dissertation, these limitations are often identified and addressed at some point in the dissertation (e.g., a specific section on limitations, qualifying statements for conclusions, etc.). The methods for a quantitative dissertation are varied and determined by the nature of the research question (Gelso, 1979; Kazdin, 2003). Under the supervision of the dissertation chair, the student can select from a range of quantitative research methods that enable rigorous scholarly pursuit of the dissertation research question. Some examples of quantitative research categories and their related methodological activities include: a) Experimental research, which can include the following approaches: a. Subject selection and assignment i. Random selection ii. Random assignment iii. Matched pairs b. Group designs i. Pretest-posttest control group ii. Posttest only control group iii. Factorial group iv. Quasi-experimental group c. Multiple treatment designs i. Crossover ii. Multiple treatment counterbalance d. Control and comparison group designs i. No treatment ii. Waiting list iii. No contact iv. Non-specific (attention placebo) treatment v. Routine (standard) treatment vi. Yoked control group vii. Non-randomized/non-equivalent control group b) Observational research, which can include the following approaches: a. Case control designs i. Cross sectional ii. Retrospective b. Cohort designs i. Single group ii. Multi-group iii. Accelerated multi-cohort longitudinal c. Descriptive quantitative designs c) Case study and single-case research designs, which can include the following approaches: a. Case study b. Single-case experimental designs c. Major experimental designs i. ABAB ii. Multiple baseline iii. Changing criterion The student may draw from one of several alternative classifications of quantitative methods to conceptualize their project, such as Gelso’s (1979) typology of “experimental analogue,” “experimental field,” “correlational analogue,” and “correlational field” designs (cf. Ponterotto, 1988). In addition, students will want to note that quantitative designs can be expanded to include qualitative components that enhance the overall dissertation research (e.g., approaches that provide structured focus groups, structured interviews, consensual qualitative research (CQR), or other qualitative methods to elaborate on an outcome or process variable). When quantitative methodology includes qualitative methodology it is called a mixed methods study. A quantitative dissertation will include the following five chapters: Chapter I. Nature of the Study; Chapter II. Literature Review; Chapter III. Methods, Chapter IV; Results; and Chapter V. Discussion. A more robust outline of requirements for a quantitative dissertation can be found in Appendix A. Chapter I: Nature of the study — This is an overview or summary of the student’s dissertation. One might think of it as an expended outline to give the reader(s) a general overview of the dissertation. The student will want to begin with a general statement of the problem or the broad context of the research problem, then quickly narrow down to a very brief summary of the relevant research reviewed in Chapter II. This is followed by a very brief summary of the rationale, research questions/hypotheses, methodologies for the study and (anticipated, for the proposal) results and potential implications. Chapter II: Literature review — This chapter will be between 20-50 pages long. The page length is considered a guideline that is set by the needs of the study with approval of your dissertation chair. The literature review is to be concise, will want to synthesize sufficient literature to demonstrate current and thorough knowledge of the topic, and will want to be organized according to some plan. The literature review will want to lead logically to the rationale for the proposed study which immediately follows the literature review. The rationale is followed by statements of research questions and/or hypotheses. Again, the research questions and/or hypotheses will want to follow logically from the literature review and rationale. For the final dissertation, some dissertation chairs prefer that extensive literature review be extracted as an appendix to make the literature review conform better to the format of published articles. You will want to consult with your chair. Chapter III: Method — This chapter will want to include the following subsections: Participants, Apparatus (if applicable), Material, Procedure, and Data Preparation (if applicable). Participants — In this subsection, the student will want to identify the population from which the study sample will be selected. Report important characteristics of the population whenever possible. Describe methods of participant recruitment and selection, sample size, and method for group assignments if relevant. Apparatus (if applicable) — This subsection is not very common. It describes unusual or unique equipment used in the study in sufficient detail for the study to be replicated by others. Material — This subsection provides descriptions of stimuli, measures, scales, questionnaires, and structured and semi-structured interviews used in the dissertation study. If the measure is published, there is no need to include the entire measure. Just provide a summary of the measure and a few sample items, as well as the method of scoring. Standardization, reliability and validity data will want to be reported whenever available. If the measure is unpublished, include the entire measure as an appendix. If the student is constructing his/her own measure, describe the measure, procedures in the construction of the measure, and the scoring method, as well as proposed validity and reliability checks. Discuss what happens if the measure or subsections of the measure do not meet minimum reliability standards. Procedure — This subsection provides a detailed description of all the steps involved in conducting the dissertation study from initial contact to debriefing. The reader(s) will want to have enough details to replicate all of the steps in the study exactly. If lengthy instructions are involved, they will want to be moved to an appendix in the final dissertation. Data Preparation (if applicable) — Report proposed manipulation of the data such as transcription of interviews and coding. Describe proposed reliability checks. You will want to identify the statistical procedures to be used to answer each research question or to test each hypothesis. The variables involved, the number of levels and the data source for each variable will want to be described for each statistical procedure. All the above is included in the proposal and the final dissertation. You will want to use future tense for the Method section of the proposal, but change to past tense for the final dissertation. Chapter IV: Results — You include a report of the study sample characteristics (i.e., descriptive statistics on the study sample) in the Participants subsection, report any manipulation of the data and reliability data. If using published measures, you may compare study reliability data with the published data You report descriptive statistics and the results of each statistical analysis. How the results are reported will depend on the statistical procedure used. However, reporting the result of a statistical hypothesis test follows the same format for all hypothesis tests. For each test, identify the statistical procedure used (e.g., ANCOVA, MANOVA, multiple regression), state whether an effect is significant, the statistic used (e.g., t, F, Wilks’ Lambda), the degree(s) of freedom, the value of the statistic, the significant level, and the effect size if the effect is significant. Present overall tests first. For example, present the results of a MANOVA first, followed by univariate analyses if significant multivariate effect(s) are found. This is followed by post hoc analyses if univariate main effects are found or by simple effects analyses if univariate interaction effects are found. Tables and graphs will want to be used when appropriate to summarize results and facilitate understanding. The following is an example of how to report results of hypothesis tests: The results of the ANCOVA indicated a significant main effect for participant culture, F(1, 42) = 10.985, p = .002, Eta Squared = .207, and a significant interaction effect for participant culture x film culture, Wilks’ Lambda = .911, F(1, 42) = 4.10, p = .049, Eta Squared = .089. Follow-up analyses of simple effects revealed a significant participant culture effect for Chinese film clips (p = .002), but not for American film clips (see Table 10 and Figure 1). Chapter V: Discussion — In this chapter, the findings of the study are discussed. You will want to discuss whether study hypotheses are confirmed, disconfirmed or partially confirmed; whether research questions are conclusively answered; whether the findings are as anticipated or unanticipated; and, whether findings are consistent with the literature reviewed in Chapter 1 of the dissertation. You will want to discuss factors that might have contributed to inclusive, unanticipated or inconsistent findings. This discussion of findings is followed by a consideration of the strengths and limitations of the study. In the final section of your dissertation, you will want to discuss the implication of the findings back to the literature, to real life applications to your discipline as well as direction for future research. Quantitative Resources Clark-Carter, D. (1997). Doing quantitative psychology research: From design to report. Hove, England: Taylor & Francis (Psychology Press). Gelso, C. J. (1979a). Research in counseling: Methodological and professional issues. The Counseling Psychologist, 8(3), 7-35. Gravetter, F. J. & Wallnau, L. B. (2008). Essentials of statistics for the behavioral sciences (6th edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. Kazdin, A. E. (2002). Methodological issues and strategies in clinical research (3rdedition). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Kazdin, A. (2003). Research design in clinical psychology (4th edition). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Meyers, L. S., Gamst, G., & Guarino, A. J. (2006). Applied multivariate research: design and interpretation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Miller, A. B. (2008). Finish your dissertation once and for all! How to overcome psychological barriers, get results, and move on with your life. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ponterotto, J. G. (1988). Racial/ethnic minority research in the Journal of Counseling Psychology: A content analysis and methodological critique. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 410-418. Tabachnick, B. G. & Fidell, L. S. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Wolf, F. M. (1986). Meta-analysis: Quantitative methods for research synthesis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Further detail for a Quantitative Dissertation can be found in the Empirical Dissertation narrative format, Appendix A. Qualitative Research Qualitative research, a second kind of empirical research investigates the distinctive, essential characteristics of experience and action as lived by persons. It uses inductive reasoning. It describes and attempts to understand actual instances of human action and experience from the perspective of participants who are living through a particular situation” (Fischer, Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists, 2006, p. Xvi). Qualitative study uses descriptive language and the meanings associated with such language as the base unit for analysis. “The use of evocative language is a means through which the describer attempts to help a reader or listener secure an image of and feel for the situation or qualities being described” (Camic, P., Rhodes, J.E., and Yardley, L., Qualitative Research in Psychology, 2003, p. 21). Some acceptable sub-methodologies that might be placed under this definition include but are not limited to the following: critical hermeneutics grounded theory ethnography participatory action research phenomenological inquiry autobiography (narrative study of lives) feminist research narrative analysis focus groups the case study The limitation and the strength of qualitative research is that it is open-ended and thus the student is left to explore data without any pre-determined hypotheses or theories. Because of its open-ended nature conducting qualitative research demands more creativity and discipline to data analysis. Each sub methodology listed above has its own coding requirements and rigor. If you select a qualitative methodology, you will want to read several well-written dissertations using the same methodology and follow the rigor that they have modeled. A basic structure for this methodology would include, at a minimum, the following sections/chapters: Nature of the study Literature review Methods (the structure of this section could vary significantly depending on the sub-methodology) Results/analysis of the findings Discussion There is no dictated page length; this is left to the needs of the study as approved by the dissertation chair. An acceptable management of the dissertation would include: an exhaustive review of the literature across all major and minor components of the study; a generally agreed upon acceptable number of subjects based on the type of study to the point of minimal data saturation; appropriately detailed analysis of results for the design of the study; a discussion section covering all major areas typical for this section (i.e., limitations of study; areas for future research; what was learned out of this study — linked back to original question and literature review and areas of professional/academic growth experienced by the student). Qualitative Resources Camic, P., Rhodes, J.E., and Yardley, L. (2003). Qualitative Research in Psychology Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (2000). Handbook of qualitative research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Denzin, N. & Lincoln, Y.S. (Eds.). (2003). Strategies of qualitative inquiry. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Fischer, C. (2006) Qualitative Research Methods for Psychologists Herr, K. and Anderson, G. L. (2005). The Action Research Dissertation. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis: http://www.psyc.bbk.ac.uk/ipa/ Participatory Feminism: http://www.einaudi.cornell.edu/parfem/parfem.htm Participatory Action Research: http://www2.fhs.usyd.edu.au/arow/arer/004.htm and Http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc/act_res.html Michelle Fine’s work in the Participatory Action Research Collective: http://web.gc.cuny.edu/che/start.htm General Qualitative Research Resources: http://www.coe.uga.edu/leap/qual/research/index.html http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/index.html Division 27 Society for Community Research and Action: http://www.scra27.org/ Recognized Qualitative Experts Feminist Qualitative — Carol Gilligan, Deborah Tollman Ethnography — Clifford Geertz Phenomenological — Clark Moustakis; Connie Fischer Narrative Analysis — Elliot Mischler Grounded Theory — Strauss; Corbin Participatory Action Research — Michelle Klein; Budd Hall Further detail for a Qualitative Dissertation can be found in the Empirical Dissertation narrative format, Appendix A. Mixed Methodology Study There are many ways that a student can develop a mixed methodology study. Students may want to blend qualitative (e.g., interviews) and quantitative data (e.g., written survey) analysis and interpretation. Students may want to use an applied dissertation methodology as described below and combine it with a comprehensive qualitative or quantitative data collection and analysis. Mixed methodology studies require rigorous and rewarding dissertation development. Selecting an Applied Research Method TCS approves other research projects when, although they contain an empirical-based dimension, their primary focus is on application. Like all TCS dissertations, they are to be measured against the TCS Basic Dissertation Elements using the rigor of the dissertation rubric. Based on the discipline and expectations of your department (see Your Program's Dissertation Guidelines), PsyD students may select these methodologies. Given department approval, PhD students may use one or more of these methodologies as long as they incorporate empirical data research as a dominant component of their research; this approach would be a mixed methods study. Exceptions to the five-chapter dissertation model abound in the Applied Dissertation (e.g., the comprehensive review and analysis of the literature may expand the traditional Chapter 2 into three or four chapters to cover the required material; see Appendix B for the Applied Dissertation narrative format). What follows is a list of methodologies that qualify for the applied dissertation. Comprehensive Review and Analysis of the Literature (CoRAL) This type of dissertation requires an in-depth critique and integration of the literature pertaining to a clinical issue. The CoRAL answers a research question based on an extensive review of previously published empirical and theoretical literature, with a detailed analysis as to why this question is worth answering. Thus, this dissertation type includes a theoretical justification for the research and practical applications of the findings; there is both a posing and then an answering of a question by reviewing the available literature. All dissertations contain a section reviewing the literature on the topic under study. In contrast, while the CoRAL type of dissertation requires the student to summarize and integrate the literature, she or he must extend the work beyond mere reporting of results. Students need to provide ample justification for using this methodology, and this justification will want to comprise the bulk of the dissertation proposal. There are three distinct subtypes within the broad scope of this methodology: In-depth review and analysis of existing literature Analysis and integration of two or more theoretical positions Presentation of a new theory to explain research findings, or an innovative elaboration or application of an existing theory The strengths of this methodology include assessing a broad foundation of knowledge about a specific topic in contrast to delving deeply into a circumscribed relationship among variables, providing fertile ground to identify directions for future research, advancing theory in a more general way, and potentially guiding policy decisions by offering a “state of the union” in a sub-field. The main weakness of the CoRAL methodology involves the strong influence of the subjectivity of the researcher. Two reviewers could easily form different conclusions from the same general body of research, depending on their perspective and emphasis, as well as on differential selection of studies to review. There are other, more quantitative ways of reviewing and analyzing a body of literature, such as deriving a “box score” tally of supporting evidence or notable patterns, combining reported levels of significance across studies, and meta-analysis. However, while the quantification of a body of research produces a more specific, and potentially objective measure, there are some cases where narrative reviews are more appropriate: If the research is represented by a small number of studies, which is more likely with novel topics, since this “sample” would not be “representative” of later studies If the sample of studies is small and the studies examine heterogeneous methods and constructs If Type II error is more problematic given the topic (that is, not detecting existing relationships, which is more of a tendency with meta-analyses), in contrast to Type I error (inferring relationships that are not really there, more likely a problem with narrative review) If there are many mixed qualitative-quantitative studies (since meta-analysis can only measure the quantitative data) If it is important to minimize the loss of meaning in the results Requirements No matter the subtype, this literature review dissertation will want to include a statement of the research question, as well as theoretical and practical justification for the pursuit of an answer via the CoRAL. For example, “How do manualized treatments account for cultural belief variables?” Such a question might be addressed by a quantitative or qualitative study comparing clients treated by a particular manualized treatment, and determine the impact of specific beliefs. However, assuming that this topic has not been adequately addressed in the literature, research will want to initially survey the field for relevant studies, detect notable trends, highlight key gaps, and suggest more specific constructs to target in later studies. The scope and breadth of the dissertation will be identified, with all topical areas clearly delineated and the student’s objective stated. As with other dissertations, a methods section will want to be included, with a detailed description of the student’s search plan or algorithm (e.g. Chart, concept map, graphic depiction of relationship between topics). This process is very important to address the problem of subjectivity noted above. The final product will demonstrate that the student has made an original contribution to the research within the identified area of interest, and will want to communicate a clear viewpoint developed by the student. Journals like Psychological Bulletin or Clinical Psychology Review can provide examples of how this type of methodology is currently used by researchers. The final product includes areas for future research, specific recommendations, and clinical applications of the findings. It should be 100-150 pages in length. Although CoRAL dissertations will vary in terms of content, the following overall format of chapters/sections is expected to organize and present the findings: Nature of the study — Students will want to identify variables relevant to the topic, typically between 2-5, and specify the boundaries of their review, both in concepts and time frame. The introduction section will want to conclude with a statement, “research question,” that justifies the project. Methods — Students will want to specify the search criteria for exploring the literature, providing justification for their choices (an appendix can include print-outs of search results, including the dates of searches and keywords. Presentation of findings from the literature (in one or more chapters) Summary — Students summarize the themes found in the literature. This section will want to summarize strengths and limitations of previous reviews, integration attempts, or explanatory theories when possible. Discussion — This section represents the bulk of the student’s contributions, in terms of providing original commentary, perspective, or applications based on the previous sections. Conclusions and Implications — In addition to concluding statements, this section will want to include directions for future research, clinical applications, and other recommendations. The body of the review is organized according to the subtype or approach taken: In-Depth Review & Analysis Each concept or variable that has been identified in the Introduction as central to the issue will want to have its own section, with appropriate subsections to help organize the findings. Within each of these sections, the most logical organization is chronological, although other methods are acceptable. Coverage will want to focus more on depth than breadth, including “classic” works and the most recent representations of work in the area. In addition, any previous literature reviews will want to be addressed in its own section. Students are advised to include ongoing statements that reflect the justification for the dissertation, in order to distinguish it as a methodology. Integration of Multiple Theories Each individual theory will want to have its own section, with appropriate subsections. Within each of these sections, the most logical organization is chronological, although other methods are acceptable. Any previous attempts at integration, if applicable, will want to be addressed in its own section. The Discussion section will comprise the integration of the theories. New Theory or Application Similar to the in-depth review approach, each concept merits its own section and subsections. In addition to defining the concepts/variables, students will need to present existing theories related to the clinical issue. In this case, the Discussion section will comprise a description of the new theory or application. Some Tips and Hints Start with the most current research and work backwards; use recent articles’ reference list to provide clues and guideposts Search for theoretical articles; add “theory” to search terms Identify landmark or classic studies and theorists; use textbooks as guide Use consistent format in taking notes; remember to note page numbers for direct quotes Look for explicit definitions of key terms in literature Pay special attention to review articles (“review reviews”) Look for methodological strengths and weaknesses; but it is inappropriate to note every flaw in every study Distinguish between assertion and evidence Evaluate reference list for recency and coverage; as completely as necessary, not as completely as possible Suggested CoRAL Resources Fink, A. (2009). Conducting research literature reviews: From the internet to paper (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Hart, C. (1999). Doing a literature review. Releasing the social science imagination. London: Sage Publications, Ltd. Ridley, D. (2008). The literature review: A step-by-step guide for students. London: Sage Publications, Ltd. Some journals, such as Psychological Bulletin, Annual Review of Psychology, and Clinical Psychology Review, provide examples of “abridged versions.” Program Development or Program Evaluation This type of dissertation has as a base a critical review of the literature on the chosen topic, usually a client population or problem area. It expands on that review and sets out the broad parameters for a systematic treatment program addressing the specific target population or problem. It provides sample scripts for various segments of the program, especially if there is a psycho-educational component. It analyzes the business requirements and opportunities; especially staff time and space requirements. It provides tools for evaluating the effectiveness of the program. These dissertations have the following five chapters/sections: nature of the study, the literature review, the methods, anticipated/actual results, and a discussion of those results with conclusions. The various detailed aspects of the program can be contained in the appendices. In general, a minimum of 50 pages is recommended for this methodology. Suggested Resources Chen, H. (2005). Practical program evaluation: Assessing and improving planning, implementation, and effectiveness. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Davidson, E. J. (2005). Evaluation Methodology Basics. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Test Construction or Norm Development This type of dissertation involves the initial creation and piloting of a test, survey, questionnaire or assessment tool, or the development of a norm sample for a preexisting assessment tool that is not well represented in the literature. Students may utilize archival data to generate a normative sample or conduct a profile analysis of an existing or new database. Some approximation to the five-chapter organization of the dissertation is to be maintained. Students interested in developing a survey may wish to audit or take BP 722. Suggested Resource Rea, L.M. and Parker, R. A. (2005), Designing and conducting survey research. Jossey Bass Publishing Development of a Grant Proposal This type of dissertation requires the student to identify an area of interest, locate a particular granting source to address that area, and to develop a complete grant proposal that could be submitted for funding. Students may develop a service, demonstration, or research grant. The student might be required to submit the proposal to successfully complete the dissertation. This would be dependent on the Dissertation Chair’s recommendation. All aspects of the project are to be articulated in sufficient depth and specificity that the project could be conducted using the grant proposal without modification. Students utilize the specific format required by the granting agency. Some approximation to the TCS dissertation/chapters/sections should be followed. These consist of the nature of the study, the literature review, the methods, the anticipated results, and a discussion of those anticipated results with derived conclusions. Suggested Resources Gerin, W. (2006). Writing the NIH grant proposal. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Hayes, L., Hoffman, D., Lamorreaux, D. (1999). Winning strategies for developing grant proposals. Tampa: Government Information Systems. Theory of Clinical Application and Conceptualization Dissertations using this framework will attempt to bring theory and clinical material together in new or innovative ways, providing some clarification of or elaboration of what is already fully or partially understood. The dissertation will have, in its heart, a dual purpose: 1) to deepen the reader’s understanding of the chosen theory: its essence, it’s working presuppositions, and 2) application of the theory (and any treatment techniques connected to the theory) to a problem, disorder, case study or situation (points of application), along with connections of the chosen theory to world view and embedded culture; looking at the “soul of the techniques.” Some sub-methodologies include: Traditional case study — e.g., ‘The Rat Man,’ representing pathology and attempt to understand concept case is picking upon; seeking new insights into pathology; clinical problem identified with the ideas of answering questions, bringing theoretical ideas of assessment and treatment to work on the problem; combination/blend of the first two using case study to exemplify conclusions or start with a case and look at literature review to clarify understanding of a case; compare and contrast two or more theories as applied to a particular psychological problem synthesis, looking at traditions that feed into these two models and how to bridge them. Between 60 and 100 pages is a generally accepted page length for this methodology. A suggested outline of chapters for the core text might include: Introduction — Both theory and point of application. What are they? What is the relevance of the theory (or theories) to the point of application, as well as relevance to the field in general? What is the thesis of the dissertation, and how does the writer purport to prove/address the thesis? Case presentation (if using case studies) — Summarize the case, adhering as close as possible to the structure of a CCE, unless it is a historical case, where writer must provide the historical data that is given with citation. Comprehensive literature review — To help explain the chosen theory or theories, connected assessment and/or therapeutic methodologies, applications of the theory to the points of application (problem, disorder, case study or situation) involved. Application of theory — Detailed examination of the way that a chosen application or theoretical approach enriches our understanding of the reach and limits of the theory, as well as the ways a theoretical angle converges or departs from other respected approaches to the problem. How does the theoretical approach provide special traction, given the clinical issues involved? What are the key choice points in the described application? What are the contraindications? What are the limits? What are the cultural, ethnic, demographic considerations? Conclusions/discussion — How does this study change our view of the theoretical approach to a particular problem? Suggested Resources CBT Bach, P.A. & Moran, D.J. (2008). ACT in practice: Case conceptualization in acceptance and commitment therapy. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger. Eels, T.D. (ed.) (1997). Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation. New York: Guilford. Follette, V.M. & Ruzel, J.I. (eds), (2006). Cognitive-behavioral therapies for trauma (2nd ed). New York: Guilford. Scott, J., Mark, J., Williams, G. & Beck, A.T. (1989). Cognitve therapy in clinical practice: An illustrative casebook. New York: Routledge. Wessler, R.A. & Wessler, R.L. (1980). The principles and practice of Rational-Emotive Therapy. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Psychodynamic Mcwilliams, N. (1999). Psychoanalytic case formulation. New York: Guilford Press. ine, F. (1985). Developmental theory and clinical process. New Haven: Yale University Press. Gill, M. (1982). Analysis of transference: Volume I. New York: International Universities Press. Systems Theory Datillo, F.M. (ed.) (1998). Case studies in couple and family therapy: Systemic and cognitive perspectives. New York: Guliford. Gottman, J.S. (ed.) (2004). The Marriage Clinic casebook. New York: WW Norton. Minuchin, S. & Fishman, H.C. (1981). Family therapy techniques. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Weeks, G.R. & Hof, L. (eds.) (1994).The marital-relationship therapy casebook. New York: Brunner/Mazel. Humanistic/Existential Boss, M. (1984). Existential foundations of medicine and psychology. New York: Jason Aronson. Cortright, B. (1997). Psychotherapy and spirit: Theory and practice in transpersonal Psychology. Albany, NY: SUNY. May, R., Angle, E., and Ellenberger, H., eds. (1958). Existence. New York: Jason Aronson. Polster, E. And Polster, M. (1973). Gestalt therapy integrated: Contours of theory and practice. New York: Vintage. Prilleltensky, I., and Nelson, G. (2002). Doing psychology critically: Making a difference in diverse settings. New York: Palgrave macmillan. Rogers, C. (1961). On becoming a person: A therapist’s view of psychotherapy. Boston:Houghton Mifflin Company. Spinelli, E. (1989). The interpreted world: An introduction to phenomenological psychology. New York: Sage. Valle, R. And Halling, S. (1989). Existential-phenomenological perspectives in psychology: Exploring the breadth of human experience. New York: Plenum Press. Public Policy or Legislative Analysis This type of dissertation has as a base a critical review of the literature on the chosen topic. It then focuses methodologically on examining matters of public policy as it relates to the topic. These matters include legal, regulatory, administrative and management issues. They all involve going beyond the realm of traditional psychology to include law and business. The work product (results)are recommendations for change in public policy. These dissertations are structured around a major issues of policy. In general, a minimum of 50 pages is recommended for this methodology and some approximation to the five chapter organizational of the dissertation is to be maintained.. Suggested Resources Guess, G. M. and Farnham, P. (2000). Cases in public policy analysis. (2 ed.). Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press. Knoepfel, P., Larue, C., Varone, F. and Hill, M. (2007). Public policy analysis. Bristol: The Policy Press. Kraft, M.E. and Furlong, S. R. (2009). Public policy: Politics, analysis, and alternatives. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Empirical and Applied Dimensions of a TCS Dissertation. Whether you select to develop a Empirical Research Dissertation or an Applied Research Dissertation, TCS requires that you weave an empirical dimension and an applied dimension to your study. Empirically Based Dimension In Applied Dissertations, whether they are a comprehensive literature review, a program evaluation, a training program or a clinical application, there is to be an empirical dimension to gather data and/or to test the validity of the product. In other words, it is not sufficient to build a program; it is necessary to use data to demonstrate its value. There are multiple ways that data can be gathered, including but not limited to: Interviews Focus group(s) Survey Questions to consider when measuring value include: How willing would stakeholders be to act on the results found? How do you know that your solution to the problem solved the problem? What evidence do you have that what you discovered truly describes the root cause of the problem or need? Applied Dissertations require a statement of a research question, often with an objective/outcome that addresses what will be accomplished. The empirical dimension of the dissertation answers how successful you were. The following table provides examples of several Applied Dissertation Objectives with examples of how they could be empirically measured. INSERT TABLE Applied Dissertation Objectives Empirically Based Dimensions To apply a theory to a unique client base Administer a pre and post attitudes or expectations survey To develop a supervisory management program for experience Pre-development - gather data from a focus group to find out what needs to be included in the training; set specific objectives for the program. Post-development - re-gather the focus group and review the program asking if the objectives have been met (face validity). Applied Based Dimension In keeping with TCS Model of Education where students learn to practice theory and apply their learning to real world situations, students are expected to articulate clearly how their research supports advancement of their profession and can be used in practical settings. Students may wish to use the following to help in the application of their research: 1. How can my findings potentially improve the workplace provide new insight into a way of thinking about something encourage change challenge former ways of thinking and acting 2. What might my research offer in light of: further research advanced use of a tool, a model, a process Suggested resources Besides this manual, the following offers you helpful ideas on completing your dissertation. ABD survival guide. http://www.abdsurvivalguide.com Bolker, J. (1998). Writing your dissertation in fifteen minutes a day: A guide to starting, revising, and finishing your doctoral thesis. New York: Henry Holt and Company. Cone, J.D. & Foster, S.L. (2006). Dissertations and theses from start to finish: Psychology and other related fields (2nd ed). Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. The Dissertation Workshop. http://inspiringreflection.com Glatthorn, A. And Joyner, R. (2005). Writing the Winning Dissertation: A Step-By-Step Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press. Miller. A. (2008). Finish Your Dissertation Once and for All! How to Overcome Psychological Barriers, Get Results, and Move on With Your Life. Washington, D.C.: American Psychological Association. Romanyshyn, R. (2007). The wounded researcher: Research with soul in mind. New Orleans: Springs Journals Books. Sternberg, David (1981). How to complete and survive a doctoral dissertation. New York: St. Martin’s Griffin. http://ego.thechicagoschool.edu/s/843/index.aspx?gid=66&pgid=2160 e asta de sus http://www.leeds.ac.uk/educol/documents/00001770.htm citeste jos acets articol!!!! Phenomenographic research: methodological issues arising from a study investigating student approaches to learning in fashion design Linda Drew University of Brighton Sue Bailey Manchester Metropolitan University Alison Shreeve London College of Fashion, London Institute Paper presented at the Higher Education Close Up Conference 2, Lancaster University, 16-18 July 2001 This paper explores issues associated with the phenomenographic methodology used in a study to investigate the qualitatively different ways that students approach their learning in the context of first and second year fashion design courses. The central aim of the study is to explore the variation in fashion design students' approaches to learning. The focus on variation suggests that these approaches are best explored with a phenomenographic study. Fashion design students in four fashion design departments in UK universities were chosen as the subjects of the study. The phenomenographic method used commenced with semi-structured interviews focusing on student approaches to learning in the context of a fashion design project in the first or second year of study . The sample of 17 was deliberately selected to maximise the variation. The focus of analysis is to define the qualitatively different ways (but not the similar ways) in which fashion design students approach their learning. The aim of this paper is to focus on issues that arose from using a phenomenographic approach in this context. The papers' authors reflect on the experience of learning to conduct a phenomenographic study in individual and collaborative situations. Several connected themes emerge from this reflection on phenomenography as a distinct qualitative research method. First, the non-dualist approach where the individual and the phenomena are, inseparably, the experience to be studied, means that the study has to clearly focus on a specific task or phenomenon to elicit that experience. The context explored in this study required the interviewers to focus on one fashion design project, this often proved to be easily diverted by interviewer or interviewee digression from the focus. The second relates to the second-order nature of the research approach which required the interviewers to focus on talking to students about how they experience their learning (that is, to describe the experience of their interviewees, rather than to describe their own experience, which is a first -order approach). Third, the focus on variation, or on experiences which are different, required a distinct approach to the analysis of the interview transcripts to disregard those elements that were similar across that range, and to highlight that there were internal relations. The construction of an outcome space which describes those internal relations in structural and referential terms also enabled the construction of the hierarchy of the structural component of the study. A fourth consideration is an intention to achieve an empathy with the student through the interview experience as highlighted by Ashworth and Lucas (2000). The reflection described in this paper picks up on these issues and analyses the stages of the study from original conception to implementation, research design and intention. It exposes the need to examine prior knowledge and experience in this and other areas of qualitative research e.g. interviewing skills and focus of the analysis (on similarity, on richness of description or on variation). Finally, it uses this learning from the experience of the interview and analysis to suggest ways that neophyte phenomenographers might successfully embark on their first study. Research Design The Experience of the Participants The three researchers who originated the project had no experience of designing a study using the phenomenographic method, however the lead researcher was sufficiently familiar with educational research and the literature on phenomenography to put forward a proposal for a phenomenographic study. The second researcher, although new to educational research, was familiar with the literature on phenomenography, the third less so. As the study evolved, five further researchers working in the London College of Fashion joined the team and, although some were experienced in conducting research into aspects of student learning, they, too, had limited knowledge of the phenomenographic method to be used. Phenomenography is the empirical study of the limited number of qualitatively different ways in which we experience, conceptualise, understand, etc, various phenomena in and aspects of the world around us. These differing experiences, understandings etc are characterised in terms of categories of description, logically related to each other, and forming hierarchies in relation to given criteria. Such an ordered set of categories of description is called the outcome space of the phenomenon in question. Participants in the study are encouraged to reflect on previously unthematised aspects of the phenomenon in question. The analysis is carried out in an iterative manner on those reflections. Distinctly different ways of experiencing the phenomenon discussed by participants are the units of analysis and not the single individuals. The categories of description corresponding to those differing understandings and the logical relations that can be established between them constitute the main results of a phenomenographic study (Marton, 1992). This research approach has been articulated more fully by Marton and Booth (1997). The Original Design In the original design of the research, there was a desire to build on empirical work into student conceptions and approaches to learning of an international character and to apply research tools in the situated context of Art and Design such as the Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) developed by Biggs (Biggs, 1987) or the Approaches to Study Inventory (ASI) developed by Entwistle and Ramsden (Entwistle and Ramsden,1983). It was understood that these tools would need to be adapted to reflect the specific approaches and language of learning encompassed within the Art and Design disciplines. The intention was for the original researchers to complete a pilot study in the three institutions using three different sub-disciplines, Fine Art: Painting, Fashion Design and Graphic Design. The findings would be published and the study then extended across further sub-disciplines with the findings of the pilot incorporated into any new research design. The timescale had been left 'loose' but there was a notion that completion of the pilot study would be achieved within six to seven months. Communication between the researchers would be conducted primarily by e-mail with meetings as required to discuss methods and to conduct the analysis. Having acquired copies of the ASI and the version of it revised by Tait, Entwistle and McCune: the Approaches and Study Skills Inventory for Students (ASSIST) (Tait, Entwistle and McCune, 1998), discussions took place on how it might be adapted. Using student focus groups offered way forward. However, at this time all three researchers were involved in preparations for the QAA Subject Reviews in their respective universities. Whilst this delayed progress greatly, it also allowed time for intermittent exchanges of further literature relevant to the study. Consequently, it became apparent that the project was over-ambitious in its nature for three reasons. Firstly, it was un-funded and therefore its progress was dependent on how much time the researchers could take away from their other responsibilities. Secondly, the size of the sample required to render the findings from a questionnaire or inventory valid and reliable - and the administration involved - required resources that were not readily available. Thirdly, the data generated would require quantitative analysis using a computer software package such as SPSS - of which the researchers had no experience. Six months on from the initiation of the project, it was agreed that a new approach was required, and that a pilot study taking a qualitative approach would accord more with the researchers' skills and experience, and with the resources they had available to them. The New Design A practical way forward was to move to a method of data generation that the researchers felt more able to manage - the interview - and to increase the amounts of data generated by involving more researchers in the study. Two of the original researchers met with a further five researchers belonging to the Fashion Education Research Group at the London College of Fashion to present the project, outline a proposal for how it would be conducted, and to seek their collaboration. The new design for the pilot study was modelled on a brief focused on finding out about approaches to learning, conceptions of learning, and contextual factors that had influenced approaches. Usefully, it also gave a framework on how to conduct the interviews and on how to present the data. It seemed to the researchers that this process would be a good means of piloting the study and that conducting three interviews each was a manageable proposition. Agreement was reached that the phenomenon to be used as a focus for eliciting the students' experiences of learning for this study would be the taught design project, which equates with the assignment or essay used to facilitate learning in text-based disciplines. Since all of the researchers taught or had access to fashion students, it was a pragmatic decision to select these students for the sample. The timing was such that first year students were likely to be more available than second or third year students and so it was agreed to keep to this level for all the interviews. Additionally, assessment being a key factor that affects approach, students would be asked to describe a project that had been completed and assessed. The students would be selected on a random basis. The ethics of being 'inside researchers' was considered. The researchers were aware that students they had taught, or were still teaching, might feel compelled to provide an 'ideal' account of their approaches. To deal with this, researchers would arrange to interview fashion students they had not taught, although the researchers who did teach them would contact the students who would be asked to participate. The aims of the project were re-written and circulated together with guidelines for how students would be approached to take part in the study, questions that could be used as prompts as the interviewer probed the students' descriptions of their approaches, (modelled on those in the brief described above) and a schedule for the study. Feedback was received from the group, and from an experienced phenomenographer. The aims were further refined and it was decided that the study would not concern itself with contextual factors affecting approaches at the pilot stage. This process, conducted by e-mail, took approximately six weeks. It was planned that all interviews would be completed in the following four weeks (by the end of the Summer term) with preliminary analysis conducted by all researchers in the pending summer vacation. The project was now into its sixth month. The aim was to complete within a further six months. Research question The defining features of approaches to learning, the terms deep and surface approach to learning (Marton and Saljo, 1976), and the description of those defining features (further elaborated and summarised by Entwistle, 1997) were understood by the researchers not to fit neatly with their experience of design education. With this as the main underpinning feature of the aim of the enquiry, to redefine the features of approaches to learning in the context of design, the research question can be framed as: What is the qualitative variation in approaches to learning adopted by design students, and how does that range of approaches relate to research results in other disciplines? This study embarked on in this paper contributes toward the further articulation of approaches to learning in design by testing the research question within the context of first year fashion design. Data Generation The Sample Having been decided to select students on a random basis, procedures had been drawn up for how this would be done. However, the team were advised that, since the aim of the project was to discover if fashion students showed qualitative variation in their approaches to learning, the best chance of finding variation would be to select students who differ most in their approach. Consequently, the researchers selected two students who differed most from each other in their approach, and a third who might differ again. At this stage, eight researchers were engaged with the study and the hope was to produce twenty-four transcripts. One of the researchers had moved to another university during this time, thus the researchers were now drawn from four institutions, and the sample was to be drawn from five courses across these four universities. However, this proved not to be the case. Some researchers were unable to continue their involvement with the study, some had difficulties in finding time to conduct the interviews, and others with having tapes transcribed. The final number of transcripts is seventeen, with a further three that have been submitted subsequent to the initial analysis stage. The Interview The interviews were semi-structured insofar as there were questions that would open and close the interview, and those that would be used to help students elaborate on their approaches and the intentions behind those approaches. These were drawn from the brief and were: The initial questions Can you tell me about how you undertook this task / project / assignment? What did you expect to learn from doing the project? Probing on process/approach Can you tell me any more about that? When you are doing that, what are you thinking about? When you say ... what exactly do you mean? Can you give me an example of that? Probing for conscious decisions about approach Did anything make you change your mind about how to do this / that? Was there anything you found difficult? What did you do then? Probing for intentions and conceptions When you use the word learning there, what exactly do you mean? When you say you want to get more knowledge about this subject what do you mean? What counts as understanding? Is all learning the same? The interviews lasted between twenty and thirty minutes and were tape-recorded and transcribed verbatim. One researcher did her own transcribing and, although it was time-consuming, she found it helped to engage with the students' experiences of undertaking the design projects. With those tapes that were professionally transcribed, a lack of familiarity with subject-specific terminology could lead to gaps in the transcripts. Keeping the Interview Focused on the Learning of Design The relational, non-dualist nature of the research required that the interviewers should focus solely on the experience deriving from the student's involvement with the project being described, and within that context, to elicit descriptions of approaches taken to that particular activity. As Bowden observes; The phenomenographic interview has a focus - the way in which interviewees understand the chosen concept - and this focus is maintained throughout the interview. (Bowden, 2000, p9) This consistency of focus is a key factor to the phenomenographic methodology. However, not only did it prove to be far harder to maintain the focus than had been anticipated, but also at the outset, it would be fair to say that almost all the researchers did not have sufficient grasp of this fundamental principle. The focus, then, proved to be easily diverted either by the interviewers' digressions, or by those of the interviewees that went unchecked. The focus, in a lot of the earlier interviews, tended to be on design itself rather than on the learning of design. The later interviews managed to achieve the learning of design focus. This example shows how the interviewer shifted the emphasis from the project with an invitation to the student to describe what she was doing following currently. I: What did it mean to you, doing the project? S: It meant I could do something different from everyone one else in the class and do, like, think my own way, instead of just doing - like the one before that, the project, it was all dresses you see, and this way I could do my dresses, do my trousers, and you pick menswear, womenswear, or kids, just picking what I think I'm the strongest at. I: And how do you feel about that? S: I liked it 'cause I enjoy, like, menswear, but I don't think it's my strongest thing. I: And so what are you doing right now? S: This week? I: Yes. S: Oh, I've learnt so much this week, it's been brilliant! Retaining a Focus on the Student Experience Ashworth and Lucas (2000) point to the need for researchers conducting phenomenographic research into student learning to achieve 'empathy and engagement' with the 'student's lived experience'. They argue that this can be achieved if the researcher is aware of the need; To set aside his or her own assumptions, so far as is possible, in order to register the student's own point of view' (Ashworth, 1999 in Ashworth and Lucas, 2000, p297). The researchers' experience of conducting interviews proved that this was not easy, particularly when the researchers were familiar with the students and the nature of design projects. There was a tendency to adopt the teacher's role as it would be in a one-to-one tutorial and this diagnostic, and sometimes conversational, approach to the dialogue prevented the researchers from maintaining a focus on what the students saying about their experience. Here we can see that not only is the focus no longer on the learning of design (the design project), but also where the interviewer's own interest in the subject of fashion threatens to turn the interview into a discussion until she realises the digression. S: I often try and think when you look at designers' collections whether a designer can truly do a great collection just by thinking of something really simple that he doesn't really know much about. Say like he chooses you know the sun. It's not a simple thing but it's a collection full of yellow clothes, blah blah blah. Now could a designer do that unbelievable collection by choosing such a simple topic like that or does that kind of limit them in a way? So if he chooses something that he's been researching for years and years then is there a difference in outcome? I: Yes, I know what you're saying. I think that's a debate that we can have and I think you can see that. Personally I think you can see the shallow and you can see the deep, personally. I think that that's what's wrong with a lot of English fashion designers. Some of them. It is that, yes. There's nothing there, it's just a frock, it's an evening gown. That's another issue. Well in a way it isn't another issue because we're talking about how you're learning what you're learning and I'm wondering if you've learned....... A further difficulty came with the interviewer's unconscious introduction of a concept to explain or clarify what the student was describing. The excerpt below demonstrates how the student has picked up on the interviewer's earlier introduction of the word 'experimenting' when affirming her understanding of what the student had been describing. It was not a word the student herself had used, but within a very short time she reiterated it without being able to elaborate it. S: It is. A lot of the stuff, in relation to this project, a lot of the bits that I did earlier on, I didn't really know what I was doing but I was just playing around, experimenting really and finding out what doesn't go right which is more important - and what does go right. Making mistakes and finding out how to go about trying to change them or leaving them as they are. Experimenting. I: Experimenting? S: Yes. This assertion by the student is then not further probed because the interviewer feels that the term has been understood, she then passes on to ask questions about other strategies used in the project without checking understanding. This renders an element of the transcript to be invalid for the purposes of analysis. Probing for the Intention In discussion of his experience of conducting a phenomenographic study with first year physics students, Prosser states; In the interviews it was relatively easy to get the students to describe the what, but much more difficult to get them to discuss the why. (Prosser, 2000, p36). This accords with the researchers' experiences. However, in this case, the lack of reference to intention found in the interview transcripts was brought about to some extent by a lack of awareness, on some of the interviewers' parts, that there was a need to elicit more than just the descriptions of the approaches. And there were instances of simply missing an opportunity to probe further. Here we can see where the interviewer reverts to the 'what' (the process of drawing) when it would have been appropriate to continue to seek further clarification on the 'why'. I: When you say 'thinking about' what does that involve, 'thinking about pockets'? S: Just drawing a few different examples of pockets and maybe having a look at some real trousers and having a look at real pockets, then going back to sort of the paper and just drawing out some ideas of different pocket shapes and things like that. I: Why would you be doing that? S: Because you have to have physical proof! I: And do you feel that the drawing is a useful part of the process? Evaluation of Pilot Interviews Once the researchers met, with an experienced phenomenographer present, to consider the initial transcripts and conduct a preliminary analysis of the data, it became clear that a problem derived from the collective lack of experience in carrying out phenomenographic interviews, and, indeed, in really understanding that the analysis would involve identifying both the referential and structural (strategy and intention) dimensions of the students' approaches. Much of the data was flawed by the many instances of the interviews losing focus. Also, there had been some confusion over whether the interviews were concerned with approaches and conceptions, or only with approaches. The group of researchers were directed to examples of transcripts in Prosser & Trigwell (1999), which aided reflection on the transcripts to hand. In light of this, and since more transcripts were needed, there being only nine completed at that point, it was agreed it would be wise to conduct one further interview, each in an attempt to apply the improved understandings resulting from the session. These interviews would concentrate on approaches only. This resulted in six further transcripts: five from one researcher who was building on the study for separate purposes, and who felt that her first three were largely unusable; and one from another researcher whose first three transcripts had demonstrated her better awareness of the phenomenographic methodology. A wider reading of the literature around phenomenographic method and it's distinctive relational, non-dualist, second order approach was also suggested (Trigwell, 1999). Analysis The transcripts were analysed by all three researchers individually for a preliminary attempt at highlighting significant phrases in relation to how students approached their learning. The project format tended to encourage a similar pattern of actions described across the interviews, beginning with 'research', developing this in some way, making and or drawing and producing finished products, designs or garments. Thus the structural and referential components emerged from the students' process of describing how they had approached the project. Although the transcripts differed in the projects and actions described, they could be said to conform to similar activities, even though the interviewee may not have used the same terminology in describing it. Difficulties in meeting up led to a split in the continuation of the analysis. Two researchers met to begin the formal construction of categories by sorting the components of the structural and referential parts of the significant descriptions. This was done by moving through the transcripts one by one and indicating what each of us had found to be relevant on each page. Whilst doing this rough groupings began to emerge within the activity and the intent. That is, similarities in what students said they were doing were given working names for the components and an initial framework for differences within the components was set up. For example, the components labelled 'working with others', 'talking about it' and 'dialogue' were not different enough to be separate and were conflated as one overarching strategy, 'working with others'. Within this strategy the phrases were grouped by intent. Whilst the phrases were about interaction with others, the underlying intent was seen to be either to seek instruction through the tutor; to see the tutor as an aid to self knowledge; to recognise the value of peer evaluation as an aid to one's own learning; or to increase one's understanding of one's own performance. The more experienced researcher then met with the other member of the team to discuss and review the meanings and components again, thus carrying out a further iteration. This development of the 'pool of meanings' did not follow the early methodology described by Marton and Saljo (1976) in which the phrases were selected and grouped in piles of differences. It conformed to the later descriptions of a 'metaphorical pool', where the selected comments were left in situ to allow a more contextual analysis to remain when the process of iteration continued (Marton 1992 cited in Bowden, 2000 p 12). The whole transcripts were not used as the basis of classification as some phenomenographic researchers advocate. In the initial sorting of the student's approaches into strategies and intentions, it became clear that within the range of transcripts we had a large number of different combinations and that to label the transcript would be to over-simplify and possibly ignore many of the relationships within the student experience. The process of sorting the statements into components and looking for relational hierarchies was the classic iterative one of questioning, evaluating and reaching agreement. No discussion of categories had been undertaken before the study, so no transcripts were read initially with any particular framework in mind, except for previous knowledge gained through the literature of learning and teaching. Thus it was through dialogue that the categories emerged and were refined. Confirmation of components was assisted by the classification of different intent within them. By looking for the underlying conceptions in an interviewee's account the patterns became more apparent. It felt like an archaeological process of uncovering what relationships lay within the transcripts, and to push the analogy further, of carting away large amounts of superfluous dirt! Findings In this study of seventeen university students of fashion design we have identified four different approaches to learning. These approaches are constituted in terms of the students' strategies and intentions in the context of one of their first year fashion design projects. The approaches to learning in fashion design, as constituted at this stage of the analysis, are briefly described below: Approach A A product focused strategy with the intention to demonstrate technical competence Students focus on making a technically competent artefact (garment, drawing, pattern etc.) Information is collected with the intention to reproduce elements in the making of the artefact. The visual aspects of the design process are focused solely on remembering procedures and techniques. Approach B A product focused strategy with the intention to develop the design process Like Approach A, students adopting this approach also have the intention to develop technical competence, but they aim to do so through strategies focused on experimenting with design processes. Part of their development occurs in interaction with a tutor, technician or peers. Students collect and review information in order to develop the process of design in the making of an artefact. Practice and repetition of design and making skills are an important part of the learning process. Approach C A process focused strategy with the intention to develop the design process Students focus on the process of visualisation through experimental design and making. Students make connections and relate ideas in the process of visual research. The design process is interactive with tutor, technician or peers in order to further develop ideas. Experimentation in this approach is a strategy used for discovery and development of design processes rather than as a means to making an artefact more competently. Approach D A concept focused strategy with the intention to develop own conceptions Students focus on the process of visualisation of concepts through experimental design processes and making. Visual concepts are developed through relating ideas in the research process. The development of visual concepts is considered to be fundamental in this approach and therefore is more important than the final execution of the product. The design process is interactive with tutor, technician or peers in order to develop critical abilities and conceptual thinking skills. The strategy and intention dimensions of the categories of approaches to learning fashion courses Strategy Intention Focus of the learning Develop technical competence Develop design process Develop own Conceptions Making an artefact (product focus) A B Experimenting with process (process focus) C Visualising of concepts (concept focus) D Discussion It was evident that as neophyte phenomenographic researchers we brought our own knowledge and previous awareness with us. This included interests in research and debates in teaching and learning going back several years and a variety of teaching, administrative and staff development work within our various colleges. The uncovering of the categories and their structures was very much effected by this knowledge. The need to 'bracket' ones own previous experience was not fully discussed in the first stages of sorting and, perhaps we felt that we did not know what was going to emerge before we started and that this was probably sufficient. However, the processes described by Ashworth and Lucas (2000) might suggest a more rigorous attempt to put aside ones previous learning in order to avoid presupposing the structures might be advisable in future refinements of our methodology. The aim of phenomenographic research is to arrive at a structure within which the various student conceptualisations of the relevant concept are fitted: a structure of categories of description. However, an anxiety arises that - unless this goal is bracketed during those stages of the research which are concerned to uncover conceptions - it threatens to subvert entry into the student lifeworld. (Ashworth and Lucas, 2000, p 298) Whereas we may not have spent enough time interrogating the data before we began to analyse and group conceptions, we did however feel that we had a very strong understanding and empathy towards those interviewed, even though they were working on unknown and unseen projects. The way they described their activities was familiar territory. Design education has had a tradition of one to one contact with students through workshops, academic and pastoral tutorials, assessment and critique. All three researchers brought many years of knowledge, both through their own educational experience and through the vicarious one of tutoring. This close empathy with the processes and descriptions was both a hindrance in obtaining data and an advantage in the analysis and recognition of differences. Being used to variable working practices and open ended design activities requires a degree of suspension of expectation and judgement in our working lives. Similar educational experiences perhaps enabled a framework to be constructed relatively quickly through an empathy with the students' descriptions of their learning activities, whether we approved of the statements they made or not, they were mostly familiar. Conclusion In attempting to redefine the features of approaches to learning in the context of design, firstly the differences between the original research results and the new context must be evaluated. In examining these earlier, seminal studies, the focus is on learning using a text (even though the term 'text' can take on a metaphorical meaning), or of learning in text based study. At the extremes of deep and surface approaches to learning, this study illustrates a resonance between the intention to reproduce, memorise facts and procedures, and the intention to relate ideas to previous knowledge and experience. Text and design can be freely interchanged with these descriptions of the features of approaches to learning. The findings expressed in the outcome space developed for this study indicate a greater area of variation between these two extremes. The process of design as a learning process is neither a strategy for reproduction, nor one of making connections and relations in the learning, but one of experimenting with a process in order to engage with the learning of design. It will be the task of this research team to take these initial findings further and to clarify what these similarities and differences are. The major problems of conducting the research amongst the continuous pressures of a heavy academic workload meant that the induction to the research methodology was long and arduous. On reflection, the act of analysing transcripts, together with continuous reading about the methodology, and critique and discussion to clarify the processes involved, revealed a greater understanding of phenomenography. It has been an interesting feature of the study that the teachers who wished to embark on research into student learning have faced unforeseen difficulties in doing so. The focus on educational research in Higher Education in the UK is growing, and, equally, there are a growing number of educators who wish to engage with issues surrounding teaching and learning. Nevertheless, it has been the experience of this team that to attempt to conduct a study on a 'voluntary' basis, and to attempt to build experience in this field is a matter that is seldom mentioned in the literature on pedagogical research. It is, therefore, worth noting that researchers new to the field should be aware that to engage with and produce research with quality outcomes in any area is not an easy task. It is to be expected that teachers, who are not engaged in this pursuit full time will have to grapple with difficulties, both logistically and conceptually. It takes most people the whole duration of their doctoral study to learn about methods, expressing research questions etc. To expect to grasp these things in one research project is highly ambitious and there will be the need to continue to engage with phenomenography and similar work before a level of confidence can be achieved. Acknowledgements We acknowledge the contribution made to this study by Keith Trigwell, Rowena Pelik, Carmel Kelly, Polly Kenny and Suzi Vaughan. References Ashworth, P. & Lucas, U. (2000) Achieving empathy and engagement: a practical approach to the design, conduct and reporting of phenomenographic research. Studies in Higher Education, 25, 295-308. Biggs, J.B. (1987) The Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ) Users' Manual. Hawthorne, Victoria, Australian Council for Educational Research. Bowden, J.A. (2000) The nature of phenomenographic research. In Bowden, J.A. & Walsh, E. (Eds.) Phenomenography (pp 1-18) RMIT University, Melbourne. Entwistle, N.J. (1997) Contrasting perspectives on learning. In The Experience of Learning (2nd Edition) Edinburgh: Scottish Academic Press. Entwistle, N.J. & Ramsden, P. (1983) Understanding Student Learning. London, Croom Helm. Marton, F. (1992) Phenomenography and "the art of teaching all things to all men". Qualitative Studies in Education, 5, 253-267. Marton, F. & Booth, S. (1997) Learning and awareness. Mahwah, N. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Marton, F. & Saljo, R. (1976) On qualitative differences in learning. I - Outcome and process, British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 4-11. Prosser, M. (2000) Using phenomenographic research methodology in the context of research in learning and teaching. In Bowden, J. A. & Walsh, E. (Eds.) Phenomenography (pp34-46) RMIT University, Melbourne. Tait, H., Entwistle, N.J. & McCune, V. (1998) ASSIST: A reconceptualisation of the Approaches to Studying Inventory. In Rust, C. (Ed.) Improving Student Learning: Improving Students as Learners (pp. 262-271) Oxford: Oxford Brookes University, Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development. Trigwell, K. (2000) Phenomenography: Discernment and Variation. In Rust, C. (Ed.) Improving Student Learning: Improving Student Learning through the Disciplines (pp. 75-85) Oxford: Oxford Brookes University, Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development. This document was added to the Education-line database on 28 June 2001 http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=KdR4OmWtQdIC&pg=PA2&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false