Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 1 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania 1) Title of Book: Nomads of Mauritania by Brigitte Himpan and Diane Himpan-Sabatier. 2) Subject disciplines: Cultural/Social Studies -> Nomads -> Cultural Identity/Nomadic art -> African/West-African Studies -> Mauritania. 3) One-line summary: The culture (geographical environment, history, way of life, caste system, diet, housing, crafts, religious beliefs, Hassaniya language, values, relations with others and materialized art) and future of the Mauritanian nomads facing the climate warming, overpopulation and (economic and cultural) globalization. 4) Main subjects: Subject 1: Culture of the nomads of Mauritania (geographical environment affected by desertification, original history, nomadic way of life, caste system, diet, housing, crafts, language, religious beliefs, language, values, relations with others and art). Subject 2: The nomadic Mauritanian art expressed on the usual objects and body and defined for the first time as “geometrical-abstract art” and respectively as “ephemeral usual art” and “ephemeral living art” with its characteristics and decoded motifs. Subject 3: Future and weight of the current Mauritanian nomads facing the climate warming, overpopulation and (economic and cultural) globalization. Other subjects: - An original history of Mauritania refitting in the past notably the advent of Islam and the spreading of Arabic among the nomads and enlightening on their origins and influences. - The symbol of the « good eye » defined for the first time as « eye of the source ». 5) Type of publication: Nomads of Mauritania is an interdisciplinary research, information and analysis book based on two academic dissertations done by the author, Brigitte HIMPAN. In a view of making available and sharing the content of these theses with a larger public, the information has been updated, deepened and in some way completed by new unpublished points of view and analyses about the culture of the Mauritanian nomads; thus, giving rise to the present book, Nomads of Mauritania. 6) Publishers: - Vernon Press for the English version (book published on 05/09/2018 & 03/05/2019); - Academia-Harmattan for the French version (book published on 18/06/2018). 7) Intended audience: “Nomads of Mauritania”, written in a comprehensive manner, is intended for anyone, adventurous, traveller, literate, passionate for or eager to know, through an academic approach, about the culture (geographical environment, history, nomadic way of life, caste system, diet, housing, crafts, religious beliefs, language, values, relations with others and art) and the future of the Mauritanian nomads in the Saharan desert, as well as their weight and influence within the society facing the climate warming, overpopulation and (economic and cultural) globalization. 2 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 Furthermore, the students (undergraduate, advanced or postgraduate) and researchers in Art, Anthropology, Ethnology, Humanities, Sociology, Geography or History of West Africa will find judicious points of view about the desertification, migrations, an original history of Mauritania, as well as a detailed analysis of the Mauritanian nomadic art, expressed on usual objects and body and defined for the first time as “geometrical-abstract art” and respectively as “ephemeral usual art” and “ephemeral living art”. You will also discover the characteristics and decoded meanings of this art, such as the magical symbol of the “good eye” in a circle shape and defined for the first time as “eye of the source”. 8) Originality: Nomads of Mauritania has its own originality. Complete, detailed, clear, well illustrated about the culture of the Mauritanian nomads : Firstly “Nomads of Mauritania” brings a complete approach to the culture (geographical environment affected by desertification, an original history of Mauritania, nomadism, caste system, diet, housing, crafts, religious beliefs, language, values and art) of the Mauritanian nomads, whatever their origins, Arab-Berber and Black African ones. Furthermore, this book analyses their art, expressed on usual objects and body, and defined for the first time as “geometrical-abstract art” and respectively as “ephemeral usual art” and “ephemeral living art”: its characteristics and decoded motifs are deepened, such as the symbol of the “good eye” in a circle shape defined also for the first time as “eye of the source”. It enlightens how this art reveals the deep cultural identity of the Mauritanian nomads and by the same of the Mauritanians of today. Moreover, it has the audacity to get to the heart of the real causes of the Mauritanian nomads’ current challenges (sedentarization and westernization): worldwide and regional climatic warming, overpopulation and (economic and cultural) globalization. Finally, it brings detailed information about the future of the nomads and to what extent they are still the pillars and heart of the current Mauritanian society. 9) Shape of the book: The book has 552 pages and contains 102 illustrations including: a) 11 colour maps; b) 58 colour photographs inside the book; c) 2 colour photographs for the front and back cover; d) 28 designs, out of which 5 colour and 23 black & white designs; e) and 3 tables. Hardcover, premium colour: ISBN: 978-1622734108, ~106 $. Hardcover, black & white: ISBN: 978-1622734566, ~71 $. Paperback, premium colour: ISBN: 978-1622737253, ~99 $. Paperback, black & white: ISBN: 978-1622737246, ~63 $. Ebook: ISBN: 978-1622735822, ~111 $. 10) Authors: Brigitte HIMPAN, Diane HIMPAN-SABATIER. Brigitte Sigburg HIMPAN, bearing the artist’s name HYMPAN, is a professional Artist Painter, quoted on the market of Art. She received numerous awards and honours, as well as the Laureate of the Golden Book of Human Values in 1974 and the title of Academician Chevalier in Art section from the International Academy Greci-Marino (Italy) in 2005. Brigitte HIMPAN got a diploma of General Academic Studies in the section of Fine Arts and two Bachelor’s degrees in Fine Arts and Sciences of Education at the University of Paris VIII (France). 3 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 In 1983, she obtained a Master’s degree in Fine Arts with First Class Honours at the University of Paris VIII with the thesis entitled: La Vie quotidienne des nomades mauritaniens à travers leurs objets usuels (translation: The everyday Life of the Mauritanian Nomads through their usual Objects). Then, in 1986, she got the First Class Honours for a post-graduate pre-PhD thesis (DEA) in Philosophy of Art and Culture at the University of Panthéon-Sorbonne Paris 1 (France) with the subject: L’Identité culturelle des nomades mauritaniens (translation: The Cultural Identity of the Mauritanian Nomads). Diane HIMPAN-SABATIER, a graduate of the Higher Institute of Management (ISG, Paris) in 1994 and the Higher School of Cinema Studies (ESEC, Paris) in 1996, is also the author of a postgraduate pre-PhD thesis at the School of International High Studies (EHEI, Paris) in 1996. Furthermore, she spent nine months of her life in Mauritania through several stays from 1981 to 1992, during which she got acquainted with and was interested in the Mauritanian culture. Therefore, through some exhaustive research work, she participated in the completion and update of Nomads of Mauritania. 11) Synopsis: Just a few decades ago, the great majority of Mauritanians were still nomads, living and moving in the Saharan desert. Nowadays, they represent less than 2 % of the entire Mauritanian population, which however keeps the traditions and culture of the nomads. From where, when and from whom does the nomadic Mauritanian cultural identity originate? How is it still strongly present in the current society and how does the Mauritanian nomadic art express it? Firstly, the presentation of the Mauritanian nomads’ geographical environment, characterized by its desertification, enables to realize their way of life (nomadism), diet, housing and crafts; whereas the original history of their country enlightens on the origins and present cohabitation of different ethnic communities, their cultural and religious influences and contributions; thus, the caste system, language, religious beliefs and values of the nomads. Once these detailed data defined, the cultural identity of the Mauritanian nomads appears clearly and is particularly revealed through their art, materially expressed on the usual objects and body and defined for the first time as a “geometrical-abstract art” and respectively as “ephemeral usual art” and “ephemeral living art”. The characteristics of this art are detailed regarding its artistic tendency, perspective, dimension, suggested ideas and the meanings of some designs, like the motif of the “good eye” defined also for the first time as “eye of the source”. Furthermore, facing the climatic warming, overpopulation and worldwide (economic and cultural) globalization, what has become of the nomads of Mauritania today? Finally, despite their almost extinction, in which manner are they still the pillars and heart of the Mauritanian current society? 12) Synopsis by chapter: 121) Synopsis Chapter 1: GEOGRAPHY OF MAURITANIA: The geography of Mauritania is based on a paradox. While the country is characterized mainly by an arid and bare desert, it possesses, in addition to salt mines and abundant fishing resources, hidden wealth, of which some have been known since Antiquity: minerals and underground water. Was the environment of the Mauritanian nomads the same over time? What factors have brought the desertification in the country? Moreover, whereas the Mauritanian nomads were adapted to their desert environment since the first millennium, how have the droughts and advance of the desert, henceforth expanding even towards south, affected their lives since 1970? 4 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 122) Synopsis Chapter 2: HISTORY OF MAURITANIA: The nomads of Mauritania have a long and rich history dating back to the Palaeolithic and Antiquity. Firstly, you will learn about their ancestors at the origin of the present cohabitation of various ethnic communities and the contributions, which they brought to the current Mauritanian nomadic culture. Then, you will understand why the Moors have taken the lead of the Mauritanian society by their language, religion and values and how they adapted to the progressive desertification of the Sahara by being the key-actors of the trans-Saharan trade, making various African empires flourish in the south and giving rise to the Almoravids. Finally, the strong opposition of the Mauritanian nomads to the colonization of their country until the independence reveals why their culture is so strongly rooted into the current Mauritanian society. 123) Synopsis Chapter 3: NOMADISM: THE MAURITANIAN NOMADS’ WAY OF LIFE: Nomadism, in link with the progressive desertification of Mauritania, thus called “climatic nomadism” and more precisely “desert nomadism”, has become the way of life of the Mauritanian nomads. This chapter is a reflection about nomadism: its different types, factors of appearance, influences on the lives of the nomads (occupations, caste system, housing, objects, clothing, and diet) and its consequences in the West-African culture through the Mauritanian nomads. How has nomadism shaped the everyday life of the Mauritanian nomads? To what extent through nomadism have they influenced the culture of West Africa? 124) Synopsis Chapter 4: SOCIETY OF CASTES AMONG THE NOMADS: The history, through the cohabitation of various ethnic communities, and the way of life, “desert nomadism”, of the nomads of Mauritania have influenced their social organization into a caste system, which remained the same over time until 1981, year of the official abolition of slavery in the country. What were the roles and hierarchy of the various castes within the nomadic Mauritanian society before 1981? Have the castes totally disappeared within the current Mauritanian society despite other laws since 1981? 125) Synopsis Chapter 5: NUTRITIONAL PREOCCUPATIONS OF THE NOMADS: In a mainly desert environment, how have the nomads of Mauritania succeeded to survive since the first millennium? The presentation of their nutritional preoccupations is essential to understand their basic resources at the origin of their crafts and so precious for their everyday life, transportation and occupations. 126) Synopsis Chapter 6: MATERIAL PREOCCUPATIONS OF THE NOMADS: Nomadism has influenced the housing of the Mauritanian nomads, who must be able to carry their housing and furniture, composed principally by the tent and mats. How and by whom are these lightweight materials made? Further, you will also learn about the protocols of living under the tent, the arrangement of tents within a nomadic camp, the social life and hospitality, which the tent can bring. 127) Synopsis Chapter 7: CRAFTS OF THE NOMADS: The objects and crafts of the nomads of Mauritania are few, mainly lightweight and adapted to their way of life. They are not only useful for their everyday life, but also most of them are the supports of their art. What are these objects? What materials are they made of and by whom? You will understand why the livestock occupies a preponderant position among nomads, as leather and wool are the main sources of their objects, then wood coming from the south of the country for special items, metal for weapons or precious objects like jewellery and terracotta for cooking purpose. In addition, where does the expression of the “blue men of the desert” come 5 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 from and how are clothes ironed without charcoal in a camp? Finally, what has become of the crafts of the Mauritanian nomads within the current increasingly sedentary, internationalized and westernized society? 128) Synopsis Chapter 8: CULTURAL IDENTITY OF THE MAURITANIAN NOMADS: The cultural identity of the nomads of Mauritania is very close to that of the Moors as a result of their environment, history, nomadism and social system. However, the other Mauritanian ethnicities have also influenced the religious beliefs, language, values and some social practices, like the women’s role in the nomadic society, giving rise to a specific cultural Mauritanian identity hereafter presented. Furthermore, how is it revealed through the “geometrical-abstract art” of the Mauritanian nomads, which is materially expressed and defined for the first time as “ephemeral usual art” and “ephemeral living art”? What are the characteristics of this art and the meanings of some artistic patterns, like the magical circular motif of the “good eye”, rather defined also for the first time as “eye of the source”? 129) Synopsis Chapter 9: WHAT HAS BECOME OF THE MAURITANIAN NOMADS? : The Mauritanian nomads have included at first the Moorish camp leaders and their members, who belong to noble tribes, warriors and marabouts, taking tributaries along with them in their movements: artisans, griots, harratins and hunters. Traditionally, they travelled the desert according to the favours of nature and economic imperatives and lived in movable tents, mainly on trade, breeding, salt production from opencast mines and dates from oases. Nowadays, they only represent 1.9 % of the Mauritanian population in 2013. While almost all the tributaries have become sedentary, who are these nomads? Where are they? What do they do? Where have the Mauritanian nomads gone and what are their place and influence within the Mauritanian society today? 13) Table of contents: Maps of Africa and Mauritania........................................................................................................................................ 1 FOREWORDS ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................................................................. 7 Chapter 1:............................................................................................................................................................................. 11 GEOGRAPHY OF MAURITANIA ............................................................................................................................... 11 1. Geographical situation................................................................................................................................................ 11 2. Climates ........................................................................................................................................................................ 13 a) A desert climate called “Saharan”....................................................................................................................... 14 b) A Sahelian climate ................................................................................................................................................. 14 c) A coastal climate .................................................................................................................................................... 15 d) The Intertropical Convergence Zone in the south of Mauritania.................................................................... 16 e) The meteorological factors influencing the Mauritanian climates.................................................................. 17 f) The Mauritanian seasons ...................................................................................................................................... 18 3. Relief and landscapes.................................................................................................................................................. 18 4. Hydrography ............................................................................................................................................................... 20 5. Vegetation..................................................................................................................................................................... 23 a) The vegetation in the wild.................................................................................................................................... 23 b) The agricultural crops ........................................................................................................................................... 25 6. Population .................................................................................................................................................................... 25 7. Mineral wealth ............................................................................................................................................................ 27 a) Geological zones .................................................................................................................................................... 28 b) Iron .......................................................................................................................................................................... 28 c) Copper..................................................................................................................................................................... 32 6 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 d) Gold ......................................................................................................................................................................... 32 e) Oil and gas.............................................................................................................................................................. 33 f) Salt ........................................................................................................................................................................... 33 g) Gypsum................................................................................................................................................................... 34 h) Phosphate ............................................................................................................................................................... 34 i) Chrome.................................................................................................................................................................... 34 j) Titanium.................................................................................................................................................................. 34 k) Tin ............................................................................................................................................................................ 34 l) Zinc and lead.......................................................................................................................................................... 34 m) Quartz...................................................................................................................................................................... 35 8. Wealth of the sea.......................................................................................................................................................... 35 9. Fauna............................................................................................................................................................................. 36 a) Causes of disappearance of the majority of the wildlife .................................................................................. 37 b) The remaining wild animal species..................................................................................................................... 38 10. Desertification of the Sahara and Mauritania .......................................................................................................... 41 a) The Sahara and Mauritania until around -12,000.............................................................................................. 41 b) The Sahara and Mauritania from -12,000 to the beginning of the 1st millennium......................................... 43 c) Desertification of the Sahara and Mauritania from the 1st millennium .......................................................... 45 d) The return of a new glacial period since 1250.................................................................................................... 46 e) The global climatic warming since 1850 ............................................................................................................. 46 f) Regional causes of the climatic warming in Mauritania .................................................................................. 47 g) Consequences of the climatic warming in Mauritania ..................................................................................... 49 h) Periods of drought in Mauritania........................................................................................................................ 50 i) The droughts from 1970 to 1993 .......................................................................................................................... 51 j) The rainfall from 1994 to 2015.............................................................................................................................. 52 k) The advance of desertification in Mauritania .................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 2:............................................................................................................................................................................. 59 HISTORY OF MAURITANIA ....................................................................................................................................... 59 A. Mauritania at the time of Prehistory ....................................................................................................................... 61 1. A human presence as early as the Palaeolithic........................................................................................................ 61 2. Prehistoric rupestrian paintings and carvings......................................................................................................... 67 B. The ancient inhabitants of Mauritania ................................................................................................................... 72 1. The first inhabitants of Mauritania: black ethnicities...................................................................................................... 72 a) The Serers................................................................................................................................................................ 72 b) The Peuls................................................................................................................................................................. 73 c) The Wolofs.............................................................................................................................................................. 76 d) The Mandinkas ...................................................................................................................................................... 77 e) The Soninkes .......................................................................................................................................................... 77 f) The Toucouleurs .................................................................................................................................................... 77 2. The arrival of the first Berbers, originating from India .......................................................................................... 80 3. The Bafours................................................................................................................................................................... 82 4. The Canarians, tall and blond.................................................................................................................................... 85 5. The Persians ................................................................................................................................................................. 89 C. The second wave of Berbers of Arab origin .......................................................................................................... 90 D. 1. 2. 3. Mauritania in Antiquity ............................................................................................................................................ 94 Trade with Pharaonic Egypt ...................................................................................................................................... 94 Contacts with the Phoenicians and Carthaginians...................................................................................................... 94 Mauritania in the age of the Greeks and Romans in the north and the emerging Ghana Empire in the south....... 95 a) Mauritania in the epoch of the Greeks and Romans ........................................................................................ 95 b) The appearance of an African kingdom and empire in the south of Mauritania.......................................... 99 E. The advent of Arabs and Islam in North Africa and Mauritania from the 7th century ................................ 101 1. North Africa at the time of the first Muslim caliphs ............................................................................................ 101 2. The Arab troops of the Umayyad Empire in Mauritania .................................................................................... 102 7 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 3. 4. 5. 6. Independent kingdoms in North-West Africa from 750 to the middle of the 11th century ............................. 105 The arrival of Arab tribes in North Africa and Mauritania as early as the end of the 10th century ........................ 108 The Empire of the Almoravids, Mauritanian Moors, from 1054 to 1147 ........................................................... 112 Mauritania in contact with the Almohads from 1147 to 1269.............................................................................. 117 F. The blossoming of African powers in the south of Mauritania from the 13th century and the advent of the European maritime trade ............................................................................................................................. 119 1. The return of the influence of African powers over the south of Mauritania from the 13th to the 17th century ..... 119 a) The Mali Empire in the south of Mauritania in the 13th and 14th centuries ................................................. 119 b) The Djolof Empire in the south-west of Mauritania in the 15th century ....................................................... 122 c) The Tekrour Kingdom in the south-west of Mauritania from the 16th to the 18th century ........................ 123 d) The Songhai Empire in the south-east of Mauritania in the 16th century .................................................... 124 e) The Waalo Kingdom in the extreme south-west of Mauritania from the middle of the 16th century ...... 125 f) The Bundu Kingdom in Guidimaka from the 17th century ............................................................................ 126 2. The timid installation of European trading posts on the Mauritanian coasts from 1444................................. 127 G. 1. 2. 3. 4. The control and protection of the entire Mauritanian territory by the Moors from the 17th century ...... 128 The indirect role of the Saadians in the north-east of Mauritania in the 17th century ...................................... 128 The reorganization of Mauritania by the Moors in the 17th century................................................................... 129 The Moors in the control of the south-west of Mauritania in the 18th century.................................................. 131 The Country of the Moors or the Barbary in the 18th and 19th centuries ............................................................ 132 H. The colonization stages of Mauritania ................................................................................................................. 133 1. The French geopolitical strategy in West Africa ................................................................................................... 133 2. The Mauritanian emirates in the 19th century and their first resistances to the French occupation .................... 136 a) The Emirate of Trarza ......................................................................................................................................... 137 b) The Emirate of Brakna......................................................................................................................................... 138 c) The Emirate of Tagant......................................................................................................................................... 139 d) The Emirate of Adrar .......................................................................................................................................... 139 3. The peaceful colonization of Mauritania from 1901 to 1906 ................................................................................ 142 4. The armed resistance of the Moors facing the military colonization from 1907 to 1934.................................. 146 5. The colonial organization of Mauritania from 1935 .................................................................................................. 153 I. Mauritania since its independence ....................................................................................................................... 154 1. The important Mauritanian dates ........................................................................................................................... 154 2. The war of the Western Sahara................................................................................................................................ 160 Chapter 3:........................................................................................................................................................................... 163 NOMADISM: THE MAURITANIAN NOMADS’ WAY OF LIFE ........................................................................ 163 A. The factors leading to the appearance of nomadism ......................................................................................... 163 1. The « climatic nomadism »....................................................................................................................................... 163 2. The « nomadism of activity » ................................................................................................................................... 164 B. 1. 2. 3. 4. Nomadism and occupations of the Moors ........................................................................................................... 165 Breeding...................................................................................................................................................................... 166 Basic exchanges.......................................................................................................................................................... 166 Development of palm groves and exploitation of salt mines .............................................................................. 167 The trans-Saharan trade............................................................................................................................................ 167 a) The Moorish nomad becoming a « caravan nomad »........................................................................................ 167 b) The Moors, key actors of the trans-Saharan trade........................................................................................... 167 c) The necessary spatial planning of the nomads’ territory ............................................................................... 170 d) The trans-Saharan trade existing since Antiquity ........................................................................................... 171 e) The evolution of the trans-Saharan trade since the 15th century ................................................................... 171 C. Nomadism and the social organization of nomads ............................................................................................ 174 1. The « desert nomadism » leading to a society of castes........................................................................................... 174 2. The « desert nomadism » and slavery........................................................................................................................ 175 D. Nomadism and the daily life of nomads.............................................................................................................. 179 1. Nomadism shaping their housing........................................................................................................................... 179 8 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 2. Nomadism influencing their objects ....................................................................................................................... 179 3. Nomadism affecting their clothing ......................................................................................................................... 180 4. Nomadism marking their diet ................................................................................................................................. 180 E. Nomadism and the cultural and religious impacts of the Moorish nomads ................................................. 181 Chapter 4:........................................................................................................................................................................... 183 SOCIETY OF CASTES AMONG THE NOMADS ................................................................................................... 183 A. 1. 2. 3. Hierarchy and activity of the castes among the nomads before 1981.............................................................. 185 The warriors ............................................................................................................................................................... 185 The marabouts ........................................................................................................................................................... 188 The tributaries ............................................................................................................................................................ 189 a) The zenaga tributaries .......................................................................................................................................... 189 b) The artisans or mallemins .................................................................................................................................... 189 c) The griots .............................................................................................................................................................. 190 d) The freed slaves: the harratins and imraguen .................................................................................................... 191 e) The slaves or abid ................................................................................................................................................. 192 f) The hunters or nemadis ........................................................................................................................................ 193 B. The nomads and the current Mauritanian society.............................................................................................. 196 1. The Moorish nomads in the organization of the Mauritanian society ............................................................... 196 2. The future of the castes in Mauritania .................................................................................................................... 198 Chapter 5:........................................................................................................................................................................... 203 NUTRITIONAL PREOCCUPATIONS OF THE NOMADS .................................................................................. 203 1. Movements of the nomads ....................................................................................................................................... 203 a) The nomads in seasonal migrations .................................................................................................................. 203 b) The nomads in periodic migrations .................................................................................................................. 203 2. Water: the best friend of the nomad........................................................................................................................ 205 3. The wells and transport of water............................................................................................................................. 207 a) The sump .............................................................................................................................................................. 207 b) The well or bir....................................................................................................................................................... 207 4. Livestock ..................................................................................................................................................................... 210 a) Goats...................................................................................................................................................................... 211 b) Sheep ..................................................................................................................................................................... 211 c) Cattle ..................................................................................................................................................................... 213 d) Camels................................................................................................................................................................... 213 e) Donkeys ................................................................................................................................................................ 217 f) Horses.................................................................................................................................................................... 217 5. Milk ............................................................................................................................................................................. 217 6. Butter........................................................................................................................................................................... 220 7. Dates............................................................................................................................................................................ 221 8. The sacrifice of animals............................................................................................................................................. 224 9. Hunting....................................................................................................................................................................... 227 10. Cereals: a nutritional complement .......................................................................................................................... 234 11. Salt: in the heart of the trade-based caravan economy .................................................................................................... 236 Chapter 6:........................................................................................................................................................................... 239 MATERIAL PREOCCUPATIONS OF THE NOMADS .......................................................................................... 239 A. 1. 2. 3. The tent or khaima.................................................................................................................................................... 239 The khaima in its material aspect.............................................................................................................................. 239 The khaima in its spiritual meaning ......................................................................................................................... 250 Weaving techniques of the tent ............................................................................................................................... 256 a) The raw materials ................................................................................................................................................ 257 b) The wool cleaning................................................................................................................................................ 258 c) The wool combing ............................................................................................................................................... 258 d) The wool carding ................................................................................................................................................. 258 9 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 e) The wool spinning .............................................................................................................................................. 258 f) The wool weaving ............................................................................................................................................... 259 g) The assembling of the weaves............................................................................................................................ 261 B. 1. 2. 3. The mat....................................................................................................................................................................... 262 The warp of the mat .................................................................................................................................................. 263 The weft of the mat.................................................................................................................................................... 264 Process used to make a mat...................................................................................................................................... 267 Chapter 7:........................................................................................................................................................................... 269 CRAFTS OF THE NOMADS ....................................................................................................................................... 269 A. 1. 2. 3. 4. Crafts of leather ........................................................................................................................................................ 269 Water skins ................................................................................................................................................................. 269 Date skins ................................................................................................................................................................... 271 Milk skins and butter skins ...................................................................................................................................... 271 Decorated leather objects.......................................................................................................................................... 272 a) Bags........................................................................................................................................................................ 272 b) Cushions ............................................................................................................................................................... 275 c) The snuffbox......................................................................................................................................................... 276 5. Leather working techniques..................................................................................................................................... 278 B. 1. 2. 3. 4. Crafts of wood........................................................................................................................................................... 282 Calabashes .................................................................................................................................................................. 282 Milking pots ............................................................................................................................................................... 286 Wooden boxes, inlaid or covered with metal ........................................................................................................ 288 Wooden jewels, inlaid with metal ........................................................................................................................... 290 C. Crafts of terracotta .................................................................................................................................................... 291 1. Terracotta pots: cooking utensils............................................................................................................................. 291 2. Technique of pottery making................................................................................................................................... 292 D. 1. 2. 3. 4. Crafts of metal........................................................................................................................................................... 294 Gold and silver jewellery.......................................................................................................................................... 294 Metal boxes................................................................................................................................................................. 295 The teapot ................................................................................................................................................................... 296 The pipe ...................................................................................................................................................................... 296 E. Crafts of textile.......................................................................................................................................................... 297 F. The Mauritanian crafts of today ............................................................................................................................ 300 1. Characteristics of the crafts ...................................................................................................................................... 300 a) Textile .................................................................................................................................................................... 301 a1) Activities of textile and clothing ............................................................................................................... 301 a2) Companies of textile and clothing ............................................................................................................ 301 b) Leather .................................................................................................................................................................. 302 c) Wood, pottery, metal and stone......................................................................................................................... 304 d) Henna and hairdressing ..................................................................................................................................... 304 2. Counting of artisans .................................................................................................................................................. 304 3. Localization of artisans ............................................................................................................................................. 304 4. Assets of the crafts..................................................................................................................................................... 306 5. Challenges of the crafts............................................................................................................................................. 308 a) Difficulties of the crafts and artisans................................................................................................................. 308 b) Consequences of the difficulties of the crafts and artisans ............................................................................ 312 6. Measures and solutions in favour of the crafts...................................................................................................... 312 a) Measures to promote the crafts.......................................................................................................................... 312 b) Solutions to develop and rehabilitate the crafts .............................................................................................. 314 10 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 Chapter 8:........................................................................................................................................................................... 317 CULTURAL IDENTITY OF THE MAURITANIAN NOMADS............................................................................ 317 A. About cultural identity ............................................................................................................................................ 318 1. Etymology of cultural identity................................................................................................................................. 318 2. Material and intellectual aspects of the cultural identity..................................................................................... 319 B. Islam rooted in the nomads’ customs ................................................................................................................... 321 1. A tolerant Islam ......................................................................................................................................................... 321 2. Existence of ancient beliefs prior to Islam .............................................................................................................. 329 a) The evil eye........................................................................................................................................................... 329 b) The ill omen .......................................................................................................................................................... 330 c) Influence of ancestral beliefs on the practice of Islam .................................................................................... 330 C. Predominance of the Hassaniya language ........................................................................................................... 331 D. Values of the Moorish nomads and their relations with the others............................................................... 336 1. Moral and spiritual values of the Moorish nomads .................................................................................................. 336 a) Fervent of freedom, courage and honour......................................................................................................... 336 b) Generosity and detachment towards matter ................................................................................................... 337 c) Solidarity............................................................................................................................................................... 338 d) Hospitality ............................................................................................................................................................ 339 e) Respect for the elderly ........................................................................................................................................ 339 f) Humility................................................................................................................................................................ 339 g) Pacifism ................................................................................................................................................................. 340 2. Relationships of the nomads with the others......................................................................................................... 340 a) Relationships with animals ................................................................................................................................ 340 b) Relationships with other nomads and the sedentary ..................................................................................... 340 c) Relationships within nomads: the woman’s place .......................................................................................... 341 d) Relationships with foreigners ............................................................................................................................ 342 e) Relationships with the government .................................................................................................................. 342 f) Relationships with other countries.................................................................................................................... 344 E. The ephemeral usual art and ephemeral living art: materialized arts of the Mauritanian nomads.......... 344 1. Various Mauritanian nomadic arts ......................................................................................................................... 344 a) Arts of literature and poetry .............................................................................................................................. 345 b) The art on useful objects of nomads: « the ephemeral usual art »..................................................................... 345 c) The art expressed on the Moorish bride: « the ephemeral living art » ............................................................. 346 d) Arts of music, singing and dance ...................................................................................................................... 349 2. Meanings of motifs and drawings in the ephemeral usual art............................................................................ 350 a) Motifs of animal tracks........................................................................................................................................ 350 b) Motifs of animals ................................................................................................................................................. 354 c) Motifs of celestial objects .................................................................................................................................... 358 d) Motifs of water, the well or « eye of the source » ............................................................................................... 358 e) Motifs of the tent.................................................................................................................................................. 362 f) Other geometrical motifs .................................................................................................................................... 365 g) Meanings of some overall drawings on bags................................................................................................... 368 h) Meanings of some overall drawings on mats .................................................................................................. 368 i) Meanings of some overall drawings on cushions ........................................................................................... 369 3. The usual objects: ephemeral supports of the art.................................................................................................... 370 4. The ephemeral usual art, rational and mastered................................................................................................... 371 5. The ephemeral usual art, « geometrical-abstract » ....................................................................................................... 374 a) The abstraction of the ephemeral usual art due to Islam ............................................................................... 374 b) The abstraction of the ephemeral usual art due to the desert........................................................................ 375 6. The symbolic nature of the ephemeral usual art ................................................................................................... 376 7. The ephemeral usual art, representative of ephemera................................................................................................... 377 8. The ephemeral usual art, characterized by a top view perspective.................................................................... 378 9. The ephemeral usual art, bi-dimensional and tri-dimensional ........................................................................... 380 10. The ephemeral usual art, involving the artistic decorations and object............................................................. 382 11 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 11. The ephemeral usual art: reflection of the Mauritanian nomads’ cultural identity ......................................... 382 Chapter 9:........................................................................................................................................................................... 385 WHAT HAS BECOME OF THE MAURITANIAN NOMADS? ............................................................................ 385 A. The nomads becoming extinct ............................................................................................................................... 385 1. The « nomadic exodus » then the rural one ............................................................................................................. 385 a) The « nomadic exodus » ....................................................................................................................................... 385 b) The rural exodus .................................................................................................................................................. 386 c) Regions of departure of the nomadic and rural exoduses ............................................................................. 387 d) Regions welcoming the exiles ............................................................................................................................ 387 e) Migratory flows of regions ................................................................................................................................. 388 2. Sedentarization of the nomads ................................................................................................................................ 389 a) Causes of sedentarization................................................................................................................................... 389 b) Places of sedentarization .................................................................................................................................... 389 c) Stages of sedentarization .................................................................................................................................... 390 B. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Nomads still moving nomadically ........................................................................................................................ 391 Counting of the nomads ........................................................................................................................................... 391 Who are the Mauritanian nomads of today? ......................................................................................................... 392 Where are the nomads? ............................................................................................................................................ 393 Activities of the nomads ........................................................................................................................................... 395 a) The active nomads............................................................................................................................................... 395 b) Mainly breeding................................................................................................................................................... 396 Current movements of the nomads ........................................................................................................................ 397 a) Persistence of an extensive nomadism.............................................................................................................. 397 b) Preference to semi-nomadism............................................................................................................................ 399 Assets of the nomads ................................................................................................................................................ 401 Challenges of the nomads ........................................................................................................................................ 402 a) The regional and global climatic warming....................................................................................................... 402 b) The human overpopulation................................................................................................................................ 403 c) A nomadic space limited by frontiers ............................................................................................................... 406 d) The pollution of the desert environment.......................................................................................................... 407 Adaptation strategies of the nomads ...................................................................................................................... 411 Measures and solutions for the nomads................................................................................................................. 412 a) Legal context of the use of the natural resources ............................................................................................ 412 b) Measures implemented for the nomads ........................................................................................................... 414 C. Detailed characteristics of the nomads................................................................................................................. 418 1. General characteristics of the nomads .................................................................................................................... 418 2. The nomadic households.......................................................................................................................................... 419 a) Geographical distribution................................................................................................................................... 419 b) Typology ............................................................................................................................................................... 421 c) The nomadic household heads, mainly men ................................................................................................... 421 d) Marital status of the nomadic household heads.............................................................................................. 422 e) The working active nomads within the households ....................................................................................... 423 3. Marital status of the nomads.................................................................................................................................... 423 a) Marital status of the nomadic men.................................................................................................................... 424 b) Marital status of the nomadic women .............................................................................................................. 424 c) Number of wives per married man and polygamy ........................................................................................ 425 d) Marital status of the young nomads ................................................................................................................. 425 4. The nomadic women................................................................................................................................................. 426 5. Birth rate and fertility among the nomads............................................................................................................. 427 a) The birth rate among the nomads ..................................................................................................................... 427 b) The fertility of the nomadic women.................................................................................................................. 427 c) The already married nomadic female adolescents.......................................................................................... 428 d) The nomadic adolescents already mothers ...................................................................................................... 428 e) The regeneration of the nomadic population .................................................................................................. 429 12 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 6. Mortality among the nomads................................................................................................................................... 429 7. The old nomads ......................................................................................................................................................... 429 8. The training level of the nomads............................................................................................................................. 430 a) The illiteracy ......................................................................................................................................................... 430 b) The literate nomads ............................................................................................................................................. 431 c) The education of the nomads............................................................................................................................. 431 9. The young nomads.................................................................................................................................................... 432 a) The young nomads by age bracket.................................................................................................................... 432 b) The schooling ....................................................................................................................................................... 433 D. The anchoring of the nomads in the heart of the Mauritanian society .......................................................... 434 1. The power of the nomads......................................................................................................................................... 435 a) The exercise of power by the nomads at the time of the emirates ................................................................ 435 b) The Mauritanian State controlled by former Moorish nomads..................................................................... 436 c) The relative reduction in power of the tribal chiefs at the local level........................................................... 436 d) Strategies of increase in power of the Moorish tribes ..................................................................................... 437 e) The interdependence between the Moorish tribes and the State .................................................................. 439 f) The persistent power of the Moorish tribes within the society ..................................................................... 440 2. The nomadic culture rooted in the Mauritanian society ...................................................................................... 441 a) The promotion of the nomadic culture by the political power...................................................................... 441 b) The nomadic culture sill alive among the Mauritanians................................................................................ 442 CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................................................... 445 LEXICOLOGY................................................................................................................................................................. 451 BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................................................................................ 497 About the Authors.......................................................................................................................................................... 525 Index ................................................................................................................................................................................. 527 14) Praises: We thank gratefully and humbly all the Professors and Associate Professors for their invaluable Participation in reviewing the book Nomads of Mauritania as well as for their Praises, Endorsements and Forewords: Prof. Dr. Henry John Drewal, Prof. Dr. Jeffrey A. Gritzner, Prof. Dr. Thomas D. Hall, Prof. Dr. Cristián H. Ricci and Associate Professor Dr. David Henry Anthony III, Associate Prof. Dr. Thérèse De Raedt, Associate Prof. Dr. Andrea E. Frohne, Associate Prof. Dr. Tamba E. M’bayo, Dr. Abdel Aleem Mohamed. Their praises are displayed in the book Nomads of Mauritania and on the Vernon Press website at: https://vernonpress.com/book/468. 15) Referencing-Acquisitions by Libraries: List of Universities-Colleges Libraries having the book Nomads of Mauritania in their catalogues according to the website Worldcat.org: https://www.worldcat.org/title/nomads-ofmauritania/oclc/1085390569/editions?editionsView=true&referer=br. 16) How to procure the book Nomads of Mauritania: Nomads of Mauritania is available for sale: - directly on the website of the Publisher Vernon Press at: https://vernonpress.com/book/468 - from your favourite bookseller who can order it - and through the major distributors such as Amazon, Barnes and Noble…: their complete list is displayed at https://nomadsofmauritania.blogspot.com/p/where-to-buy-books.html. 13 Presentation Nomads of Mauritania - June 2019 17) Contact details of the authors: Diane Himpan-Sabatier: Permanent address: #B24, KHB Colony, Vidyanagar, 571201, Madikeri, Kodagu district, Karnataka, India. Mobile phone: + 91.9880284011. Email address: diane.himpansabatier@yahoo.com; diyanindia@yahoo.com. For more information, please visit: https://nomadsofmauritania.blogspot.com ~ . ~ . ~ . ~ Thanking You in advance for Your attention and interest ~ . ~ . ~ . ~ . 14