New Astronomy 74 (2020) 101285
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The characteristics of the coronal mass ejections preceding the associated Xray and γ-ray burst solar flares
T
Ramy Mawada, , Walid Abdel-Sattarb
⁎
a
b
Astronomy & Meteorology Department, Faculty of Science, Al-Azhar University, Nasr City, Cairo 11488, Egypt
Astronomy, Space Science & Meteorology Department, Faculty of Science, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
A R T I C LE I N FO
A B S T R A C T
Keywords:
Sun
Solar flare
Coronal mass ejection
Space weather
In this study, investigated 14,786 coronal mass ejection (CME) events and 5092 Gamma-ray Burst Monitor
(GBM) solar flare events (called γ-ray burst solar flare) recorded during 2008–2017, by using temporal and
spatial conditions criteria, we found 845 (about 16%) CME events associated with γ-ray burst solar flare events
only (hereafter, CME–γ-preflare). All the 845 events are associated with solar flares that are detected in both
GBM and RHESSI simultaneously. Investigating the characteristics of these events, we found that the best time
interval is 0–2 h before the flare's start time. The mean time interval for these CME–γ-preflare associated events
is 61 min, with the flare's duration mean value of 12 min, which is greater than non-associated γ-ray solar flare's
duration. CME width of CME-γ-preflare associated events 64° is slightly wider and slightly faster (remain lower
than solar wind's speed) than non-associated CME 53°.
1. Introduction
Space weather studies are focusing on the study of different solar
activities which can affect the environmental conditions in Earth's
magnetosphere, ionosphere and thermosphere. Many scientific studies
in space science try to find the relationship between different solar
activities, to have a better picture about their nature, origin and mechanism, which can help in their prediction and probable influence on
Earth.
Many studies were investigating the possible relationship between
two of the solar activities, the solar flares and the Coronal mass ejections (CME) (e.g. Mahrous et al., 2009; Fomin et al., 2005; Aarnio et al.,
2011). CME-flare relationship is an important topic to improve the
Space weather forecasting of flares and CMEs as pointed out by
Mahrous et al. (2009), Youssef et al. (2013), Harrison (1995, 2006),
Aurass (1997), and Gopalswamy (2000).
Solar flare is a brief eruption of intense high-energy radiation originating on the solar surface, its electromagnetic radiation extending
over a very broad range of wavelengths from long radio waves to short
γ -rays.
Measurements of solar flares in Hard X-rays (HXRs) (up to about
300 keV) indicate the presence of energetic electrons (energies up to a
few MeV), which produce bremsstrahlung in the dense regions of the
corona and chromosphere. Observations in the microwave wavelengths
⁎
indicate synchrotron emission by relativistic electrons in ̴100 G strong
magnetic fields. Electron bremsstrahlung emission exceeding tens of
MeV is observed in some observations of X-class flares made by
Geostationary
Operational
Environmental
Satellite
(GOES)
(Trottet et al., 1998). Nuclear γ -ray lines (1–10 MeV) and continuum
radiation above 100 MeV produced by accelerated protons, α particles,
and heavy ions have been detected by instruments on the board of the
Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (CGRO), the Solar Maximum Mission (SMM), and RHESSI (Lin et al., 2002), these lines are produced by
the de-excitation of accelerated ions. The continuum radiation is resulting from interactions of (>300 MeV) protons and (>800 MeV) αparticles with ambient ions producing both charged and neutral pions
(Murphy et al., 1987). Neutral pions decay produces a couple 67.5 MeV
γ-rays, while decay of charged pions produces energetic positrons,
electrons, and neutrinos (Ramaty and Mandzhavidze, 1993). Among
detectors of Gamma-ray solar flares are the Large Area Telescope (LAT;
Atwood et al., 2009) and Gamma-ray Burst Monitor (GBM;
Meegan et al., 2009) instruments on the Fermi Gamma-Ray Space
Telescope. The LAT is detecting high-energy γ-ray emission associated
with GOES (M-class and X-class) X-ray flares accompanied by coronal
mass ejections and SEP events. In some observations, LAT has detected
gamma rays with energies up to several hundreds of MeV during the
impulsive phase and gamma rays up to GeV energies sustained for
several hours after the impulsive phase (Omodei et al., 2012). The NaI
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: ramy@azhar.edu.eg (R. Mawad), walid_as72@hotmail.com (W. Abdel-Sattar).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.newast.2019.101285
Received 11 February 2019; Received in revised form 24 March 2019; Accepted 2 July 2019
Available online 01 August 2019
1384-1076/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier B.V.
New Astronomy 74 (2020) 101285
R. Mawad and W. Abdel-Sattar
Lysenko et al. (2018) concluded that the solar flares often happen
after a preflare/preheating phase, which is almost or entirely thermal.
On the other hand, there are the so-called early impulsive flares that do
not show a (significant) preflare heating, but instead often show the
Neupert effect (a relationship where the impulsive phase is followed by
a gradual, cumulative-like, thermal response).
In the γ-ray solar flare case, Ackermann et al. (2014) studied 18
solar flares detected in high-energy γ -rays (above 100 MeV) with the
Fermi Large Area Telescope (LAT), they concluded that particle acceleration up to very high energies in solar flares is more common than
previously thought, occurring even in modest flares, and for longer
durations. Interestingly, all these flares are associated with fast coronal
mass ejections (CMEs).
Solar flares have been classified into impulsive [short-duration
(<1 h), compact (1026–1027 cm3), and low-lying (104 km)] and gradual
[long duration (a few hours), large volumes (1028–1029 cm3), and great
heights (105 km)] (e.g. Pallavicini et al., 1977; Moore et al., 1999).
Kay et al. (2003) have studied 69 ejective and non-ejective solar flare
events and found that, while there is some relationship between the rise
and decay times of flares, there are no systematic differences between
the ejective and non-ejective flares. The probability of CME–flare association increases with the increase in flare's duration (Sheeley et al.,
1983): 26% for duration <1 h and a complete 100% for duration >6 h.
It is important to mention that some major flares associated with largescale CMEs are not long in duration events (Nitta and Hudson, 2001;
Chertok et al., 2004).
Vrsank et al. (2005) studied statistically 545 CME-flare associated
events and 104 non-associated; they concluded that both data sets have
similar characteristics. Michalek (2009) studied statistically 578 CMEflare associated events and found that two different types of CME-flare
associated events (CMEs that follow and precede flare onset) have
different characteristics. It is therefore needed to examine whether the
mechanism of CME occurrence (e.g., magnetic reconnection which may
influence CME speed and acceleration) is different in the two types of
events.
Investigating the CME-Preflare association during the solar period
1996–2010, found 292 CME-Preflare associated events (∼2%). These
associated events have 0–1 h time interval, popular events occur within
half an hour before flare starting time. Post-flares–CME associated
events are wider than CME-Preflare associated events. CME-Preflare
associated events are ejected from the northern hemisphere, while the
non-associated CMEs are ejected from the southern hemisphere during
the 23rd solar cycle. The CME-Preflare associated events are slower than
the post-flare–CME associated events, and slightly faster than non-associated CME events. Post-flare–CME associated events are in average
more massive than CME-Preflare associated events and all other CMEs
ejected from the Sun. CME-Preflare associated events have an average
speed which is approximately equivalent to the average solar wind
speed approximately (Mawad and Youssef, 2018).
The purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between
CMEs and the preflare (before X-Ray solar flares) detected simultaneously in γ and X –rays for a more clear understanding of the characteristics of these two important solar activities. A complete discussion
of the results is given in Section 4 and the final conclusion in Section 5.
detectors of the Fermi Gamma-ray Burst Monitor, the data of which are
used to compile the Fermi GBM Flare List, register photons with energies predominantly in the 10–300 keV range (Meegan et al., 2009).
The main contribution to this population of photons is the bremsstrahlung emission of accelerated electrons and hot plasma produced in
solar flare regions (e.g., Lin et al., 2002). This type of emission is called
hard X-ray emission and it is not directly related to gamma-ray emission
produced by energetic protons and ions in solar flare regions.
Coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are the ejection of plasma and
magnetic field into space and thought to be one of main causes of
geomagnetic disturbances (Gosling, 1993).
Scientific studies are interested in the study of CMEs’ arrival time
and their possible influence on the Earth (e.g. Rollett et al., 2016;
Mawad et al., 2016; Korsós and Ruderman, 2016; Xie et al., 2009;
Gopalswamy and Xie, 2008). Many scientific studies were interested in
investigating the origin of CMEs to understand the possible relationship
between CMEs and other solar phenomena:
- CMEs and solar flares (Mahrous et al., 2009; Fomin et al., 2005;
Aarnio et al., 2011),
- CMEs and Sunspots (Korsós and Ruderman, 2016),
- CMEs and (filament and prominence) (Mawad et al., 2015;
Alissandrakis et al., 2013; Jing et al., 2003),
- CMEs and coronal holes (Wood et al., 2012; Gopalswamy et al.,
2009).
- CMEs and solar jets (Liu et al., 2005; Liu, 2008; Wang et al., 1998).
Coronal mass ejections with large-scale eruptions of plasma and
magnetic field often accompanied by localized energy release in the
form of flares, because of dissipative reconfiguration of the magnetic
field. Previous studies on the relation between the CME and solar flares
depend on the flare's location, as the source location of the CMEs and
assume it can indicat`e the earth-direction possibility (e.g. Mahrous
et al., 2009; Youssef et al., 2013; Mawad et al., 2015, 2016).
Mawad and Youssef (2018) summarized the founded previous studies in three association cases between CMEs and x-ray solar flares
relationships as follows:
1 Simultaneously associated CME-Flare: This means that the CME's
onset time (not emergence time of the CME) can be detected during
the X-Ray solar flares detected lifetime by instruments (between
start and end time of the solar flare. reported by many researchers
such as Mahrous et al. (2009), Harrison (1995, 2006), Aurass
(1997), Gopalswamy (2000), Vršnak et al. (2005) and
Youssef et al. (2013). It should be noted that, The CME emerged
before it appeared into LASCO C2 FOV. In this regard, CME can be
detected before the detection time of the solar flares.
2 Associated post-flare – CME: This means that the CMEs can be detected after peak and end times of the X-Ray solar flares. reported by
Youssef et al. (2013), Lysenko et al. (2018) and
Suryanarayana (2018).
3 Associated CME-Preflare: This means that the CMEs can be detected
before the X-Ray solar flares onset time. This case reported by
Mawad and Youssef (2018), and Suryanarayana (2018).
2. Data sources
The flare–CME association relationship is based on three hypothesis:
1) Flares produce CMEs (see, e.g. Dryer, 1996), 2) Flares are byproducts
of CMEs (Hundhausen, 1999), and 3) Flares and CMEs are part of the
same magnetic eruption process (Harrison, 1995; Zhang et al., 2001).
Mahrous et al. (2009) investigated the CME-flare simultaneously
associated during the 23rd solar cycle, they found that the time interval
between the triggering time of the X-ray flare and the lifting-off time of
CME associated events occur in the range 0.4 h ≤ Δt ≤ 1 h.
Youssef et al. (2013) found that the CME happened during 1–2 h after
the starting time of the solar flares, a similar result was also reported by
Compagnino et al. (2017).
The dataset used in this analysis was acquired from 3 different
sources:
1 The observations of X-ray solar flares recorded by RHESSI.
2 X-ray and γ-ray burst solar flare observations from the Gamma-ray
Burst Monitor (GBM) obtained by Fermi above 10 keV (all flares ≥
GOES CeClass).
3 The CME records obtained from Large Angle and Spectrometric
Coronagraph on board of the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory
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New Astronomy 74 (2020) 101285
R. Mawad and W. Abdel-Sattar
ΨFlare = arctan[Sin λ /Tan β ]
(1)
The angular separation ΔF of these position-matched CMEs and
flares is given by:
∆F = [ΨCME − ΨF ]
(2)
Where ΨCME is the position angle of the CME (the angle measured
on the solar disk between the solar north pole and the line directed to
the ejection of the CME), ΨF is the flare's position angle (Mahrous et al.,
2009; Youssef et al., 2013; Mawad et al., 2015).
4. Results and discussion
Studying 14,786 CME events and 5092 GBM solar flare events recorded during 2008–2017, we found 833 CME events associated with γray burst solar flare events (CME-γ-preflare), using the spatial and
temporal criteria mentioned above. A complete list of these flares is
shown in Table 2.
All the 845 events (100%) are associated with solar flares that are
detected in both GBM and RHESSI.
4.1. The rate of associated events
Fig. 1. Histogram of CME-γ-preflare time interval.
After applying the association criteria, we obtained the total number
of CME-γ-preflare pairs in our sample. The final sample contains 845
CME-γ-preflare associated events (about 16%) with total 14,786 CMEs
and 5092 GBM solar flare events observed during the solar period
2008–2017.
Mawad and Youssef (2018) and Suryanarayana (2018) in their work
found that CMEs can occur before the start time of X-ray solar flare
events, which is in agreement with our results. By the same conditions
criteria used, Mawad and Youssef (2018) found 292 CME – preflare
associated events.
Previous studies for rates of CMEs associated with flares found
different association rates or ratio, 40% (Munro et al., 1979), 34%
(St. Cyr and Webb, 1991) and 11% (Aarnio et al., 2011). Our result
(16%) can be considered a decent result compared to previous studies,
this is due to investigating a longer period and a larger dataset, however
we applied more restrictions to the selection of events.
SOHO/LASCO (CDA) catalog have been used.
In the solar period 2008–2017 we have 14,786 CME events and
5092 GBM solar flare events recorded.
3. CME-γ-preflare matching criteria
For selecting the CME-γ-preflare associated events, we applied both
spatial and temporal criteria, by requiring that both flare and CME
occur within a specific time window and angular separation.
3.1. Temporal condition
We initially set the time window to select CMEs which occur before
Gamma-Ray Burst (GBM) solar flare detection. We found the popular
time interval is 2 h before γ-ray burst solar flare as shown in Fig. 1.
4.2. CME–γ-preflare time interval and duration
3.2. Spatial condition
Found that the time interval for the CME-γ-preflare association is
61.5 ± 1.2 min. The flare's duration has a mean value of
12.7 ± 0.44 min with standard deviation value 12.7, which is greater
than the duration of non-associated γ-ray burst solar flares mean value
(12.4 ± 0.44 min) during the selected period of study, as shown in
Table 1. The popular CME-γ-preflare association events occur in 1–2 h
interval
Mawad and Youssef (2018) found that a clear interval peak of CME
– X-Ray Preflare is seen within 0–2 h, but they suggested an interval of
0–1 h as a time window for their study. Also, they noticed that most of
CME events happened in half an hour before x-ray flare start time,
The position of the CMEs is obtained in 2-dimensional projectivecircular coordinates (in position angle) on the solar disk plane. The
solar flare's locations obtained by RHESSI are recorded in projectiveCartesian coordinates in x and y (in arc seconds). To convert the solar
flare's position into heliographic coordinates, we used the IDL module
called: coord_cart_helio.
In order to apply the spatial condition, we need to convert the
calculated spherical coordinate of the solar flares (longitude λ and latitude β) into 2-dimensional plane coordinate (position angle). This can
be done using the following equation:
Table 1
Summary of the statistical study.
Interval
Duration
Width
Position Angle
Initial speed
Acceleration
Mass
Kinetic Energy
Associated
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard Error
Non-associated
Mean
Standard Deviation
Standard Error
61.5 (m)
12.4 (m)
64.4°
223.8°
351 (Km/s)
3.5 (m/s2)
1.3 × 1015 (g)
2.28 × 1030 (erg)
34.8
12.9
53.6°
84.7°
269.2
34
2.3 × 1015
9.14 × 1030
1.2
0.44
1.8°
2.9°
8.9
1.2
9 × 1013
9.1 × 1030
10.6
53.5
173
322.18
4.81
1.3 × 1015
3.5 × 1030
12.5
63.11
105.6
240.78
44.46
3.36 × 1015
2.52 × 1031
0.17
0.52
0.87
2
0.37
3.5 × 1013
2.6 × 1029
3
New Astronomy 74 (2020) 101285
R. Mawad and W. Abdel-Sattar
Mawad and Youssef (2018) found the mean width values of the
associated events are 63°.3, 88°.4, 81.1° and 74°.3 for B, C, M and X
solar flare classes respectively of CME-Preflare associated events during
the period 1996–2010, which is in agreement with our results.
Mawad and Youssef (2018) found the majority of the CME-Preflare
associated events exhibit an angular width ranging from 0°−60°. The
popular angular width of associated CMEs is in the range 30°−60°,
while the non-associated CMEs exhibit an angular width ranging from
0–30°. For the CME-Preflare associated events, the CME width increases
as the flux of its associated solar flare increase as for the PFA associated
events. The post-flare–CME associated events are wider than associated
CME-Preflare associated events. These results indicate that, as the
flare's flux increases, the width of the associated CME increases. These
results are similar to the results obtained by Youssef et al. (2013) and
with some differences with results obtained by Aarnio et al. (2011) [see,
e.g. Mawad and Youssef (2018)].
Youssef et al. (2013) found that CME width equals 103, 107, 146
and 215° for post-flare classes B, C, M, and X respectively. The conclusion here is that the X-ray post-flare is wider than GBM post-flare –
CME associated event. Yashiro et al. (2004) found that the annual
averages of non-halo CME width range are between 47° and 61°.
The CDAW catalog contains inconsistencies in the reporting of
LASCO CMEs due to changes in personnel that used their own criteria
(observer bias). These observer biases resulted in many more narrow
CMEs added to the catalog after 2004 which significantly skewed CME
width rates (Robbrecht et al., 2009; Yashiro et al., 2008). The previous
studies of CME-Flare associated events did not consider the effect of
observer bias on the CME width property. Consequently, we used the
width which is obtained from CDAW catalog for comparison purpose
only.
Fig. 2. CME Angular width of CME-γ-preflare associated events.
which is in agreement with our results.
Mahrous et al. (2009) found that the lift-off time within the range of
0.4–1.0 h of CME–flare simultaneously associated events.
Youssef et al. (2013) found that the CME happened after the starting
time of the solar flares during a time interval of 1–2 h as reported by
Compagnino et al. (2017).
4.3. CME's angular width
4.4. The CME mass–width relationship
To check whether the CME-γ-preflare is wider than the non-associated CME, we found that many CMEs show an increase in width as
they move out, therefore measurements are made when the width approaches a certain value. The mean value of the CME width distribution
of CME-γ-preflare associated events is 64.4° ± 1.8°, which is slightly
wider than non-associated CME (53°.5 ± 0.5), as shown in Fig. 2 and
Table 1.
We notice that the mass of CME-γ-preflare associated and non-associated events have the same mass and kinetic energy, as shown in
Table 1. Mawad and Youssef (2018) found that mean mass of CMEPreflare associated events is 1.3 × 1015 g, while the mean mass for nonassociated CME events is 1.18 × 1015 g. The mean mass distribution of
the CMEs ejected from the Sun by the x-ray post-flare is 2.6 × 1015 g.
This result indicates that the CMEs occurred after the x-ray solar flare is
Fig. 3. The relationship between CME's width and mass of CME-γ-preflare associated events.
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New Astronomy 74 (2020) 101285
R. Mawad and W. Abdel-Sattar
associated events.
Mawad and Youssef (2018) found that the mean acceleration for
CME-Preflare associated events has a negative value (−1.67 m/s2)
during the solar period 1996–2006, while the non-associated CME
events show a positive mean acceleration of 3.062 m/s2 during the
period 1996–2010 in their study of X-ray solar flares only.
Youssef et al. (2013) found that the post-flare–CME associated
events have negative mean acceleration (−2.72 m/s2). Flare-CME associated simultaneously have both accelerated and decelerated CME
events (Mawad et al., 2016). Youssef et al. (2013) concluded that the
post-flare–CME associated events are in average more decelerated than
CME-Flare associated simultaneously events and other CMEs.
on average more massive than associated CME-preflare and other
CMEs. The CME mass increases with the increase in flare's flux.
Youssef et al. (2013) indicated that CMEs occurred after the solar flare
(post-flare – CME associated events) is on average more massive than
other CMEs.
The mass of the CME-γ-preflare associated events is plotted as a
function of the CME width in Fig. 3. The linear fitting that describes this
relationship is of the form:
M = −7.12 × 10+14 + 2.7 × 10+13 × W,
(3)
Where M is the mass of CME in grams and W is the angular width of
CME in degrees. The correlation coefficient of the linear fitting is
R = 0.63.
Mawad and Youssef (2018) found the same linear correlation of
CME-Preflare associated events during 1996–2010 with a correlation
coefficient R = 0.52 for their 292 associated events.
This result implies that the wide CMEs are more massive than
narrow CMEs; this is in a good agreement with the result obtained by
Youssef et al. (2013) and Aarnio et al. (2011), but the correlation
coefficient obtained in this work is higher than their results.
4.7. The CME speeds
Found that the CME initial speeds of the CME-γ-preflare associated
events are meanly lower than solar wind mean speed and have the
value ∼352 km/s as shown in Fig. 6, while non-associated CME has a
mean value ∼322 km/s. This means that the γ-ray burst is playing role
in increasing slightly the speed of CME, but the CME speed remains
lower than the solar wind mean speed. The dominant CME initial speed
of the CME-γ-preflare associated events is ∼300 Km/s.
Mawad and Youssef (2018) found that the CME initial and linear
speeds of the selected 292 CME-Preflare associated events during
1996–2010 are mainly near the solar wind mean speed and have the
value ∼ (490 ± 17) km/s. The fastest associated CME-Preflare is the
M – class solar flare.
Youssef et al. (2013) found that the average CME linear speed of the
selected 388 post-flare–CME associated events have 880 km/s, while
the CMEs non-associated with flares speed was (400 ± 2) km/s.
Gosling et al. (1976), and Aarnio et al. (2011) found that the CME-flare
associated events have a higher linear speed than those not associated
with flares.
4.5. CME's position angle
From Fig. 4, we notice that the most of CMEs associated with X-ray
and γ-ray burst solar flares are ejected near the solar equator, most of
the events are originated in the west side of the solar disk near the solar
equator.
CME-γ-preflare associated events have a mean value of CME position angle 224°, while the non-associated event has a position angle of
173°, which indicates that the non-associated events tend towards the
solar pole.
4.6. The CME acceleration
5. Conclusion
Found the mean value of the CME acceleration of the CME-γ-preflare associated events to be (3.5 ± 1.2) m/s2, which is smaller than
non-associated events ∼ (4.8 ± 0.37) m/s2 during the selected period
2008–2017 as shown in Fig. 5. The γ-ray bust solar flare accelerates
CMEs but are less than non-associated or only X-ray solar flare
Studied 14,786 CME events and 5092 GBM solar flare (called γ-ray
burst solar flare) events recorded during 2008–2017, found 845 (about
16%) CME events associated with γ-ray burst solar flare events only
Fig. 4. Position angle of CME-γ-preflare associated events.
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New Astronomy 74 (2020) 101285
R. Mawad and W. Abdel-Sattar
Fig. 5. CME acceleration of CME-γ-preflare associated events.
position angle 224°, while the non-associated event has a position angle
of 173°.
The mean value of the CME acceleration of the CME-γ-preflare associated events is 3.5 m/s2 less than non-associated events ∼ 4.8 m/s2.
The γ-ray burst solar flare accelerates CMEs but less than non-associated or only X-ray solar flare associated events.
The CME initial speeds of the CME-γ-preflare associated events are
meanly lower than solar wind mean speed and have the value ∼
351 km/s, while non-associated CME has a mean value ∼ 322 km/s.
The complicated process of the magnetic reconnection associated with
the γ-ray burst solar flares should have played one important role in
slightly increasing the speed of CME, but the CME speed remains lower
than the solar wind mean speed.
The mass of the CME-γ-preflare associated events is investigated as a
function of the CME width. The linear fitting that describes this
(CME-γ-preflare), using our spatial and temporal criteria. These 845
associated events are all (100%) associated with solar flares that are
detected in both GBM and RHESSI (hard X-ray and maybe associated γray burst).
Found that the time interval for the CME-γ-preflare association is
61.5 min. The flare's duration has a mean value of 12.4 min greater
than non-associated γ-preflare solar flares mean value (10.6 min)
during the selected period of study. The popular CME-γ-preflare association events occur in the interval 1–2 h
The mean value of the CME width distribution of CME-γ-preflare
associated events is 64°, which is slightly wider than non-associated
CME (53°).
The most of CMEs associated with γ and X -rays solar flares are
originated in the west side of the solar disk near the solar equator.
CME-γ-preflare associated events have a mean value of CME
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R. Mawad and W. Abdel-Sattar
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Fig. 6. The CME initial speed of CME-γ-preflare associated events.
relationship is of the form:
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Supplementary materials
Supplementary material associated with this article can be found, in
the online version, at doi:10.1016/j.newast.2019.101285.
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