Solar Flares

The 1908 Tunguska event was not related to the Earth's collision with a comet/asteroid and could be most probably a tectonic event caused by solar-lunar-terrestrial perturbances. The evidence: 1. The polarization effect 'spread' from the lower to the upper atmosphere, and not vice versa, as would be expected in the case of the penetration of comet matter. 2. Before the Tunguska explosion on June 30, the appearance of luminous clouds over Europa. For asteroids and inactive comets, preceding airglows are impossible. In the case of an active comet with tails, astronomers would notice her in advance. Since the airglows of the Tunguska event were also observed in the cone of the Earth's shadow, they could not be caused, as is generally believed, by NLCs after the explosion of a comet/asteroid. 3. The Tunguska event was dependent on physical processes associated with the solar eclipse on June 28, 1908. This was indicated by geomagnetic pulsations in Kiel on June 27-30, 1908. 4. The seismogram recorded in Irkutsk on June 30, 1908, confirms the tectonic-volcanic earthquake. 5. No traces of the chondrite fraction of an alleged comet were found. 6. The Kulikovskiy paleovolcano had five stages of activity from the times of Siberian Flood Basalts (~252 Myr ago) to the 1908 explosion. All events were connected with the 'Perm LLSVPs Anomaly' located under Eurasia on the core-mantle boundary. 7. Moissanite formations, in layers of both the mud-volcanic phase (7320 years) and 1908, were found. Their genesis is the decisive factor for the 1908 Tunguska event's nature.

In present study, we measured the Total Electron Content (TEC) variation in the ionosphere from Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) data which might have been induced by earthquakes in the Hima-layan region. The results were analysed with other inducing factors (geomagnetic storm and solar flare) affecting TEC in order to constraint the causative factor. The study has been performed to understand a relationship between ionospheric electron content and earthquakes occurrences with special emphasis on Himalayan region and provides information on spatio-temporal variation of TEC from GNSS observation stations visa -vis prominent earthquakes of the region. The results indicate that the ground based GNSS (GPS) observations show the deviation in vertical total electron content (vTEC) in ionosphere few days prior to the seismic event as evident from our two continuously operating reference stations (CORS) as well as from CORS of UNAVCO data centre. Ionospheric perturbation has also been observed in case of low magnitude earthquakes (Mw 4.9 in present study) whenever recording station lies very close to the epicentre. TEC variation is found to increase as the epicentre distances decreases. In case of Mw 7.8, 2015 Nepal earthquake the TEC variation is found to increase by 15e20 TEC unit recorded at station separated by 60 km apart. This may provide us the avenue for epicentre detection as TEC concentration was found to increase as we move closer to the epicentre. TEC variations (mostly high TEC) have been observed during a period of 0e8 days prior to 4 earthquakes: 1st April 2015 Pipalkoti earthquake (4.9Mw), 25th April 2015 Nepal earthquake (7.8Mw), 26 April 2015 (6.7Mw) and 12th May 2015 (7.3Mw) Nepal earthquakes. Significant low TEC values were also observed before 13e14 days prior to first two earthquake events. Overall the study has revealed that low TEC followed by couple of high TEC values correlate well with the seismic events in Himalayan region.

Λέιζερ ΘΩΡΑΚΙΣΗ τη Γης για απόκρουση της διαστημικής Δαμόκλειας σπάθης πάνω μας, του ηλιο-γαλαξιακού ηλεκτρισμού που προκαλεί γεωμαγνητικές υπερ-καταιγίδες, διεγείρει ατμόσφαιρα-μάγμα (προκαλώντας σεισμούς, ηφαιστειακές παγετώδεις περιόδους - αντιστροφή των μαγνητικών πόλων), και για να αποτραπεί αφανισμός της ζωής από έκρηξη όλων των πυρηνικών!
www.global-providence.info

Αρχαίες, καταγεγραμμένες ηλεκτρομαγνητικές υπερ-καταιγίδες που προκάλεσαν παγκόσμιες καταστροφές, [1] έκαναν μερικούς πανικόβλητους μοιρολάτρες να αγωνιούν να κάνουν και άλλους μοιρολάτρες, να ξεκινήσουν τους πολέμους [2] και τα αποδασωτικά πανικο-δουλο-καθεστώτα που εναλάσσονται καταρρέοντα, από απότομες κλιματικές αλλαγές που προκαλούν οι προαναφερόμενες υπερ-καταιγίδες. [3] Αλλά τώρα, για μια ασφαλή, αιωνοβική ζωή [4], μια διασωστική πρόταση (εν μέρει κατοχυρωμένη από την Boeing  για άλλους λόγους [5]), αναζητείται [6] και συζητείται σε διεθνή συνέδρια.
Ύστερα από τις τελευταίες 4 ισχυρές γεωμαγνητικές υπερ-καταιγίδες [7] (που προκλήθηκαν από ηλιακές εκρήξεις) του 1859 (παγκόσμιο γεγονός Κάρινκτον), 1989 (μπλακάουτ Κεμπέκ), 2003 (μπλακάουτ Σουηδίας),  2005 ( μπλακάουτ  GPS), και τον παρ' ολίγο παγκόσμιο αφανισμό τον Ιούλιο του 2012, από ηλιο-ηλεκτρική υπερ-καταιγίδα που προσπέρασε τη Γη [8-10], και θα προκαλούσε έκρηξη-ντόμινο πυρηνικών εργοστασίων, μια πρόταση για Λέιζερ Θωράκιση της Γης γίνεται γνωστή.
Ας δούμε πρώτα πώς ο διαστημικός ηλεκτρισμός (πλάσμα όπως τα άστρα, οι κεραυνοί, οι φλόγες, οι λάμπες φθορισμού),  επιδρά στον πλανήτη, εκτός από το σέλας:
- προκαλεί τους κεραυνούς (και ΧΩΡΙΣ σύννεφα, δηλαδή εν αιθρία!) (11- Gurevich Α.), που εκτρέπονται από τα αλεξικέραυνα.
- Ο ίδιος γαλαξιακός ηλεκτρισμός, είτε από το ηλεκτρικό γαλαξιακό κέντρο [12] ή από τον ήλιο [13- Simpson J.] ή από οποιοδήποτε άλλο άστρο, διεγείρει το μάγμα, προκαλώντας τους ισχυρούς σεισμούς [14- Jain , R].
- Ο ίδιος γαλαξιακός ηλεκτρισμός, όταν χτυπά τη λάβα σε κρατήρες, προκαλεί τις ηφαιστειακές εκρήξεις [15- Ebisuzaki Τ. et al], αυξάνει την ηλεκτρο-ηφαιστειογενή  νεφοκάλυψη, την ατμοσφαιρική μόλυνση και την αγωνία για ηλεκτρο-ηφαιστειακούς χειμώνες/παγετώνες [16].
- Επίσης ένας πολύ φορτισμένος αστεροειδής ή κομήτης [17], περνώντας κοντά από τη Γη, μπορεί να αντιστρέψει τους ηλεκτρομαγνητικούς της πόλους, προκαλώντας παγκόσμιες καταστροφές από τη θανάσιμη κοσμική ακτινοβολία, ίσως και σε διάστημα λίγων εβδομάδων/ετών [18], γεγονός που η Ευρωπαϊκή Υπηρεσία Διαστήματος φοβάται ότι επίκειται!... [19]
Αυτός ο διαστημικός ηλεκτρισμός επηρεάζει [20 - Mukherjee S.] το κλίμα της Γης ως εξής:
Tο πείραμα CLOUD στο CERN [21] έδειξε ότι ο ηλεκτρισμός των γαλαξιακών κοσμικών ακτίνων διεγείρει τα ατμοσφαιρικά αερολύματα, κυρίως ηφαιστειακή σκόνη, μαζί με τους υδρατμούς, παράγοντας τα σύννεφα [22], και, ανάλογα με το βαθμό της διέγερσης, προκύπτουν ελαφριές βροχές τις θερμές εποχές ή καταιγίδες (και καύσωνες από ζέστη που την μπλοκάρει ΠΑΓΩΜΕΝΟ πολικό ρεύμα [23], και πρόσκαιρη θέρμανση θαλάσσιων περιοχών από υποθαλάσσια ηφαιστειακή δράση [24]), που εναλλάσσονται με ξηρασίες τις ψυχρές εποχές  (όπως η πρόσφατη, ηλεκτρο-ηφαιστειακή Μικρή Παγετώδης, 1258-1900), oι οποίες διέλυσαν διαδοχικά τους αποδασωτές φαραώ, Ρωμαίους και τους κανίβαλους Μάγιας, Αζτέκους, Ίνκας...
- Όταν μειώνεται η ένταση του ηλεκτρο-μαγνητικού πεδίου τού ήλιου (όπως συμβαίνει τώρα), μειώνεται και αυτό τής Γης και αυξάνει τους θανάσιμους κινδύνους από την εισερχόμενη ουράνια ακτινοβολία [25 - Holme Ρ., Palmer D.].
Οι κορυφαίοι αστροφυσικοί ([26]– Schatten/Tobiska, Steinhilber/Beer, Kirkby, Livingston/Penn, Lockwood, Svensmark, Abdussamatov, Corbyn) προβλέπουν ένα πολύ χαμηλό ηλιακό ελάχιστο, παρόμοιο με εκείνη της ηφαιστειακής Μικρής Παγετώδους, όταν «η ηφαιστειακή δραστηριότητα είναι υψηλότερη σε περιόδους παρατεταμένων ελάχιστων της ηλιακής δραστηριότητας" [27- Střeštík J., Casati M.], και "αν είχατε μια μεγάλη ηφαιστειακή έκρηξη αυτού του είδους [καταστροφικής σε παγκόσμιο επίπεδο] σήμερα, οι επιπτώσεις θα είναι τεράστιες, και λίγοι μήνες μπορεί να μην είναι αρκετοί για να αντιδράσετε" [28- Druitt T. et al].
Προτείνουμε την πρόβλεψη-ΑΠΟΚΡΟΥΣΗ τού υπερβάλλοντος κλάσματος του ηλιο-γαλαξιακού ηλεκτρισμού που διεγείρει τη Γη, μέσω Λέιζερ Ασπίδων Πλάσματος πάνω από ενεργούς κρατήρες, και ψηλά πάνω από τον ισημερινό, μέσω του οποίου ο περισσότερος γαλαξιακός ηλεκτρισμός πλήττει τον πλανήτη μας, προκαλώντας γεωμαγνητικές υπερ-καταιγίδες, ηφαιστειακούς χειμώνες (ξεκινώντας, όπως στoυς πρόσφατους, ηλεκτρο-ηφαιστειακούς - 51oC στις ΗΠΑ [29]), και τις αντιστροφές των γήινων μαγνητικών πόλων). Tα υπερ-λέιζερ που χρειάζονται γι΄ αυτή τη θωράκιση έχουν πια κατασκευαστεί [30].
Προτείνουμε επίσης παγκόσμια αναδάσωση, για την περίπτωση του χειρότερου σεναρίου και άμεση αντιμετώπιση ξηρασιών/πλημμυρών. 
Η ανθρωπότητα πρέπει να δράσει ενωμένη και γρήγορα με την ΑΙΩΝΟΒΙΚΗ ΔΙΑΥΓΕΙΑ! 

ΠΑΡΑΠΟΜΠΕΣ 
1.  The Origin of Petroglyphs—Recordings of a Catastrophic Aurora in Human Prehistory?
D.A. Scott1 and A. L. Peratt. Los Alamos National Laboratory, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545 USA International Conference on Plasma Science, June 2-5, 2003 Jeju, Korea http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/articleDetails.jsp?arnumber=1228571 
Evidence for an intense solar outburst in prehistory A L Peratt and W F Yao, 2008
http://plasmauniverse.info/downloads-petros/Peratt&YaoAurora-PrehistoryPhys-Scr-T131,2008c.pdf
http://iopscience.iop.org/1402-4896/2008/T131/014048
A past intense solar outburst and its effect on Earth was proposed by Gold (1962 Pontificiae Acad. Sci. Scr. Varia 25 159)
- EVIDENCE FOR A SOLAR FLARE CAUSE OF THE PLEISTOCENE MASS EXTINCTION. Paul A LaViolette https://journals.uair.arizona.edu/index.php/radiocarbon/article/view/3464/pdf
-Younger Dryas ELECTRIC impact:  Nanodiamond-Rich Layer across Three Continents Consistent with Major Cosmic Impact at 12,800 Cal BP 18-4-2014 Charles R. Kinzie et al jstor.org/stable/10.1086/677046
2. Raymond C. Kelly: Warless Societies and the Origin of War - http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=11589
3. Bronze Age civilisation was destroyed by a 'perfect storm': Ancient Egypt and other societies collapsed due to climate change, war and earthquakes http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-3038573/Bronze-Age-civilisation-destroyed-perfect-storm-Ancient-Egypt-societies-collapsed-climate-change-war-earthquakes.html
- Volcanic explosion larger than Krakatoa triggers collapse of Bronze age. William Ryan of the Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory of Columbia University http://geologymuseum.rutgers.edu/downloads/newsletter_-_2005_spring.pdf
- http://www.humanities360.com/index.php/could-climate-change-have-destroyed-the-mycenaean-greek-civilization-5447/#sourcesAndCitations Mycenaeans invaders though were not Greeks.

In this paper, we present an overview of radio signatures of sunspot NOAA 12192 measured with various instruments with frequencies of 37 GHz, 11.2 GHz and 200 - 400 MHz at Aalto University Metsahovi Radio Observatory (MRO). The data were observed during October 20 - 29, 2014. In total, 12 solar radio bursts at 11.2 GHz and 8 at 200 - 400 MHz, with varying intensities and properties, were observed. Radio brightening was captured in several solar radio maps. NOAA 12192 is the largest observed sunspot during solar cycle 24. We show that this exceptional radio brightening belongs to the strongest category including less than 5% of radio brightenings ever measured at MRO.

In two previous studies [Karakatsanis & Pavlos , 2008], [Karakatsanis et al. , 2010] we showed the coexistence of SOC and low dimensional chaos at solar activity concerning the sunspot index and the solar flares time series. This work complements the previous studies with new results obtained by using the intermittent turbulence theory, the non-extensive q-statistics of Tsallis as well as the singular value decomposition analysis. Particularly, we show the independent
dynamics of sunspot system related to the convection zone of sun and the solar flare system related to the lower solar atmosphere. However, both systems reveal non-equilibrium phase transition process from a high-dimensional intermittent turbulence state with SOC profile to
a low-dimensional and chaotic intermittent turbulence state. The high-dimensional SOC state in both dynamical systems underlying the sunspot and solar flare signal is related with low q values and low Flatness values (F) while the low-dimensional chaotic state is related with higher q-values and Flatness F-values. The higher q- and F-values reveal strong character of long-range correlations corresponding to system wide global process while the lower q- and F- values reveal
scale invariant local avalanche process. Also, the high-dimensional SOC state corresponds to second order non-equilibrium critical phase transition process while the low-dimensional chaotic state corresponds to first order non-equilibrium phase transition process. Finally, both dynamics underlying sunspot index and solar flare and in their both states of phase transition process the multi-scale and multi-fractal character was found to exist but with different profile or strength.

We investigated the relationship of associated CME-Preflare during the solar period 1996-2010. We found 292 CME-Preflare associated events (~2%). Those associated events have 0-1 hours interval time, popular events occur within half an hour before flare starting time. Post-flares–CME associated events are wider than CME-Preflare associated events. CME-Preflare associated events are ejected from the northern hemisphere during the solar cycle 23 rd , while the non-associated CMEs are ejected from the southern hemisphere. Polar CME-Preflare associated events are more energetic than the equatorial events. This means that post-flare–CME associated events are more decelerated than CME-Preflare associated events, CME-Flare associated simultaneously events and other CMEs. The CME-Preflare associated events are slower than the post-flare–CME associated events, and slightly faster than non-associated CME events. Post-flare–CME associated events are in average more massive than Preflare CME associated events and all other CMEs ejected from the Sun. CME-Preflare associated has a mean average speed which is equivalent to the mean average solar wind speed approximately.

The current paper reports discovery of superluminal velocities of X-rays, and Bharat Radiation in 12.87 to 31 nm range from solar spectra. The discovery challenges the 100 year old Albert Einstein’s assertion that nothing can go faster than velocity of light c in vacuum while formulating E = mc2 in his special theory of relativity reported in 1905 [1]. Several solar spectra recorded at various wavelengths by Woods et al in 2011 demonstrated GOES X-rays arriving earlier than 13.5 nm emission, which in turn arriving earlier than 33.5 nm emission [2]. Finally, the investigators faced difficulty in concluding that short wavelengths traveled fast because of lack of information whether all the three emissions originated from the same source and at the same time. Very recently the author has reported GOES X-rays (7.0 nm) cause 13.5 nm (Bharat Radiation), which in turn causes 33.5 nm Extreme ultraviolet (EUV) emission from same excited atoms present in solar flare by Padmanabha Rao Effect [3, 4]. Based on these findings, the author succeeded in explaining how the solar spectral findings provide direct evidences on superluminal velocities of GOES X-ray and 13.5 nm Bharat Radiation emissions, when 33.5 nm EUV emission is considered travelling at velocity of light c. Among X-ray wavelengths, the short wavelength 7.0 nm X-rays traveled faster than 9.4 nm X-rays, while X-rays go at superluminal velocities. Among Bharat radiation wavelengths, short wavelengths showed fast travel, while Bharat Radiation goes at superluminal velocities as compared to 33.5 EUV emission.

High-speed commercial flight transportation is being studied for intercontinental operations in the 21st century, the projected operational characteristics for these aircraft are examined, the radiation environment as it is now known is presented, and the relevant health issues are discussed. Based on a critical examination of the data, a number of specific issues need to be addressed to ensure an adequate knowledge of the ionizing radiation health risks of these aircraft operations. Large uncertainties in our knowledge of the physical fields for high-energy neutrons and multiply-charged ion components need to be reduced. Improved methods for estimating risks in prenatal exposure need to be developed. A firm basis for solar flare monitoring and forecasting needs to be developed with means of exposure abatement.

The purpose of this experiment was to determine if coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and their properties are related with solar flares and sunspots in order to determine which forms of solar activity are correlated, if sunspots and/or flares are the cause of CMEs or affect their properties, and to determine a model for predicting active region emergence.

The procedure involved looking through the NASA CME database, the SILSO sunspot database, and the BBSO flare database to observe daily occurrences of CMEs, the mass of CMEs, the linear speed of CMEs, solar sunspots, and solar flares. 157,680 sets of data were collected, from 1996 to 2008 (a complete solar cycle). These data points were put into an excel sheet, where trends were recorded.

The findings of this research are threefold. First, analysis led to the conclusion that there’s a correlation between CMEs, their properties, flares, and sunspots-- whether they be linear or inverse relationships. Second, causation was discovered between solar sunspots and CMEs, as sunspot increase/decrease occurred before the same CME increase/decrease. Finally, the inverse relationship between mass and CME amount, linear speed, and active region emergence signifies how physics laws function in zero gravity situations. These three discoveries pave the way for scientists to prepare against things like power outages, radio disturbances, as well as provide information that will secure safety to astronauts and the international space station.

3He-rich solar energetic particles (SEPs), showing up to a 10,000-fold abundance enhancement of rare elements like 3He or ultra-heavy nuclei, have been a puzzle for more than 50 years. One reason for the current lack of understanding of 3He-rich SEPs is the difficulty resolving the source regions of these commonly occurring events. Since their discovery, there has been strong evidence that 3He-rich SEP production is associated with flares on the Sun. Anomalous abundances of 3He-rich SEPs have been attributed to a unique acceleration mechanism that must routinely operate at flare sites. Flares associated with 3He-rich SEPs have been often observed in jet-like forms indicating an acceleration in magnetic re-connection involving field lines open to interplanetary space. Owing to a fleet of spacecraft around the Sun, providing a greatly improved resolution of solar imaging observations, 3He-rich SEP sources are now explored in unprecedented detail. This paper outlines the current understanding of 3He-rich SEPs, mainly focusing on their solar sources.

NOAA 12192 is the most active region producing X-class flares in 2014. Four X-class flares and 10 M-class flares occurred from this region. Flares occurred by reconnection of the complex magnetic field above the sunspot group. The magnetic field is observed using an instrument to detect the magnetic field location and magnetic fields intensity on the solar disk and produced data called magnetogram. Using Line-of-Sight (LoS) Magnetogram data from Solar Dynamics Observatory (SDO) satellite with 15 minutes temporal resolution and 512 x 512 pixel image resolution conduct dan automatic detection of positive and negative polarity of the NOAA 12192 magnetogram data from October 19 to 27, 2014. Polarity automatic detection method is using image processing on the magnetogram in the form of grayscale thresholding, area filtering, intensity filtering and edge detection to obtain a center of gravity (centroid) for each polarity. It was founded that the both polarity is move toward the equator and experienced rotation between the positive and negative polarity with the drift velocity of 0,35 o /day and 0,27 o /day, respectively. Evolution of the distance between polarity is increase corresponding to the area increase in the group with maximum value of 23,95 o. While the tilt angle evolution decreased by 20,49 o. As

The energy released in solar flares derives from a reconfiguration of magnetic fields to a lower energy state, and is manifested in several forms, including bulk kinetic energy of the coronal mass ejection, acceleration of electrons and ions, and enhanced thermal energy that is ultimately radiated away across the electromagnetic spectrum from optical to x rays. Using an unprecedented set of coordinated observations, from a suite of instruments, we here report on a hitherto largely overlooked energy component-the kinetic energy associated with small-scale turbulent mass motions. We show that the spatial location of, and timing of the peak in, turbulent kinetic energy together provide persuasive evidence that turbulent energy may play a key role in the transfer of energy in solar flares. Although the kinetic energy of turbulent motions accounts, at any given time, for only ∼ð0.5-1Þ% of the energy released, its relatively rapid (∼1-10 s) energization and dissipation causes the associated throughput of energy (i.e., power) to rival that of major components of the released energy in solar flares, and thus presumably in other astrophysical acceleration sites.

Satellite plays vital role in conveying information
around the world. Satellites  communication
systems  provide various services such as TV
broadcasting, internet, telephone, telemedicine
and GPS. However, these systems are threatened
by solar radiation so called solar flare erupted
from the Sun which is one of the major threats
faced by satellites orbiting around the Earth.
Thus, to keep satellites from being damaged an
intelligent  ANFIS based solar flare prediction
system is proposed in this paper. The system is
trained with publicly available time series data of
flares occurred in the past from 2001-2011. The
results show that the system has the accuracy of
85.47 % and it is capable of detecting the flare 24
hour before its occurrence.

One of the key problems in solar flare physics is the determination of the low-energy cutoff ; the value that determines the energy of nonthermal electrons and hence flare energetics. We discuss different approaches to determine the low-energy cutoff in the spectrum of accelerated electrons: (i) the total electron number model, (ii) the time-of-flight model (based on the equivalence of the time-of-flight and the collisional deflection time); (iii) the warm target model of Kontar et al. (2015), and (iv) the model of the spectral cross-over between thermal and nonthermal components. We find that the first three models are consistent with a low-energy cutoff with a mean value of ≈ 10 keV, while the cross-over model provides an upper limit for the low-energy cutoff with a mean value of ≈ 21 keV. Combining the first three models we find that the ratio of the nonthermal energy to the dissipated magnetic energy in solar flares has a mean value of q E = 0.57 ± 0.08, which is consistent with an earlier study based on the simplified approximation of the warm target model alone (q E = 0.51 ± 0.17). This study corroborates the self-consistency between three different low-energy cutoff models in the calculation of nonthermal flare energies. Subject headings: Sun: corona-Sun: flares-magnetic reconnection 1. INTRODUCTION The ultimate goal of this series of papers is the test of energy closure in solar flares and associated coronal mass ejection (CME) events, which entails the available energies that can be dissipated (magnetic free energy E mag , and aerodynamic drag energy E drag), and are transformed into primary energy dissipation processes (acceleration of nonthermal particles E nth , direct heating E dir , and the kinetic energy of a CME, E cme), as well as into secondary processes (precipitation-induced thermal energies, and CME-accelerated particles). Statistical results of these energies have been calculated for medium-sized to large flare events (Emslie et al. 2012; Aschwanden et al.). A key result is the statistical energy closure of primary energy dissipation processes, i.e., (E nth + E dir + E cme)/E diss = 0.87 ± 0.18) (Aschwanden et al. 2017). The largest amount of the dissipated magnetic energy goes into the acceleration of electrons E nth /E diss = 0.51 ± 0.17. Importantly, the measurement of the nonthermal energy E nth bears the largest uncertainty due to the poorly known low-energy cutoff ε c , which is the central focus of this study. The low-energy cutoff problem arises because the instantaneous electron injection spectrum can be approximated with a power-law function f e (ε) ∝ ε −δ above a minimum electron energy ε c (e.g., in the

The imaging spectroscopy capabilities of the Reuven Ramaty high energy solar spectroscopic imager (RHESSI) enable the examination of the accelerated electron distribution throughout a solar flare region. In particular, it has been revealed that the energisation of these particles takes place over a region of finite size, sometimes resolved by RHESSI observations. In this paper, we present, for the first time, a spatially distributed acceleration model and investigate the role of inhomogeneous acceleration on the observed X-ray emission properties. We have modelled transport explicitly examining scatter-free and diffusive transport within the acceleration region and compare with the analytic leaky-box solution. The results show the importance of including this spatial variation when modelling electron acceleration in solar flares. The presence of an inhomogeneous, extended acceleration region produces a spectral index that is, in most cases, different from the simple leaky-box prediction. In particular, it results in a generally softer spectral index than predicted by the leaky-box solution, for both scatter-free and diffusive transport, and thus should be taken into account when modelling stochastic acceleration in solar flares.

The notion that plasma shocks in astrophysical settings can and do accelerate charged particles to high energies is not a new one. However, in recent years considerable progress has been achieved in understanding the role particle acceleration plays both in astrophysics and in the shock process itself. In this paper we briefly review the history and theory of shock acceleration, paying particular attention to theories of parallel shocks which include the backreaction of accelerated particles on the shock structure. We discuss in detail the work that computer simulations, both plasma and Monte Carlo, are playing in revealing how thermal ions interact with shocks and how particle acceleration appears to be an inevitable and necessary part of the basic plasma physics that governs collisionless shocks. We briefly describe some of the outstanding problems that still confront theorists and observers in this field.

Hard X-rays and γ-rays are the most direct signatures of energetic electrons and ions in the sun's atmosphere which is optically thin at these energies and their radiation involves no coherent processes. Being collisional they are complementary to gyro-radiation in probing atmospheric density as opposed to magnetic field and the electrons are primarily 10-100 keV in energy, complementing the (>100 keV) electrons likely responsible for microwave bursts. The pioneering results of the Ramaty High Energy Solar Spectroscopic Imager (RHESSI) are raising the first new major questions concerning solar energetic particles in many years. Some highlights of these results are discussed-primarily around RHESSI topics on which the authors have had direct research involvement-particularly when they are raising the need for rethinking of entrenched ideas. Results and issues are broadly divided into discoveries in the spatial, temporal and spectral domains, with the main emphasis on flare hard X-rays/fast electrons but touching also on γ-rays/ions, non-flare emissions, and the relationship to radio bursts.

Aims. To investigate the positions and source sizes of X-ray sources taking into account Compton backscattering (albedo). Methods. Using a Monte Carlo simulation of X-ray photon transport including photo-electric absorption and Compton scattering, we calculate the apparent source sizes and positions of X-ray sources at the solar disk for various source sizes, spectral indices and directivities of the primary source. Results. We show that the albedo effect will alter the true source positions and substantially increase the measured source sizes. The source positions are shifted up to ∼ 0.5 ′′ radially towards the disk centre and 5 arcsecond source sizes can be two times larger even for an isotropic source (minimum albedo effect) at 1 Mm above the photosphere. X-ray sources therefore should have minimum observed sizes, thus FWHM source size (2.35 times second-moment) will be as large as ∼ 7 ′′ in the 20-50 keV range for a disk-centered point source at a height of 1 Mm (∼ 1.4 ′′) above the photosphere. The source size and position change is the largest for flatter primary X-ray spectra, stronger downward anisotropy, for sources closer to the solar disk centre, and between the energies of 30 and 50 keV. Conclusions. Albedo should be taken into account when X-ray footpoint positions, footpoint motions or source sizes from e.g. RHESSI or Yohkoh data are interpreted, and suggest that footpoint sources should be larger in X-rays than in optical or EUV ranges.

In this paper we present an overview of solar radio observations at 11.2 GHz on Mets?hovi Radio Observatory (MRO). The data were observed during the solar cycles 23 and 24 (2001-2013) both in solar maxima and minimum. In total, 180 solar radio bursts, with varying intensities and properties, were observed. We compare our data series with other similar data sets. A good correlation can be found between the data series. It is concluded that one can conduct scientifically significant solar radio observations with a low cost instrument as the one presented in this paper.

We studied the structure and dynamics of the turbulent photospheric magnetic
field in active region NOAA 11158 by characterizing spatial and temporal scaling properties
of the line-of-sight (LOS) component. Using high-resolution high-cadence LOS magnetograms
from SDO/HMI, we measured the power-law exponents α and β that describe
Fourier power spectra in wavenumber (k) and frequency (f ) domains, and we investigated
their evolution during the passage of the active region through the field of view of HMI.
The flaring active region NOAA 11158 produces a one-dimensional spatial power spectral
density that approximately follows a k
−2 power law – a spectrum that suggests parallel
MHD fluctuations in an anisotropic turbulent medium. In addition, we found that the values
of α capture systematically change in the configuration of the LOS photospheric magnetic
field during flaring activity in the corona. Position-dependent values of the temporal scaling
exponent β showed that, on an average, the core of the active region scales with β >3
surrounded by a diffusive region with an approximately f
−2-type spectrum. Our results indicate
that only about 1 – 3 % of the studied LOS photospheric magnetic flux displays β ≈ α,
implying that Taylor’s hypothesis of frozen-in-flow turbulence is typically invalid for this
scalar field in the presence of turbulent photospheric flows. In consequence, both spatial
and temporal variations of the plasma and magnetic field must be included in a complete
description of the turbulent evolution of active regions.

Formation and propagation of the coronal mass ejections are studied widely for space weather forecasting applications. During the ascending solar cycle, various types of complex CME formations can be observed that haven't been observed before by SOHO-LASCO and STEREO-A&B Coronographs. In this study the 17 May 2012 CME event that caused the first Ground Level Enhancement Event of Solar Cycle 24, has been investigated. Event is classified as a nested CME and Triangulation Method is used to derive its source region properties. The Event has been associated with a type-II radio burst and an M-class flare. The ENLIL model from NASA Community Coordinated Modeling Center has been run for the event and a comparison with real time data is provided for the propagation of the CME. A naïve MHD model is constructed to simulate the shape and propagation of the nested CMEs. The study is in accordance with former studies that propose a “twin CME” scenario for the event and associates the nested and twin CME phenomena.