International Journal of Business Syste
stems and Economics
ISSN: 2360-9923, Volume 12, Issue 3, ((July, 2019) pages 34 – 42
www.arcnjournals.org
International
onal Journal of Business Systems and Economics
Enhancing Urban
an P
Planning and Management through
thr
the
Application of Geogr
eographic Information Technol
nology for
Econ
Economic Transformation
1
Baadom, Livinus E.,, 2D
Deeyah, Christopher L.,3West, Tamuno
unomiete and
4
Uebari, Sunday L.
1,3 Department of Urban and
nd R
Regional Planning, 2 Department of Estate Maanagement, 4
Depa
Department of Mechanical Engineering
1,2,3 School of Envi
Environmental Technology, 4 School of Engineerin
ering
Ken Saroo Wi
Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori Rivers State, Nigeria.
hoo.com
Correspondence emai
ail: livybas@yahoo.com and chrisdeeyah@yahoo.c
Abstract: The concept of geographi
aphic information technology is a scientific knowledge
dge that is practically
used in spatial location of element
ents, their sizes and relativity to others which first
rst appeared toward
ending of the last millennium. Thi
This article assesses the roles of geographic inform
ormation technology
toward the enhancement of urban
ban pl
planning and management by objectively determini
ining four important
milestones- mainframe/ server GIS,
IS, mobile GIS, desktop GIS, and internet/web GIS.
IS. These milestones
have technologically formulatedd tto address urban challenges in the areas of transportation
tr
and
communication, governance, waste
te management, housing and land use. Others include
ude facility provision
and management, social vices, land
and pollution as well as environmental impact asses
sessment. The paper
recommends basic areas in whi
hich geographic information system can be applied
appl
to enhance
technological turning point especia
cially in cities of developing countries. It calls for attention
att
in training
and practice to enhance effective urban governance for economic transformation in Nig
igeria.
Keywords: Urban Planning, Geograph
ographic Information, Governance, Technology and Spatial
Spat
Sustainability.
Introduction
cha
to man and
Information technology is one of the revolutions that have brought significant change
way, this is manifested in the development of Com
omputer. Recently,
his environment. In a special way
are of banking,
Computer have been appliedd iin many and different ways such in the areas
on, m
marketing, distance learning (education), medic
dicine, automobile,
transportation, communication,
nd se
several other areas.
city design and governance and
on te
technology is applied to geography and geogra
raphic features as
Presently, information
ty to one another.
well as the determination of the location of the features and their relativity
ler (1991), geography is the study of earth’s featur
atures and patterns
According to De-blij and Muller
location and time, which is mostly presented
d in maps. These
of their variations in spatial loc
times presented in map forms shape our pattern
rn of visualization,
geographic features which at tim
well as psychology of spatial information.
on. The ideology of
assessment and analysis as we
(GIS) is one of the very recent phenomena develope
veloped in 1960s to
geographic information system (G
tures on the surface of the earth. This explana
anatory keynote is
determine the location of featur
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International Journal of Business Systems and Economics
narrowed to an urban setting which is one of the geographical spaces developed for human
habitation, characterized by high human population, presence of urban foundations (facilities)
and may mostly become administrative headquarter for easy governance (Chandna, 2012;
Roberts, 1999; Onokerhoraye and Omuta, 1994).
Socially, an urban environment is viewed by Macionis and Parrillo (2010), as setting
aspects of human drama: the highest learning colliding with the grossest ignorance,
unimaginable wealth Juxtaposed with the most abject poverty. This view maintains that an urban
area is a place of gross integration and interaction of cultures, and socio-economic classes. The
placement of infrastructure whose presence actually determines the quality of human settlement
(urban or rural) becomes central in the application of geographic information system in urban
environment.
Definition of geographic information system
The application of geographic information system in many and different fields has grossly
affected its definition and perceptions. Thus, Heywood, Cornelius and Carver (2006), maintain
that to select the actual definition of GIS, various areas in which the concept of geographic
information system can be derived are assessed. However, Maguire, Goodchiled and Rhid (1991)
offer a list of 11 different definitions. It is significant to note that due to the dispersed concept of
GIS, different fields of thought view it from areas of interest. Pickles (1995) suggests the fact
that any definition of GIS will depend on who is giving it, and their background and view point
and further maintains that may not be static but may likely change quickly as technology and
applications develop further. GIS is essentially defined as a computer-based system that enables
users to collect, store, and process, analyze and present spatial data (Prakash, 2001). A similar
definition to the above is that by Burrough and McDonnel (1998), who reveal that it is a set of
tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying spatial data from the
real world for a particular set of purposes. Some of the issues that have formed the basis of
clarifications for definitions of geographic information system include its functionality,
genealogy, cost, size, platform application area and data model and the central focus of the
current GIS: hardware and software and information processing (Maguire and Rapor, 1990;
Maguire and Danger -Mond, 1991; Clarke, 1986).
In relation to urban planning, GIS is viewed as just one of the formalized computer-base
information system capable of integrating data from various sources to provide the information
necessary for effective decision-making in urban planning (Han and Kim, 1989). Some other
information system for urban planning and management include decision management systems
(DMS), decision support system (DSS), and expert systems. It is important to note that GIS
serves both as a database and a toolbox for urban planning. In a database-oriented GIS, spatial
and textual data can be stored and linked using the geo-relational model. Current GIS support
efficient data retrieval, query, and mapping.
The discipline that deals with all aspects of spatial data handling is known as geoinformatics. A related term that is sometimes used synonymously with geo-informatics is
geomatics. Sequel to the current development, the use of GIS is no more restricted to mapping,
planning and survey organization. GIS enters medium and small businesses and new domains,
such as geo-marketing (Ademola, 2015). The computing platforms from four important
milestones are mainframe/server GIS, mobile GIS, Desktop GIS and Internet GIS.
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Mainframe/Server GIS
Mainframe-based monolithic GIS programmes are GIS programmes with limited or no
communication with other computer (other than transparently via, for example, use of a network
file server). Programmes are used on the mainframe where the programme resides. Users need
access to that machine via a login or dump terminal session. An example is early Arc/info
installed on a standalone mainframe (Joseph, 2005), Canada Geographic information system
developed in 1962 also ran on mainframe and was used to store, analyze, and manipulate data
collected for the Canada Land Inventory (CLI). It was an initiative to determine the land
capability for rural Canada by mapping information about soils, agriculture, recreation, wildlife,
water flow, forestry, and land use at a scale of 1:50, 000.
The mainframe GIS is mostly used in spatial data infrastructure which is to denote a
framework of technologies, policies and institutional arrangement that together facilitate the
creation, exchange, and use of geospatial data and related information resources across an
information sharing community. According to ESRI (2006), the mainframe GIS offers
opportunity of central data control to ensure standardization. Organization of effort direct people
toward the best available data, and improve the overall quality of geospatial data and
information. An important aspect of the mainframe GIS is the principles of Geo-Spatial Handling
is GIS which does not store map or image but rather store a relational database from which maps
can be created at and when needed.
Mobile GIS
According to Scholtz (2006), the convergence of the rapidly progressing fields of wireless
communication and hardware coupled with technologies, like Geographic Information Systems
(GIS) and Global Positioning systems (GPS), has led to the emergence of a new field called
mobile GIS. Generally, TSOU (2004) defines mobile GIS as an integrated software/hardware
framework for the access of geospatial data and services through mobile devices via wireline or
wireless networks. Part of its very basic function is to access geospatial data. It is also extended
to displaying of geospatial data and performing GIS operations. It has the ability to display
geospatial data, and receive, process and retrieve the GIS requests of mobile user more
acceptable (Pundt, 2002).
Desktop GIS
Desktop geographic information system represents the real world on a computer similar to the
way maps represent the world on paper and provide comprehensive and powerful GIS
capabilities to assist in performing advanced spatial analysis, spatial data creation, and visualize
results on professional quality maps. GIS and paper maps convey information about places.
Though, desktop GIS are found to have power and flexibility in which paper maps do not
possess. Desktop GIS also have the ability of storage and linkage to huge amounts of information
concerning the objects been represented on maps. These objects which are geographical features
as represented on maps have location, size and spatial relationship to other features.
Desktop GIS has several characteristics and affiliations such as geographic referencing
concepts which performs its analyses by relating the different layers containing one information
or the other to their specific or actual locations on the surface of the earth (Ademola, 2015).
Another significant aspect of desktop GIS is geographic coordinate system which uses a threedimensional spherical surface to define locations on the earth. The projected coordinate system
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which is defined on a flat, two-dimensional surface is one other sub-unit of desktop geographic
information system. It maintains a constant lengths, angles, and areas across the two dimensions.
It is also used in map projection in which according to Rao (2003), is a mathematical
transformation to create a flat map sheet from its three-dimensional surface.
Internet/Web GIS
This aspect of geographic information system evolved around 1993. It has greatly influenced the
way geo-spatial information is acquired, transmitted, published, shared and visualized. Internet
GIS represents a great milestone in the history of GIS (Peng, 1999). The internet is a massive
network of networks that connects millions of computers worldwide. According to Douglas
(2008), computers connected to the internet can communicate with one another with a number of
protocols, such as Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP),
File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Internet Relay Chat (IRC), Instant Messaging (IM), as well as
Telnet and P2P (Peer-Peer). The World Wide Web is defined as a system of interlinked hypertext
documents and programmes that can be accessed via the Internet primarily by using Hypertext
Transfer Protocol. Though, the HTTP is just one of the protocols the internet supports, its main
attraction for a large number of users is the content accessible on the web.
Internet GIS can be viewed as a distributed, object-oriented system, portable and a crossplatform (Joseph, 2005). The internet supports many services in which, the web is one of them. It
is significant to note that two capabilities are enhanced through the Web and Internet – the Web
allows visual interaction with the geo-data. This will enable users to produce maps with the aid
of the near ubiquitous nature of the internet; can be viewed by other users from any and different
locations.
GIS Application in Urban Planning and Management
Geographic Information System is as complex as proper planning and management of cities
especially in developing world. The ideology of GIS could be found to have been derived from
the basic concepts of urban planning and will ever continue. Thus, Trevor and Gregory (1993),
reveal that the continent has a long history of GIS application in planning and resource
management dating back to the mid-1960s. Accordingly, the diffusion of GIS into the planning
sphere has continued at a remarkable rate. However, no single source is yet available that
enumerates the diversity and scope of GIS applications in urban and regional planning
(Ademola, 2015). Early studies into the field of GIS application in planning like Wellar (1975),
Ducker, (1979) and Tomlinson (1987) identified major trends and impediments to the
development of GIS in the planning domain. Increasing trends in software, hardware and
application area have largely been interpreted on the basis of personal involvement (Trevor and
Gregory, 1993). Planning is an unstable decision-making process which is affected by forces
beyond the dictates of the planning rationale or strategy. It is a heavily politicized activity
ranging from physical, social, economic to political spheres. The application of GIS in planning
will have effective functionality.
Urban Planning and Management involves map functions, scales, sectors and stages.
These functions can be classified into general administration, development control, plan making
and strategic planning. The general routine planning activities are development control and
administration while other aspects such as plan and other non routine like strategies planning are
not always in continuous practice by planners. Planning covers a wider scale ranging from the
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regional context, a whole city, to a sub-region of a city, district, neighbourhood or a street block.
Though, land use, housing, land development, transportation, and environmental management
are the most frequently involved sectors of urban planning and management.
Geographic Information Systems are of many benefits to the planning of urban
environment. Thus, Royal Town Planning Institute (1992) has identified the following.
Improved mapping and better access to maps
Improved map currency, more effective thematic mapping, and reduced storage cost;
Improve analysis
Greater efficiency in retrieval of information;
Better communication to the public and staff;
Faster and more extensive access to the types of geographical information important to
planning and the ability to explore a wider range of any planning scenario;
Improved quality of services such as speedier access to information for planning
application processing.
It is therefore observed that GIS plays an important role in the enhancement of urban
planning. Thus, Tomlin (1990), maintains that GIS serves both as a database and as a toolbox for
urban planning. GIS support efficient data retrieval, query, and mapping. Planners can also
extract data from their databases and input them to other modeling and spatial analysis programs.
When these are combined with data from other tabular databases of specially conducted surveys,
geographical information can be used to make effective planning decisions (Berry, 1987). Also,
planners make use of map overlay which is one of the geo processing functions in land suitability
analysis which is an important component in urban planning (Hopkins, 1977).
Also the use of the data management, visualization, spatial analysis, and modeling
components of GIS varies according to different functions of urban planning (Levine and Landis,
1989). Data management, visualization, and spatial analysis are used more in the routine work of
urban planning; spatial modeling is used more in strategic planning while general administration
employs mainly data management and visualization. It is significant to know that development
control which is a major aspect of urban planning and management uses the visualization and
spatial analysis functions of geographic information systems. The outstanding areas of
development control and general administration according to Newton and Taylor (1986) include;
Management of land use record;
Building control application processing;
Land use management
Thematic mapping
Land availability and development monitoring
Industrial, commercial, and retail, open space recording
Public facilities and shops catchment area and accessibility analysis
Social area and deprivation analysis;
Land use/transport strategy planning;
Contaminated and derelict land registers;
Environmental impact assessment;
Recreational and country side facility planning
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There are many and different areas of GIS applications in the landuse, housing, transport,
land development, and environmental sectors. Such are prominent in the areas of site selection
and land suitability analysis. In term of transportation planning in an urban area, network
analysis and route selection are frequently applied while buffer and overlay processing are used
in environmental planning and management. Though according to GoodChild, Parks and
Steyaert (1993), there is an increasing trend toward the integration of modeling in different
sectors of urban planning.
GIS can also be applied in the different stages in the urban planning process which can be
generalized as the determination of objectives, resource inventory, analysis of existing situations,
modeling and projection, development of planning option, selection of planning options, plan
implementation, and plan evaluation, monitoring and feedback, (Paulson, 1992; Yeh and Li,
1996; Schuller, 1992; Chuvieco, 1993; Carver, 1991; and Yeh, 1991).
GIS in Urban Management and Economic Transformation
The practice of urban and regional planning is holistically carried out at the various level of
political administration especially at the national, state and the local stages. At the national, GIS
is applied in the areas of Land Management, Environmental Protection, forest service and
national Parks, Geological services, population and statistics, housing, transportation, power and
water supply, irrigation and other regional agencies. It is expected that demographic statistics
when linked to spatial information forms better ground for socio-economic database that can be
regularly updated and support a range of national planning activities like population census and
civil registration (national ID card, voters’ registration) among many others (Ademola, 2015).
The application of geographic information systems at the state level varies like that of the
national. Urban planners can use GIS to prepare development plans (like master plan) which set
the standard for policy decisions regarding long-range changes to a city’s physical environment.
It can also be applied in neighbourhood design, identification of activities within different zones,
city transportation, residential housing, city growth, location of institutions as well as migration.
The local Planning Authorities which have substantial responsibilities for day-to-day
planning need incorporation of GIS into planning at the local government level. The application
of GIS can be revealed in the aspects of environmental sensitive areas-wetland, floodplain,
implementation of zoning, permit status and other planning information leading to improved
planning image and economic development. GIS can also be used to conduct environmental
review of projects, development review, analysis, and compliance, historic preservation and
redevelopment. Management of land use record.
Effective application of GIS in the following areas of development control and: Building
control application processing; Land use management, Thematic mapping, Land availability and
development monitoring, Industrial, commercial, and retail, open space recording , Public
facilities and shops catchment area and accessibility analysis, Social area and deprivation
analysis; Land use/transport strategy planning; Contaminated and derelict land registrations;
Environmental impact assessment; Recreational and country side facility planning ,will enhances
urban management for economic transformation.
Conclusion
The content of this paper has objectively examined the ideology of geographic information
systems and their usages in the planning and management of cities. GIS are increasingly being
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used in planning agencies in the developed and developing countries (Worrall, 1990; Yeh, 1991).
GIS and its sub-components like server, mobile, desktop and internet is increasingly becoming
an important component in all aspects of planning such as in housing, transportation, forestry and
recreation, comprehensive plan and neighbourhood design. Recent GIS used as planning models,
visualization, enhances the effectiveness of urban planning and management toward
transformation of the economy. These planning strategies are highly determined and practiced at
the various administrative levels of governance.
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