Editorial Board
Editor-In-Chief
Norbert Vrabec
Deputy Managing Editor
Monika Prostináková Hossová
Indexing Process and Technical Editor
Marija Hekelj
Technical Editor and Distribution
Ľubica Bôtošová
Proofreading Team and English Editors
František Rigo, Michal Valek, Sláva Gracová
Photo Editors
Kristián Pribila
Grafic Production Coordinator
Martin Graca
Web Editor
Andrej Brník
Editorial Team
Ľudmila Čábyová, Viera Kačinová, Slavomír Gálik, Martin Solík,
Oľga Škvareninová, Denisa Jánošová
Advisory Board
Piermarco Aroldi (Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore in Milano, Italy)
Alexander Fedorov (Russian Association for Film and Media Education, Russia)
Jan Jirák (Metropolitan University Prague, Czech Republic)
Igor Kanižaj (University of Zagreb, Croatia)
Miguel Vicente Mariño (University of Valladolid, Spain)
Radek Mezulánik (Jan Amos Komenský University in Prague, Czech Republic)
Stefan Michael Newerkla (University of Vienna, Austria)
Gabriel Paľa (University of Prešov, Slovak Republic)
Veronika Pelle (Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary)
Hana Pravdová (University of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovak Republic)
Charo Sádaba (University of Navarra in Pamplona, Spain)
Lucia Spálová (Constantine the Philosopher University in Nitra, Slovakia)
Anna Stolińska (Pedagogical University of Kraków, Poland)
Zbigniew Widera (University of Economics in Katowice, Poland)
Markéta Zezulkova (Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic)
Yao Zheng (Zhejiang University of Media and Communications, China)
About the Journal
Media Literacy and Academic Research is a scientific journal focused on the academic reflection
of media and information literacy issues, media education, critical thinking, digital media and
new trends in related areas of media and communication studies. The journal is devoted
to addressing contemporary issues and future developments related to the interdisciplinary
academic discussion, the results of empirical research and the mutual interaction of expertise
in media and information studies, media education as well as their sociological, psychological,
political, linguistic and technological aspects.
Media Literacy and Academic Research is a double-blind peer-reviewed journal published twice a
year. The journal is international and interdisciplinary, inviting contributions from across the globe
and from various academic disciplines of social sciences. It focuses on theoretical and empirical
studies, research results, as well as papers related to the new trends, practices and other academic
a research areas. Also encouraged are literature reviews, innovative initiatives, best practices
in online teaching, institutional policies, standards and assessment. The Journal welcomes the
submission of manuscripts that meet the general criteria of significance and scientific excellence.
The members of the journal´s Editorial Board are members of the European Communication
Research and Education Association (ECREA), UNESCO-UNAOC UNITWIN Network for Media
and Information Literacy, European Association for Viewers Interests (EAVI), The Slovak EU Kids
Online Team, Media Literacy Expert Group and International Association for Media Education.
The journal is now indexed in these databases: Emerging Sources Citation Index (ESCI) – Web
of Science Core Collection, ERIH Plus, Ulrich’s Periodical Directory, CEEOL, CEJSH and Index
Copernicus.
The complete version of Media Literacy and Academic Research’s Editorial Policy is available
online at www.mlar.sk.
Media Literacy and Academic Research
Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020, price 5€
ISSN: 2585-8726 (print version), ISSN: 2585-9188 (online version)
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Editorial
When considering the impact that a pandemic era has and will
have on the quality of human and social life, many questions and
even more significant variations of answers arise. The age, which
significantly collides with the era of hyperconnectivity, or activates
this era to a greater extent, brings with it a critical dilemma
concerning the improvement of the quality of life of the digitized
individual. This dilemma takes the form of a renewed discourse
on the advantages and disadvantages of its constant digital
connectivity. It seems that the philosophy, according to which
this individual has lived so far and which W. Powers describes
as the concept of „Digital Maximalism“ is getting severe cracks.
In the practice of total connectivity in the Covid-19 pandemic era, it is necessary to anticipate
the arguments for and against this philosophy, which he subconsciously applied.
Maximum screen time brings, on the one hand, increased productivity, speed and efficiency,
but also the ability to nourish the mind, heart and soul of man through digital connections with
others. On the other hand, such an approach touches its limits in confrontation with the current
lifestyle, the needs of individuals and current social practice.
It is questionable to what extent technologies can saturate the real needs of man and support
the optimal and at the same time valuable functioning of society. There is no doubt that the
answers to these questions will be reconsidered in the context of a pandemic, and the postpandemic reality will reflect the basic needs and values of man and society as such.
Within the outlined starting points and intentions, it seems that a different philosophy of life of
the digitized individual, defining against permanent hyperconnectivity, is currently gaining in
importance. The one that C. Newport describes in his work as Digital Minimalism. His central
thesis is that in our relationship with digital means, less can mean more. This philosophy,
which emphasizes the need for a slowdown, reflection, or the value of silence and loneliness
in response to the loss of depth and diversion of the individual from one's interior, especially
under the influence of constant interactions, information overload and a busy digital world. It
also supports our entry into the resistance, as a means of sensible defensive action against
the „traders with our attention and our time“ that the social media represents. Thus, it brings
rest and relief to the technologically overburdened individual in times of global health crisis.
It also allows a return to the classic analogue conversation that one desires following one's
nature and an overall rediscovery of analogue activities that will provide him/her with deeper and
longer-term satisfaction. The aim is to achieve valuable forms of human personality development
even without the help of digital means, which the current time intensively demands. At the same
time, this philosophy helps to restart the life of man, in which technology acts only as an aid
in achieving his meaningful goals.
The current situation thus represents a challenge for individuals to decide on the wise use of digital
means, resp. highlights the need to learn this through media education strategies. Prenský's
concept of digital wisdom is, therefore gaining in importance much more than ever before.
Viera Kačinová
Member of the Editorial Team
Contents
Studies
Critical Media Literacy in the Googleburg Galaxy ......................................................................................6
Steve Gennaro, Blair Miller
Media Manipulation and Propaganda in the Post-Truth Era .....................................................................23
Erika Moravčíková
Effectiveness of Educational Approaches to Elementary School Pupils
(11 or 12 Years Old) to Combat Fake News..............................................................................................38
Jos van Helvoort, Marianne Hermans
Comparison of Television Broadcasting for Children and Youth in a Public
Broadcaster in the Slovak and Czech Republic During the Covid-19 Pandemic .....................................48
Sláva Gracová, Ľubica Bôtošová, Martin Graca, Andrej Brník
Family Socioeconomic Status and Parents’ Education as Indicators
of the Primary Use of Digital Media by Children .......................................................................................63
Petra Polievková
University Students Engagement With and Disengagement from Fake News .........................................77
William Mel C. Paglinawan
Mobbing and Cybermobbing: Risk Aspects of (Digital) Communication
in the Workplace and Possibilities of Legislative and Non- Legislative
Protection Under the Conditions of the Slovak Republic .........................................................................88
Vladimíra Hladíková
Whose Information Should Be Shared with Whom?: Parents’ Awareness
of Children’s Digital Privacy in Turkey .....................................................................................................109
Derya Gül Ünlü, Oya Morva
Establishment of Procedures in the Creation of Extended Multimedia News Reports ...........................125
Zora Hudíková, Hana Pravdová
The Usage of Social Media Tools By Islamic Banks in Pakistan and the UAE .......................................141
Tahreem Noor Khan
The Imperative of Television in Nigerian Politics .....................................................................................159
Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah
Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
photo: Tamara Sokolová
Steve Gennaro, Blair Miller
Critical Media Literacy
In The Googleburg Galaxy
ABSTRACT
With the popular and the political competing for our global electronic attention what is often
overlooked are questions surrounding access and participation on social media platforms,
which have become contested domains of advertising, recruitment, propaganda, and activism.
As the very definitions of what it means to be „literate“ or what constitutes a „text“ continue to
change, having the ability to „read“ continues to hold significant importance. Marshall McLuhan
argues in The Guttenberg Galaxy that the printing press created a paradigm shift. In removing
the mystique from texts and making ideas more accessible not only did literacy rates rise, but
for McLuhan, social relations and power dynamics were fundamentally and irrevocably changed.
In line with a history of humanity that continually shifts power and social relations through
uses of new technologies, this paper explores how new forms of language and social patterns
of interactions on social media have created a similarly potent paradigm shift, changing the
meaning of existence both online and in person. This is the Googleburg Galaxy.
KEY WORDS
Critical media literacy. Media. Media literacy. Critical media. Social media. Marshall McLuhan.
Discourse.
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1. The Googleburg Galaxy
Modern society exists in a state of contradiction, awash in both blinding change and defeating
repetition. The changes are so frequent, fast, and noticeable that they obscure the repetition,
enabling individuals to see everything as new. But to overlook the obscured is to neglect the
totality of one’s own relationships to the world and others. Marx and Engels knew this all too well,
describing the state of affairs in an appraisal of the bourgeois epoch: „Constant revolutionizing
of production, uninterrupted disturbance of all social conditions, everlasting uncertainty and
agitation distinguish the bourgeois epoch from all earlier ones. All fixed, fast-frozen relations,
with their train of ancient and venerable prejudices and opinions, are swept away, all new-formed
ones become antiquated before they can ossify. All that is solid melts into air, all that is holy
is profaned, and man is at last compelled to face with sober senses his real conditions of life,
and his relations with his kind.“1
All that is solid melts into air; nothing feels like now; no one can keep up. As such,
anxieties around change abound while one feels a lack of control, a diminishing of agency.
Modern selves know too much – increasingly so during this Digital Age – but only make sense
of it looking backwards.
This is, for the most part, a particularly human state of awareness, given that humans
have it in them to devote attention to such matters – ones that tend to rest beyond the causeand-effect existence of other animals. As Marshall McLuhan observes in War and Peace in the
Global Village, „One thing about which fish know exactly nothing is water, since they have no
anti-environment which would enable them to perceive the element they live in.“2 In McLuhan’s
world view, humans are able to initiate such anti-environments across various mediums of
technologies, or media. Change occurs in the type of technology/medium earlier than it does
in the content, which always resides in a different, previous medium, because the only way to
observe said content is when it is re-contextualized in contradistinction to new media. Framed
within the terminology of McLuhan’s fish reference, this sort of observation of content and
medium – itself part of a discourse which is to be referred to here as critical media literacy – is
performed thanks to the emergence of a new environment, or anti-environment, made possible
by a new medium that can make human users of media aware of its content like never before,
much like if a fish were to be immediately conscious of water. New media grants individuals
the opportunity to engage in critical media literacy, riddled with anxiety as it might be, because
it allows users to translate and grasp the change by looking at things passed, as opposed
to trying to stay ahead of what they cannot. It might sound disorienting, but it is the terrain
contemporary individuals must map if they are to be critically media literate, it is a fundamental
part of McLuhan’s constellation of theories of media, and as such it embodies this attempt
to superimpose that cluster of ideas onto digital media – to navigate the Googleburg Galaxy.3
As kitschy as the term Googleburg Galaxy might seem, the stakes are high for critical
media literacy with a McLuhanesque infrastructure because it is about power. For McLuhan,
all media are active metaphors in their power to translate new experience into new forms. The
spoken word was the first technology by which man was able to let go of his environment in
order to grasp it in a new way.4
Though the influence each medium has upon greater civilization varies, the advent of the
printing press has a similar impact in scale as the spoken word for McLuhan, as detailed in
his seminal book The Gutenberg Galaxy. So does the Electric Age, which brought audio-visual
forms of translation with it. Digital media as a technology represents such a change as well.
1
2
3
4
MARX, K., ENGELS, F.: The Communist Manifesto. New York : Penguin Books, 1967, p. 83.
MCLUHAN, M., FIORE, Q.: War and Peace in the Global Village. New York : McGraw-Hill, 1968, p. 175.
The topic of the „Googleburg Galaxy“ was first raised as a conference paper at the Canadian Communications
Association’s annual conference at the University of Waterloo in May of 2012.
MCLUHAN, M.: Understanding Media: The Extensions of Man. Berkeley : Ginko Press, 2017, p. 85.
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These changes are tantamount to paradigm shifts, taking the contemporary self, the fish, and
placing it out of water, as it were – and into yet another environment that sublimates solids
into air. Unprecedented rates of production of both new technology and its obsolescence in
the Digital Age means that people are able to perceive the sorts of changes the digital media
landscape presents to us, but it is not direct, it cannot be static, and it must always be facing
backwards, like Walter Benjamin’s angel of history.5 Applying some tenets of the McLuhanGutenberg Galaxy to digital media is required for critical media literacy because the change
brought about by digital media, specifically social media, possesses this translational power.
Apart from the parallels in verbal taxonomy with McLuhan’s expression Gutenberg Galaxy,
using „Google“ in this new term merely stands as an embodiment for greater networks of sociotechnological relations in the same way that the proliferation of Gutenberg’s printing press
does not amount to an adequate description of all that its phenomena entails as well. In other
words, McLuhan’s account of Gutenberg’s influence is not solely an account of Gutenberg’s
direct influence, but rather an access point to analyse things indicative of its specific era. In
the same fashion, an exploration of the Googleburg Galaxy takes on a wider evaluative scope
then the eponymous one.
The Googleburg Galaxy is a discursive space about trying to „sense the water“ via critical
media literacy that investigates the power dynamics within digital media. The specific subdiscourse examined here concerns one of the more daunting and imposing new technologies –
social media – and brings the work of several theorists to bear on the matter. Those texts will be
approached from a perspective framed by two McLuhan adages: the medium is the message,
and the user is the content. Since the stakes have already been assessed as significant,
mapping the Googleburg Galaxy also situates users and/or critical media readers and creators
as active democratic citizens with responsibilities.
This task of mapping – and constantly maintaining and re-maintaining orientation – is not a
forgone conclusion. For one, there are societal structures, industries of culture, and behavioural
patterns that effectively empty media’s content of meaning. Secondly, the aforementioned
anxiety is even something McLuhan acknowledges, in the form of users’ disorientation towards
constantly transmogrifying media technologies. Attempting discourse from this position can
often evoke anxiety as „the result of trying to do today’s job with yesterday’s tools.“6 While it
might not be wholly possible yet to look back on social media content in the way McLuhan
means proper, some discourse about a case study in social media’s virality – one that has
largely ran its course – can serve as a starting point, and a trail to circle back to throughout
the process to follow.
2. From obscurity to domination to virality to being
hegemonized – the case study of Kony 2012
First, some context, some articulation of this key constellation of modes of communication in
the Googleburg Galaxy, social media. Such context involves mapping social media with critical
media literacy, to highlight both social media’s immense hold on culture and the emptiness
5
6
„A Klee painting named ‘Angelus Novus’ shows an angel looking as though he is about to move away from
something he is fixedly contemplating. His eyes are staring, his mouth is open, his wings are spread. This is
how one pictures the angel of history. His face is turned toward the past. Where we perceive a chain of events,
he sees one single catastrophe which keeps piling wreckage and hurls it in front of his feet. The angel would like
to stay, awaken the dead, and make whole what has been smashed. But a storm is blowing in from Paradise; it
has got caught in his wings with such a violence that the angel can no longer close them. The storm irresistibly
propels him into the future to which his back is turned, while the pile of debris before him grows skyward. This
storm is what we call progress.”, BENJAMIN, W.: Illuminations. New York : Schocken Books, 1968, p. 257-8.
MCLUHAN, M., FIORE, Q.: The Medium is the Massage. London : Penguin Press, 1967, p. 10.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
with which it maintains that hold. Ecologies – including media ecologies, to evoke another of
McLuhan’s terms – have collective lives of their own that are not static, so critical media literacy
and its pedagogies exist accordingly.7 Still, despite the relative youth of social media technologies
and the dynamic understanding required to stay educated about them, critical media literacy
can, in principle, enable access and/or opportunity to an extent similar to traditional literacy.
Given the seemingly unstoppable power social media has been gathering over recent years,
one can see this appraisal of critical media literacy as exaggeratory – at one’s own peril.
Critical media literacy seeks to explore questions about power and justice through
understanding media, and how new technologies create media that produces texts, stories,
and images often without properly explaining them to the user. Therefore, the user requires some
basic understanding of how those texts are created, for whom they are created, and how the
texts themselves get taken up by audiences and influence society, often reproducing hegemonic
ideologies. This also necessitates inquiry into the ever-changing forms of mediums, structures of
media ownership, and human interactions with new media. (In this sense, McLuhan’s meaning
of the word „media“ tends towards that of multiple mediums of technology, as opposed to
news media content – though the two terms overlap considerably.) Discourse of this nature
amounts to an awareness of how our understandings of the discourse itself get problematized,
altered, and even spurred forward by social networking, digital technologies, virtual spaces,
and online personalization.
As a form of media that is at once ubiquitous and unavoidably politically charged, social
media and more specifically networking sites such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter have
become more than just popular culture technologies. They have also become contested domains
of advertising, recruitment, surveillance, propaganda, and activism. Youth Climate Activist Greta
Thunberg has established a virtual presence, with her online voice reaching over 4 million Twitter
followers.8 In comparison, counternarratives on Twitter from American President Donald Trump
resonate digitally to a following of more than 86 million. Yet, both Greta and President Trump
lag considerably behind social media czars like 2019’s most popular Instagrammers: footballer
Cristiano Ronaldo, actress Selena Gomez, and singer Ariana Grande – each with almost 200
million followers or more.9 However, what is often overlooked are questions surrounding access
and participation on social media platforms: who has access and who is denied participation in
virtual spaces when the popular overlaps with the political? Critical media literacy is a lynchpin
here; being a reader continues to hold importance even as the traditional forms of text and the
definition of what it means to be literate change.
In The Gutenberg Galaxy McLuhan argues that the printing press created what historians of
science regard as a paradigm shift, which suggests technological innovation can fundamentally
change and alter the course of human history.10 In removing the mystique and aura from texts,
most notably religious texts, and making ideas accessible at a more reasonable cost to more
people, not only did literacy rates rise with the introduction of the printing press, but, for
McLuhan, social relations and power dynamics were fundamentally and irrevocably changed.
With new practices comes a new understanding of how the world works, which results in
changing social roles, changes in human understandings of those roles, and therefore changed
power relations in society. Critical media literacy in the Googleburg Galaxy asks the reader/
user to explore how new mediums like the iPhone or a Google search engine have created
new forms of language and therefore influenced social patterns of interaction whereby liking,
7
8
9
10
Media ecology as per McLuhan deserves its own separate discursive space within the Googleburg
Galaxy’s. For a useful summation, see also: ISLAS, O., BERNAL, J. D.: Media Ecology: A Complex and
Systemic Metadiscipline. [online]. [2016-10-11]. Available at: <https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/
media-ecology/43968>.
All social media statistics such as followers and likes are accurate to September 18, 2020.
Christiano Ronaldo: 237 million followers; Selena Gomez: 193 million; Ariana Grande: 202 million.
KUHN, T.: The Structure of Scientific Revolutions. Chicago : University of Chicago Press, 1962.
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friending, following, or trending on social media have resulted in a similarly potent paradigm
shift which is changing what it means to exist both online and in person.
Critical media literacy involves active engagement with a text in a way that employs a user’s
power to construct meaning that is not wholly reliant upon the intended or surface message.
When activated, critical media literacy pushes individuals to think beyond themselves to ask
questions about how systems of power and ideologies actively participate in our perception
of the galaxy we live in. User involvement in the production of meaning also helps individuals
fulfill their civic duty as members of a participatory democracy. However, when applied to social
media and its locales of power, a committed understanding can be evasive. Participation can
be thwarted, resulting in a weakened democracy. Revolving around ephemeral modes such
as popularity, trends, manipulated images and video, and even a limited shelf life for some
methods of posting content, social media is, by nature, transitory. Without an activated critical
media literacy, what should be legitimately influential social media content ends up instead
being co-opted into a fad, like the humanitarian cause against Joseph Rao Kony and his Lord’s
Resistance Army.
In the name of literacy, let’s frame this with pedagogy in mind, applying critical media
theory to what might have been a user’s experience of what became known on social media
as Kony 2012. It can be assumed that there was a degree of anticipation for some users for
April 20th of that year – a day of action proposed by the makers of a viral YouTube video of that
same name: Kony 2012.11 Released on March 5, 2012 by a not-for-profit organization12 named
Invisible Children, the video sought to expose the actions of Lord’s Resistance Army leader
Joseph Kony in the hopes of having him found and arrested for violations of human rights in
Uganda. Kony’s LRA was originally a guerilla group whose purpose was to combat government
oppression in the name of citizens. However, Kony fell stereotypically prone to the trappings
of religious edicts, narcissism, and the power they hold. As of present day, Kony is „accused of
brutalising civilians in northern Uganda through murder, abduction, mutilation and the burning
of property,“13yet still living in hiding from authorities.
The video also demonstrates the democratic potential of technologies of social media sites
like Facebook and Twitter to raise global awareness of a local issue by turning an event that
would be foreign to casual users into an object to be uploaded, downloaded, shared, liked,
tweeted, emailed, and discussed. Indeed, Kony 2012 went viral; in light of new technologies and
increasing globalization, messages can spread and/or go viral in less than a minute. Consider
that in the eponymous year of Kony 2012 social media was well on its way to ubiquity. In the
spring of 2012, according to Rogers Communications (the largest telecommunications company
in Canada) every 60 seconds there were more than 695,000 status updates on Facebook, more
than 98,000 tweets, more than 66,000 photos uploads to Flickr and more than 600 new videos
uploaded to YouTube.14 The potential for voices and proliferation of critical media literacy was
considerable, and Invisible Children pegged April 20th for an event called „Cover the Night“
to make use of this power and further expose Kony’s legacy of savagery in order to pressure
international authorities to locate, apprehend, and charge the divisive leader for his atrocities.
Supporters were meant to perform local charity work in their community for the morning of April
20th, followed by an evening of posting flyers and posters in neighbourhoods, culminating in an
11
12
13
14
KONY 2012 (Full Video) HD. [online]. [2012-03-05]. Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y4Mnp
zG5Sqc>.
Financials. [online]. [2020-09-17]. Available at: <https://invisiblechildren.com/financials/>.
Joseph Kony – child kidnapper, warlord, ‘prophet. [online]. [2018-07-27]. Available at: <https://www.bbc.
com/news/world-africa-17299084>.
Social Media in 60 Seconds. In Rogers Connected: Communication. Entertainment. Information., 2012,
May/June, p. 11.
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online meetup. Leading up to then – barely a month after the video’s release – Kony 2012 had
swelled to 88 million views on YouTube,15 so an event of consequence was widely anticipated.
And yet, when logging onto social media on 4-20-2012, Kony 2012 was virtually nowhere
to be found. It was not trending on Twitter, nor was it proliferating through status updates on
Facebook. Instead, what was trending on Twitter that morning and continually throughout the
day were relatively vapid tweets about April 20th or 420 – a number that is largely connected to
marijuana use in popular culture. Social media’s potential for positive grassroots social change
via new technology had disappointed, proving Kony 2012 to be nothing more than empty
activism – and this failure goes beyond the explanation of 420 trending annually. Over 50,000
people signed up online for the event or bought flyer and poster kits, but the global participation
was exemplified in places like Vancouver, where „about 17“ demonstrators met downtown at
a location disclosed by a Facebook event which 21,000 users had said they would attend.16
Kony 2012, much like Joseph Kony himself, had become invisible to a public who hunted him,
disappearing into the ether as all that is solid melts into air.
What’s more, social media’s waning effectiveness here eventually superimposed itself upon
the actual state of affairs much in the way that content catches up to media for McLuhan, not
only muting the search for Kony but also allowing Kony himself to be swallowed up by the
same systems and environments he had once antagonized. On July 8, 2005, the International
Criminal Court issued a warrant for Kony’s arrest – one which has proven to be impotent.17
Over the ensuing years, the LRA moved from Uganda through South Sudan and the Democratic
Republic of Congo, eventually ending up in the dense jungles of the Central African Republic.
Though shrinking in numbers, the army remained enough of a threat to resurface in the global
news cycle again in 2011 when Invisible Children motivated then-US President Barack Obama
to send 100 soldiers to the Central African Republic to help locate and defeat Kony. Six years
later, some 2,000 total US and Ugandan soldiers sent to the area ended their mission with this
report from US army spokesperson Lt. Col. Armando Hernandez: „The US sees him [Kony]
as irrelevant, no longer a threat. When you look at the LRA’s effectiveness it’s no longer what
it used to be.“18 This decision echoes the lack of commitment across time exhibited by social
media users, since Kony and his soldiers still loot and abduct from nearby villages. It also
neglects any, let alone adequate, justice for all involved. Healthy but almost 60 years old, Kony
and his army have been the victims of mass defections, to the extent that the once-significant
LRA, now, in 2020, consists of „just several dozen people, including Kony’s sons Salim and
Ali…the group’s main activities consist of subsistence farming and sometimes selling honey
at local markets.“19 Social media’s power to subsume and co-opt voices is so strong it can
hegemonize both activists and war criminals with the same indifference, rendering either of
them into spent-up reaffirmations of what is currently en vogue – all of that to then be washed
away by new hashtags.
15
16
17
18
19
HAGER, M.: Kony 2012 campaign fails to go offline in Vancouver. [online]. [2012-04-21]. Available at:
<https://globalnews.ca/news/236629/kony-2012-campaign-fails-to-go-offline-in-vancouver/>.
HAGER, M.: Kony 2012 campaign fails to go offline in Vancouver. [online]. [2012-04-21]. Available at: <https://
globalnews.ca/news/236629/kony-2012-campaign-fails-to-go-offline-in-vancouver/>. It is worth noting
that Invisible Children did not help matters by explicitly discouraging meetings beyond a local scope, but
such pseudo-barriers should not be able to match what was in theory meant to be an important moral
stand. See also: MILLER, N.: Catch Kony campaign loses couch potatoes. [online]. [2012-04-22]. Available
at: <https://www.theage.com.au/technology/catch-kony-campaign-loses-couch-potatoes-201204211xdqc.html>.
Kony et al. Case, The Prosecutor v. Joseph Kony and Vincent Otti. [online]. [2020-09-17]. Available at:
<https://www.icc-cpi.int/uganda/kony>.
BYARUHANGA, C.: Has Ugandan rebel leader Joseph Kony been defeated?. [online]. [2017-05-23]. Available
at: <https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39999324>.
RONAN, P., TITECA, K.: Kony’s rebels remain a threat, but they’re also selling honey to get by. [online].
[2020-03-10]. Available at: <https://africanarguments.org/2020/03/10/joseph-kony-lra-rebels-threatselling-honey/>.
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This example shows the positives and negatives of social media activism. Kony 2012
demonstrates the potential of social media as a resource for positive social change at the
same time as it exposes the challenges in getting people to see the importance of social
media messages while they are over-inundated with media and oversaturated with its endless
content. Fast-forward to 2020 when movements such as #metoo and Black Lives Matter have
continued to demonstrate how technological spaces for resistance and activism rest inside of
a Gordian knot of power and privilege, medium and message, whereby the ability to act or be
acted upon – a critical tension within responsible democratic citizenship – can be decided by
critical media literacy.
A reminder of the stakes involved with critical media literacy is worthwhile here as literacy
has a historical connection to power. McLuhan’s argument for the impact of the printing press
as a transformative technology in the Guttenberg Galaxy only further emphasizes this point. On
an explicit level it is simple: those with the ability to read the laws have historically also been
the people to write them. On an implicit level, a person cannot exercise their democratic rights
if they are denied access, and literacy has historically been a roadblock or access provider for
democratic participation. Something as simple and vital to democracy as voting is predicated
on the ability of the individual citizen to read a ballot. For many democratic societies, unjustly,
literacy tests were used for decades as a tool for disenfranchisement by acting as a barrier to
deny marginalized groups the opportunity to exercise their rights as citizens to vote. In America,
for example, literacy tests remained a barrier for disenfranchisement of the African American
community (especially in southern states) a full century after the conclusion of the American
Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation. This obstacle was only removed in August 1965
when then-President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act. In many ways, reading
and literacy have served as an ideological head tax in the West for the last three centuries.
Literacy’s historical connection to power can also be seen through what Paulo Freire
deems the naming of the word and the naming of the world.20 In Freire’s ground-breaking
text, Pedagogy of the Oppressed, one of the greatest struggles for marginalized groups to
overcome is to participate in the creation of language, what Freire calls „the naming of the
world“ – something denied to them through their oppression. „To exist, humanly, is to name the
world, to change it. Once named, the world in its turn reappears to the namers as a problem and
requires of them a new naming, Human beings are not built in silence, but in word, in work, in
action-reflection.“21 Throughout modern history the ability to participate in language has been
essential to community and activism, illuminating the line between inclusion and exclusion.
Whether it be Benedict Anderson’s notion of the „imagined community“ for Creole people22,
diasporas, or McLuhan’s typographic man who required the printing press in order to have
access to the knowledge previously withheld from the everyday individual, language, literacy,
community, and power are inextricably linked. For contemporary purposes, one need only
look at the present moment to witness the confluence of power, privilege, race, and literacy.
The imminent collision of the 2020 US presidential election and raw civil rights movements lay
bare the urgency in critical media literacy, as made evident by movements such as More Than
A Vote, which was started by star athlete LeBron James and other prominent Black athletes
and entertainers in order to mobilize citizens within their roles and responsibilities in their fight
for social justice and equality.23
20
21
22
23
FRIERE, P.: Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York : Continuum, 2000, p. 88-90.
Ibid., p. 88.
BENEDICT, A.: Imagined Communities: Reflections On the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, Revised
edition. London : Verso, 1991, p. 44-45, p. 61-62.
MARTIN, J.: LeBron James and Other Stars Form a Voting Rights Group. [online]. [2020-06-10]. Available
at: <https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/10/us/politics/lebron-james-voting-rights.html>.
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So, in the Googleburg Galaxy critical media literacy provides a vantage point from which to
aptly observe and analyze relationships of power, which relationships thrive, which wither away
under competitive pressure, or which ones get assimilated by dominant technologies such as
social media and its always-melting-into-thin-air terms of existence. In many cases like Kony
2012, the intersectionality of media, power, user, and content renders typical explanations –
that Kony was left to reap the rewards of public fickleness, or that some form of poetic justice
was meted out by legal ramifications of exposure – unsatisfactory. Rather, it is as though the
system co-opted content in what manifests as a twisted irony.
On the surface, the Kony 2012 example does not appear to be different from any fad
unrelated to social media – a common criticism of social media analysis. As mentioned above,
for McLuhan, content takes time to catch up to technologies, so this is not surprising. What is
surprising, however – and specific to social media – is the sheer speed and volume of users
on social media24, thus amplifying an impact that is already seismic – that last term somehow
putting it mildly still. Which begs the questions: Is anything unrelated to social media anymore?
If it is almost impossible to escape the medium, how does this mean that it is equally impossible
to escape the message, since said message(s) can be so easily ignored or left behind?
3. The medium is the message
In the Googleburg Galaxy one must reconsider what the message is, exactly, given that for
McLuhan it is the media. Media in the Googleburg Galaxy – social media, the internet, smart
phones, tablets, and/or whichever new technologies humanity will be subject to in the years to
come – are nothing short of a manifestation of capitalist modes of consumption. So, it makes
an economic sort of sense for ideas that should persist to instead be consumed and forgotten
with minimal engagement and minimal literacy. As with capitalism in various degrees of a free
market, or as seen with Kony 2012, engagement is about power, and power is consolidated
continually underneath a cover of fast changes in new technologies. (This is even more true
in the context of COVID-19, during which increased government restrictions upon citizens’
behaviour hampers literacy in various ways.) Critical media literacy applied to „the medium is
the message“ means that attentiveness to the media syntax of ownership and power is central
to an understanding of technology.
So, why the need for a new and critical media literacy? In keeping with the self-reflexive
nature of critical media literacy, this argument can be made in parallel fashion to some of the
characteristics being read – that is, through an intersectional convergence of theorists on the
matter. Drawing upon the work of critical theorists Douglas Kellner and Jeff Share, critical
media literacy is „a pedagogical approach that promotes the use of diverse types of media
and information communication technology (from crayons to webcams) to question the roles of
media in society and the multiple meanings of the form and content of all types of messages.“ 25
To practice this requires what Kellner calls „a three-pronged approach“ that examines form,
content, and uses of media through the prongs of political economy, textual analysis, and
24
25
As of the second quarter of 2020, Facebook had 2,7 billion active monthly users, far exceeding the forecast
of 1,7 billion by 2020 made in November 15, 2019. See: CLEMENT, J.: Number of monthly active Facebook
users worldwide as of 2nd quarter 2020 (in millions). [online]. [2020-08-10]. Available at: <https://www.
statista.com/statistics/264810/number-of-monthly-active-facebook-users-worldwide/>.; CLEMENT, J.:
Number of Facebook users worldwide from 2015 to 2020. [online]. [2019-11-15]. Available at: <https://
www.statista.com/statistics/490424/number-of-worldwide-facebook-users/>.
Quoted in: SHARE, J.: Young children and Critical Media Literacy. In HAMMER, R., KELLNER, D. (eds.):
Media/cultural Studies: Critical Approaches. New York : Peter Lang, 2009, p. 127.
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audience reception studies.26 To instill continual recency in this sense of media literacy – to
make it new – Carmen Luke postulates that a new media literacy must engage in the critical,
social, and cultural analysis of representation politics in a new world order.27 Carolyn Marvin, in
her exploration of the light bulb as an early medium of spectacle, points out that understanding
new media and new technologies as they penetrate into daily social life requires a more full
understanding of how the medium itself is a text.28 This returns to McLuhan’s notion that the
medium is the message. If the medium itself is a text, then the medium itself is also a site of
contestation, with its own history, its own politics, its own bias, and therefore it is also a space
where meaning must be negotiated. In the context of brand name recognition, globalization,
and media convergence, to be fully media literate requires more than just an exploration of
one’s Facebook status that is updated with a smartphone because the smartphone itself is a
medium (and a message) and therefore also requires decoding.
Using critical media literacy to decode the medium as message in the Googleburg Galaxy
requires an exploration of convergence. For Henry Jenkins, convergence describes „the flow
of content across multiple platforms, the cooperation between multiple media industries, and
the migratory behaviour of media audiences who will go almost anywhere in search of the kinds
of entertainment experiences they want.“29 Yet the convergence culture that Jenkins speaks of
in 2006 is a precursor to the Googleburg Galaxy and thus limited as a tool for media literacy
and the current media landscape. Jenkins argues that „convergence does not occur through
media appliances, however sophisticated they may become. Convergence occurs within the
brains of individual consumers and through their social relations with others.“30 This stands
in contrast with the stricter notion that the medium is the message, which, when taken too
directly, negates that the medium itself was also designed by a person or persons with biases
and a world view influenced by their own social relations, and that the medium was produced
and marketed by corporations with an economic agenda – this is, in short, political economy
as described by Kellner and Share.31 Regardless of how a text gets taken up by an audience,
the political economy and/or power relations cannot be divorced from meaning. To accept
Jenkins’ notion of convergence culture, to place an emphasis on the audience reception of a
text, risks doing so at the expense of political economy, which would thereby hide the economic
power and privilege of media conglomerates, such as the elite ones that Scott Galloway refers
to as The Four (Google, Apple, Amazon, Facebook), effectively allowing their influence on the
reception and interpretation of both text and user experience to remain camouflaged.32 In
the Googleburg Galaxy this is precisely the danger: the user is led to believe that what they
type into a search engine generates what they – themselves, as individuals – wish to will into
existence. Furthermore, this misrepresentation of user impact upon generating meaning in the
Googleburg Galaxy poses further questions for exploration. For example, in what ways does
a person’s self-perception portrayed through their social media channels obfuscate their own
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
For a more detailed explanation of the three-pronged approach, including a definition and brief history of
political economy, textual analysis, and audience reception see: KELLNER, D.: Towards a Critical Media/
Cultural studies. In HAMMER, R., KELLNER, D. (eds.): Media/cultural Studies: Critical Approaches. New
York : Peter Lang, 2009, p. 5-24.
LUKE, C.: As Seen on TV or Was that My Phone: ‘New’ Media Literacy. In HAMMER, R., KELLNER, D. (eds.):
Media/cultural Studies: Critical Approaches. New York : Peter Lang, 2009, p. 200.
MARVIN, C.: Dazzling the Multitude: Original Media Spectacles. In GIDDINGS, S., LISTER, M. (eds.): The
New Media and Technocultures Reader. New York : Routledge, p. 32. [online]. [2011-08-10]. Available at:
<https://www.academia.edu/2764417/The_New_Media_and_Technocultures_Reader>.
JENKINS, H.: Convergence Culture: Where Old and New Media Collide. New York : New York University
Press, 2006, p. 2.
Ibid., p. 3.
KELLNER, D., SHARE, J.: The Critical Media Literacy Guide: Engaging Media and Transforming Education,
Vol. 2. Boston : BRILL, 2019, p. 18.
GALLOWAY, S.: The Four: the Hidden DNA of Amazon, Apple, Facebook, and Google. New York : Portfolio/
Penguin, 2017.
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self-concept? How do the postings of others impact our perception of the real lived experiences
of others and our own selves in comparison? And – returning to political economy – how are
perceptions of our own realties and the realities of others shaped by the mediums through
which individuals access social media or the social media sites themselves? Safiya Noble’s
2018 work Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism is but one work
that recognizes the consequences of such influence, and how they are felt disproportionately
by marginalized groups.33
Media literacy in the Googleburg Galaxy is better supported by a definition of convergence
posited by Luke that sees convergence as a multipronged set of practices: convergence of
function, convergence of providers, and expanded synergy in media ownership.34 In stark
contrast to previous media, convergence of function is uniquely central to the increased use of
mobile technologies like smartphones and tablets, each of which are immeasurably complicit in
the rise of social media. Convergence of function refers to the multiple roles and tasks performed
by the medium, in that it simply does more. With existing mobile technology, a smartphone
is more than a telephone. For many people, the smartphone is also a calendar, a camera, a
home computer inside a handheld device, and even a brand marker for identity status. Media
ownership has also expanded, to occupy more roles through a convergence of provider that
seeks to bring together previously separate media service providers under one roof. In the
previous example of Toronto, Canada and Rogers Cable – used above to contextualize the scope
of new media in 2012 – that company allows subscribers to have one account for TV, Home
Phone, Home Security Systems, Cell Phone, Home Internet, and Travelling Wireless Access. A
merger in services provided is appealing to the consumer for the ease in billing. However, the
lack of diversity and options raise media literacy questions surrounding access to information –
especially given that said convergence in the case of Rogers and many other conglomerates
like it result in consolidation of market power, which raises consumer cost and limits access to
the media. Added to this are concerns around privacy and data sharing as a convergence of
providers creates a wealth of opportunities for data extraction, surveillance and data mining,
as noted by Shoshana Zuboff in The Age of Surveillance Capitalism.35 Lastly, media companies
have also expanded their ownership into non-media holdings through the practice of synergy.
The movement of media company ownership power across previously disparate industries
again demonstrates the importance of a critical media literacy that examines the medium and
the message. Returning again to Rogers Cable, its scope of influence is truly daunting. Rogers
owns the Major League Baseball Franchise the Toronto Blue Jays and their home stadium The
Rogers Centre, which they purchased in 200436 – and which provides programming content for
their newspapers, television and radio stations and magazines, in addition to providing a venue
both at the stadium and via the broadcasts of games for advertising its other aforementioned
media products and services.37 This is just the tip of Rogers’ convergence iceberg, however.
In 2012, in partnership with Bell-Globe Media (the second-largest media company in Canada),
Rogers purchased Maple Leaf Sports Entertainment and all of its properties, which include
33
34
35
36
37
NOBLE, S. U.: Algorithms of Oppression : How Search Engines Reinforce Racism. New York : New York
University Press, 2018.
For Carmen Luke, the biggest difference between old technologies and new technologies is convergence,
which now happens on three levels: convergence of function, convergence of provider, and synergy. See:
LUKE, C.: As Seen on TV or Was that My Phone: ‘New’ Media Literacy. In HAMMER, R., KELLNER, D. (eds.):
Media/cultural Studies: Critical Approaches. New York : Peter Lang, p. 197.
ZUBOFF, S.: The Age of Surveillance Capitalism: the Fight for a Human Future at the New Frontier of Power.
First edition. New York : Public Affairs, 2019.
Rogers buys SkyDome. [online]. [2004-11-29]. Available at: <https://www.theglobeandmail.com/report-onbusiness/rogers-buys-skydome/article1144212/#:~:text=The%20owners%20of%20the%20Toronto,in%20
a%20news%20release%20Monday>.
LUKE, C.: As Seen on TV or Was that My Phone: ‘New’ Media Literacy. In HAMMER, R., KELLNER, D. (eds.):
Media/cultural Studies: Critical Approaches. New York : Peter Lang, p. 197.
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the NHL franchise Toronto Maple Leafs, NBA Franchise Toronto Raptors, their individual cable
channels, their shared venue the ScotiaBank Arena, as well as surrounding real estate and
condominium projects. This indicates a new form of convergence and synergy, what we
have called „mutated media“ whereby competing media bodies partner to ensure a full-scale
convergence of media ownership quite unfamiliar until recent times.
So far, this is an appraisal of media – a necessary precondition for critical media literacy.
But before moving on to directly democratic concerns in the Googleburg Galaxy more needs
to be fleshed out here in terms of pedagogy, given that literacy is seldom self-taught. In a
piece entitled „Education as a Necessity of Life“ educational and political theorist John Dewey
provides the reader with a three-fold argument: 1) that life is a continual process of renewal by
transmission; 2) this transmission happens through communication, which is in itself educational
(for all parties communicating); 3) that as societies become more complex, the need for a more
formal structure of transmission, communication, and education increases.38 In the first section,
Renewal of Life by Transmission, Dewy sets up the reader for the larger point to follow, that
education is necessary for life (and not only for life but for democracy, since Dewey was always
interested in this one point). Dewey states that what allows human society to evolve is its ability
to transmit – top-down, from its elders to its youngsters by way of communication – its habits,
customs, and societal expectations. This process of transmission is ultimately educational,
both for the elders and for the youth of the society. However, this informational renewal is not
automatic, and a failure to maintain this process results in what Dewey fears most: „the most
civilized group will relapse into barbarism and into savagery.“39 Although the argument made
here by Dewey is problematic today because of its racialized language and its reliance upon
historical determinism and top-down hierarchal ageism, it does however illustrate that the way
in which a person learns how to be a part of their family, a member of their community, and a
responsible democratic citizen of their nation, all happens through a training process that is
based on the transmission of symbols, signs, and the knowledge they signify. For Dewey, this
process of communication is education – an education that is grounded in literacy and is the
cornerstone to a democratic life.
Of course, the training of individuals on what to think or feel is also problematic. To wit,
Dewey states, „The communication which insures participation in a common understanding is
one which secures similar emotional and intellectual dispositions and requirements.“40 Democracy
exists to manage the challenges of diversity; if dispositions were as homogenous across citizens
as Dewey implies, governance would be a more forgone conclusion than democracy intends
for. When one learns one’s culture from their community, they learn how they ought to react to
all types of scenarios. For example, it is understood that death is typically met with grief, and
a promotion at work with happiness. Although this is an extrapolation of Dewey, when we are
trained to have pre-programmed responses to everything we encounter in life, there appears to
be little space for individual autonomy.41 And yet, this is literacy. It is how users learn to unpack
38
39
40
41
„Education as a Necessity of Life“ is the title of the first chapter of Dewey’s ground-breaking work:
Democracy 1922. All citations in this chapter refer to the e-book/online version of the text. See: DEWEY,
J.: Democracy and Education. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2017. [online]. [2012-06-03].
Available at: <https://www-cambridge-org.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/
content/view/C5921274480880CAE3A772428B7331DA/9781316492765pre_pi-iv_CBO.pdf/john_deweys_
democracy_and_education.pdf>.
DEWEY, J.: Democracy and Education. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 2017. [online]. [2012-06-03].
Available at: <https://www-cambridge-org.ezproxy.library.yorku.ca/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/
content/view/C5921274480880CAE3A772428B7331DA/9781316492765pre_pi-iv_CBO.pdf/john_deweys_
democracy_and_education.pdf>.
Ibid.
This is referred to as the „Hallmark syndrome“ in GENNARO, S.: Purchasing the Canadian Teenage Identity:
ICTs, American Media, and Brand-Name Consumption. In International Social Science Review, 2005, Vol.
80, No. 3 and 4, p. 119-136.
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the representations of social norms and expectations from the symbols, rituals, customs, and
patterns of behaviour encountered on a daily basis. When they unpack representations, they
are actively relating what they see to what they know – sometimes based on cultural myth,
fact, experience, or even what a text explicitly conveys. This unpacking happens sometimes in
agreement with and sometimes in opposition to dominant understandings of what is considered
to be normal. This is why semiotics (sign and signifier) has real value in understanding media
representations.42 More recently, for many scholars, exploring texts within popular culture has
become a valuable space for research in understanding patterns of human behaviour and in
exploring how messages get encoded with social meanings and decoded through ritual practice
and custom in the arena of the popular and mass-produced.
At present, this pedagogy must seem heavy on the hypothetical side, given the hostile
environment of convergence, and the synergy of new media technologies detailed above.
Always concerned with what is at stake, critical media literacy suffers most when there exists
a detachment or tenuous relationship between user and media, and this issue thrives across
time in social media if unchecked, leaving users both uninformed and highly impressionable –
a combination that has dire consequences for an informed democracy. As Whitney Phillips, a
professor at Syracuse who studies online disinformation, says when describing the effect that
the recent trend of Trump-fueled conspiracy theories on social media has upon knowledge and
a democratic society: They’re not on the same epistemological grounding, they’re not living in
the same worlds…You cannot have a functioning democracy when people are not at the very
least occupying the same solar system.43
This lack of shared „epistemological grounding“ goes against the needs of a participatory
democracy, which relies upon the duty of responsibly informed citizens maintaining engagement
with the salient issues of the moment.
This expression of pedagogical frameworks used to act out critical media literacy aligns
McLuhan’s overall project with relationships of power within social media by matching the
message of literacy with that of media. In other words, to learn a medium is to take ownership
of the message, which brings power and responsibility with it. More discourse about this
responsibility as a critically media literate democratic citizen is needed here to bridge „the
media is the message“ and „the user is the content“ with praxis.
Another critical theorist, Jurgen Habermas, asserts that to have a free society there must be
a freedom of press, a freedom to associate and dialogue, and a public sphere or space for this
dialogue to take place in. The space exists outside the direct influence of organized politics, as
well as the direct commercialization and monetization of the market.44 Freedom between citizen
and society is logically a two-way street: for a society to be free there must be rational and critical
dialogue between citizens. Critical media literacy recognizes this, allowing citizens engaging in
rational critical discourse to situate themselves within a larger community, both as participants
in a virtual or imagined community of Facebook friends, Twitter followers, chat room debaters,
or forum posters, and also as part of a larger global community of fellow human citizens. This
does not mean that critical media literacy equals consensus and agreement. Critical media
literacy is about dialoguing across multiple diverse points of view; it is about recognizing that
the morning newspaper has a story to tell, an editorial bias, a host of advertisers to maintain
solid relationships with, and a readership to please. Because of this network of intersecting
42
43
44
For a very easy to understand and quick primer on semiotics see: Semiotics: the study of signs (Full
Video). [online]. [2007-11-04]. Available at: <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rEgxTKUP_WI>.
ALTER, C.: How Conspiracies Are Shaping the 2020 Election – and Shaking the Foundation of American
Democracy. [online]. [2020-09-10]. Available at: <https://time.com/5887437/conspiracy-theories-2020election/>.
HABERMAS, J.: The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere: An Inquiry Into a Category of Bourgeois
Society. Cambridge : MIT Press, 1989, p. 235.
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priorities, as well as whom the paper hires to write stories, in addition to how the story gets told,
along with which stories get told, media narratives are produced against a horizon of bias. This
does not even account for the individual biases of the writers themselves, which is subject to
a host of static and fluid variables. Twitter, Instagram and Facebook are no different here from
more traditional forms of media, except that the lightning-fast speed at which tweets and status
updates are received and/or sent via mobile devices at any geographical location at any time
means that a user’s guard is often down while they engage with the media itself. Along with
this disarming immediacy there is a level of comfort as consumers of social media information
because, thanks to content filters and control over friends/associations, there is an inherent
level of trust in the storyteller – deserved or not. This illuminates the far-reaching scope of the
map of the Googleburg Galaxy to include even perceived minutiae such as friend lists, filters
and friends’ and family’s status updates as relevant to critical media literacy.
A new critical media literacy explores the opportunities of social media platforms to house what
Henry Giroux calls performative pedagogy and the establishment of a truly democratic education.45
According to Kellner’s reflections on the work of Giroux, Giroux thus sees cultural politics as
encompassing education, artistic work, and the pedagogy of social movements. His performative
pedagogy attempts to demonstrate how cultural texts enact broader societal and political issues
in a pedagogy that makes visible relations of power, domination, and resistance in media culture.46
Performative pedagogy is a form of social resistance that pushes practice to match theory,
or what some philosophers from Ancient Greece to Paulo Freire would term as praxis.47 For
Giroux praxis is about learning by doing, and it is about the creation of a dialogical learning
community where individuals not only collect and connect but create, collaborate and share
discourse. The time for alarmist-versus-technophile debates has passed; social networking
sites’ ability to provide these types of spaces is recognized. It is now a question about how
users engage with the media texts and mediums themselves, as critical and active participants
in the creation of meaning, the construction of knowledge, the legitimating of play and practice,
and the protection of democratic and human rights. Democracy should imply participation, and
if there is a desire to have a democratic media and to ensure that technological developments
produce democratic media, then as global citizens, everyone bears a responsibility to maintain
their critical media literacy. In the interests of continuing to map critical media literacy onto the
Googleburg Galaxy, consider it this way: we the people must also be we the media.
4. The user is the content
As serendipity would have it, there is another convergence at this point, and that is between
the responsibility of democratic citizens as critical media users, and McLuhan’s notion that the
user is the content – a radical twist on the notion of content, even in the face of how „content“
has taken on counterintuitive meaning here already. In other words, the idea that users are
and/or determine content dovetails nicely with democracy’s need for dutiful citizens. McLuhan
is seen as a polemical thinker, and this is in large part due to his delivery of content. While he
opens up so much of the world, a common critique of his work is that it verges on the opaque,
or at least deeply interpretive. But there is a purpose to that style, to the point of serving
45
46
47
GIROUX, H.: Cultural Studies as Performative Politics. In Cultural Studies <=> Critical Methodologies, 2001,
Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 5-23.
KELLNER, D.: Critical Pedagogy, Cultural Studies, and Radical Democracy at the turn of the Millennium:
Reflections on the Work of Henry Giroux. [online]. [2012-11-29]. Available at: <pages.gseis.ucla.edu/faculty/
kellner/essays/henrygiroux.pdf>.
For Freire, praxis is „reflection and action upon the world in order to transform it.“ Through praxis, oppressed
people can acquire a critical awareness of their own condition, and, with their allies, struggle for liberation.
FRIERE, P.: Pedagogy of the Oppressed. New York : Continuum, 2000, p. 36.
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as a hermeneutic positioning of authorship in that the user/reader ends up producing meaning.
Those who venture into McLuhan’s body of work find that there are no easy answers, no direct
obvious delineation between user and intended message. (This is part of what made McLuhan
so immensely popular in his time, this chimeric mode of presentation.) Instead, his ideas form
a mosaic of reflections and statements – ones which tend toward the prosaic at times, due to
his economy of language (or, paradoxically, lack thereof) – that can be envisioned as connected
referentially by users. What’s more, this sense that is made by the user will differ based on
the uniqueness of their background or bias. In this way, the reader/user possesses control
over production of meaning, not McLuhan, leading him to famously infer that the user is the
content.48 If this is the case, then content is inherently democratic, but this is the key: so long
as users are diligent critical media readers exercising their rights as such.
To understand the Googleburg Galaxy requires an understanding of literacy, which recognizes
that letters, or the alphabet, are merely a collection of symbols that get encoded and decoded
by users. The process of literacy, then, is one where an individual learns to decode the symbol
– here an alphabetic letter, such as a or b – through a recognition of the „sound“ that such a
symbol makes. Of course, the process by which an individual learns the alphabet and then how
to sound out letters to make words comes through an active observation of the social world
around us and through practice, repetition, and the memorization of key structural elements.
So, while in theory the sounds of vowels and consonants are largely recognized as static and
fixed, there is a cultural relativity to speech where the geographic location and cultural patterns
of the community in which an individual is learning literacy affects their understanding of how
to encode and decode letters. The first step to literacy, then, is a basic understanding of the
notion that letters and numbers are symbols that stand in for something else, each with its own
sound and set of rules governing how it can be used to decode a message. Once a person
understands the basic sounds of letters and rules of how those sounds work, the next step is
to piece together letters to form words, which are also symbols, which immediately conjure up
an image in the mind of the reader upon reading. Traditional literacy is therefore a process of
collecting and unpacking symbols to decipher the expressed meaning of their original author.
However, since context is vital both to the encoding and decoding process, things do get
lost in translation. Media literacy follows a similar process. To understand the Googleburg
Galaxy requires an interpretation of literacy that sees any and all texts – that is virtual space,
photographic images, advertisements, television shows, film, popular music, code, Tweets,
text messages, smiley-faced icons, status updates, and search engine results – as symbols
which get encoded by writers and decoded by readers. The question is, how conscious are
we of the processes of encoding and decoding that are happening around us, and how active
are we in the translation? What cannot get lost amongst all of this theorizing – because it is so
often lost this way – is that uninformed choices lead down dangerous paths, and that those
choices dishonour the modern individual’s democratic duty to help new technologies make
possible the discursive space within which a better world can occur.
When all that is solid melts to air, time’s relativity distorts. Pair that with humanity’s immense
ability to adapt and it is all too easy to forget that as recently as 2007 there were no smart
phones at all. Now more popular among younger demographics than its parent company
Facebook, Instagram has not existed for a decade yet. While these technologies increasingly
take hold over the attention and time of almost everyone on earth, it would behoove individuals
to learn how to read the space(s) better. Otherwise, without critical media literacy, the modern
democratic citizen is disadvantaging themselves in a manner eerily similar to subjects of the
pre-industrial age trying to learn the ways of their ruling states without anything to read at all.
48
WOLF, G.: The Wisdom of Saint Marshall, the Holy Fool. [online]. [1996-01-01]. Available at: <https://www.
wired.com/1996/01/saint-marshal/>.
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Authors
Steve Gennaro, BA, PhD
Humanities,
York University,
Room 262 Vanier College, 4700 Keele Street,
Toronto, Ontario,
CANADA
sgennaro@yorku.ca
Dr. Steve Gennaro has a PhD from McGill University that explores the intersections of media, technology,
psychology, and youth identity. He completed a Postdoc in Philosophy of Education at UCLA with Douglas
Kellner, and has worked with local school boards, NGOs, and Governing bodies in areas related to teaching
& learning. He is one of the founding members of the Children, Childhood, and Youth Studies Program at York
University, where he has taught in the Department of Humanities for close to two decades. He is the author
of Selling Youth (2010) and co-editor of Youth & Social Media (forthcoming 2021). He regularly publishes
in areas related to the philosophy of technology and critical media studies of youth, identity, and politics.
Blair Miller, Hon. BA, MA
Humanities,
York University,
Room 262 Vanier College, 4700 Keele Street,
Toronto, Ontario,
CANADA
blair.ed.miller@gmail.com
Blair Miller is a contract faculty member in Liberal Arts and Professional Studies (Comm Studies; Film;
Humanities; Writing) at York University (Toronto, Canada). He is preparing for PhD candidacy after having
once made the Dean’s List while graduating with honours in Philosophy at Wilfrid Laurier University (Waterloo,
Canada), and completing his Masters degree in Film at York University in 2006, working closely under Robin
Wood for years to follow. His work merges any combinations of critical theory, aesthetics, media theory,
the Frankfurt School, Marshall McLuhan, film theory, film production, photography, and writing of all kinds.
Twice he’s been invited to serve as jury member and awards presenter for Breakthroughs Film Festival, a
Canadian not for profit organization dedicated to supporting emerging filmmakers who identify as women
or non-binary. Winner of The Cord Short Story Contest at WLU, he has also published essays on film for
journals including Cineaction, self-published three collections of poetry, and is an expert on the work of
Stanley Kubrick. He is also co-editor of Youth & Social Media (forthcoming 2021).
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photo: Katarína Páleníková
Erika Moravčíková
Media Manipulation And Propaganda
In The Post-Truth Era
ABSTRACT
The birth of the post-truth era, i.e. the advent of alternative media and internet social networks,
has brought along a great deal of demagoguery, nonsense, lies, hoaxes, disinformation (a trendier
term being ‘fake news’) and conspiracy theories, with propaganda and manipulation being the
key features here. Dissemination of disinformation and its effects on individuals, society and
politics are among the most debated topics of our day, although, frankly, it is in fact a very old
phenomenon. The advent of digital media has brought, apart from other things, a decline of
public trust in traditional (mainstream) media, and conversely a boom in alternative information
sources. Meanwhile, it is not entirely clear what the term alternative with respect to mass media
should actually mean. Perhaps free media? Independent media? Attempts to define alternative
media against the background of mainstream media contain quite a few options to grasp
the alternateness. In our contribution we endeavour to find the causes of the strongly negative
connotations surrounding the term alternative media. This term is not infrequently linked to an
unprecedented rise of media with disinformation and conspiracy agenda. Nevertheless, we
point out why it perhaps should be more appropriate to grasp this term in a more neutral way,
not only in academia, considering that such sources in many cases provide scope for different
interpretation of the dominant ideology in society and information disseminated under its aegis.
KEY WORDS
Media manipulation. Propaganda. Post-truth era. Alternative media. Mainstream media.
Ideological truth plays.
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1. Introduction
Digital media are becoming ever more dominant in the present post-television era, with media
contents, their effects, systems and audiences being adjusted to this fact. The new media
are being discussed by media theorists as part of the digital revolution and the onset of the
digital age. When it comes to preferences of online audiences, the most important determining
factor is their desire of having democratic relations with content producers. Debates of both
academia and the general public on the so-called new (digital, network) media make it evident
that a dramatic transformation of society and a shift in thinking catalysed by digital technology
is underway. The discourse of media studies features ever more frequently individual elements
of the post-truth era, such as an unhinged spread of hoaxes, misinformation and conspiracy
theories. Techniques of media manipulation in the digital age are taking on new forms, which
have now become the subject of intense scientific research by media theorists, sociologists,
psychologists, political scientists and, last but not least, culturologists, semioticians and linguists.
Individual methods and techniques of manipulation and propaganda on the internet and social
networks have their specifics and we will address them in this paper. We believe that it will
be difficult to grasp these phenomena properly, including in terms of methodology, without
tracing their actual roots.
Without going into much detail about specific forms, tools and techniques, we will outline
a broader context immediately related to post-truth that needs due attention. We maintain that
it is important to understand in the broadest possible sense how the media work in the posttruth era – and the closely related issues of truth and truthfulness –, as well as the somewhat
lax and inaccurate use of the term ‘alternative media’ in Slovak media discourse.
2. Methodology of research
When discussing the post-truth era, we consider it important to define our research strategy. Our
study has a theoretical-empirical character and in addition to a critical reflection on propaganda
and media manipulation in the post-truth era, it also outlines some secondary problems, including
the need to develop media literacy and critical thinking vis-à-vis information overload.
In the introductory section, we acquaint the reader with the key conceptual apparatus
related to propaganda and media manipulation.
In the following part of the study, we chose description as one of the fundamental research
methods. Among other things, it can help us in the process of identifying specific phenomena
related to the post-truth era. Our point of departure is an opinion embedment, within which we
use the method of comparison to deal with individual issues related to the rise of digital media
and alternative information sources.
There is no consensus in the professional and general public on alternative media, so we
believe that it was necessary to evaluate their essence impartially and without bias. A comparison
of views held by media theorists serves as a basic template for a closer examination of the
phenomenon of alternative media. When it comes to research of these media, we use analysis
to define the quality of the term ‘alternative media’, as well as their possible coexistence with
mainstream media (which is rather problematic in the Slovak media environment, however). In
Slovakia, we mostly see mutual rejection, aversion and conflicts between these two types of
media. We also noticed the fact that alternative media are automatically labelled as conspiracy
and disinformation outlets, and they are thus considered illegitimate by the mainstream media
and most of the general public.
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3. Postmodern Variants of Media Manipulation
in Post-truth Era
The birth of the post-truth era, i.e. the advent of alternative media and social networks, has
brought along a great deal of demagoguery, nonsense, lies, hoaxes, disinformation1 (a trendier
term being ‘fake news’) and conspiracy theories, with propaganda and manipulation being the
key features here. Dissemination of disinformation and its effects on individuals, society and
politics are among the most debated topics of our day, although, frankly, it is in fact a very
old phenomenon. Propaganda, as a set of desired and deliberate actions towards others with
the aim to subordinate them to the agent and/or their idea, is perhaps as old as humankind,
as it forms part of communication as such. It is not possible to define the term ‘propaganda’
exactly enough in a single sentence or two. Although there are currently some widely accepted
definitions, none has been accepted as universal.
The Dictionary of Media Communication defines propaganda as a form of persuasive
communication, featuring „deliberate and systematic efforts to mould ideas, influence and steer
feelings, wills, attitudes, opinions and behaviours in order to achieve a response that would be
consistent with the propagandist’s goals and needs.“2 The meaning of the word ‘propaganda’
has largely ceased to be neutral, and it has instead become rather pejorative (in order to label
half-truths, lies, defamation etc.). From the etymological point of view, however, ‘propaganda’
comes from the quite neutral Latin verb ‘propagare’, meaning to ‘spread’ or ‘propagate’ ideas
and opinions.
Nonetheless, most current definitions depict propaganda as a negative phenomenon. This
does not mean that these definitions are wrong, however. Simply put, this term has acquired
rather negative connotations over time, especially after the experience of the two world wars.
Propaganda is a deliberate and systematic effort to shape understanding and manipulate
thinking and immediate behaviour with the intention of achieving responses that would be
consistent with the propagandist’s intentions. Propaganda means control of information flow,
public opinion management and manipulation of behaviour.
In general, propaganda consists of several minor measures meant to act individually,
jointly or in a complementary manner. In short, the most common propaganda tools include
black-and-white depictions of reality, selections of facts to be published, non-disclosure of
essential information, use of well-known experts or popular figures to persuade or attract
potential followers, attempts to demonise the enemy and idealise one’s own system, use of the
double standard when dealing with friends and foes, ‘we and them’ rhetoric, dissemination of
disinformation and rumours, the staging of media campaigns, presentation of half-truths and
assumptions as facts, the turning of a blind eye to inconvenient information, deliberate attempts
to mislead and deceive others, obfuscation and ambiguity in key statements, oversimplification of
complex issues, use of quotes taken out of context, throwing labels3 around, scapegoating, use
of easy-to-remember slogans and symbols, stereotypes, attempts to stir up emotion, misuse
of history in order to fan negative passions, presentation of unsubstantiated assumptions,
control and censorship of the media, public pressure, creation of idols and taboos, presentation
1
2
3
For more information about disinformation see also: KAČINOVÁ, V.: The topic of media-disseminated
mis-information and dis-information as an integral part of general education in Slovakia. In Media literacy
and academic research, 2020,Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 18 – 31.
REIFOVÁ, I. et al.: Slovník mediální komunikace. Praha : Portál, 2004, p. 192.
For example, some people are condemned politically or socially and sometimes they are even publicly
discriminated against on the basis of their current or past affiliation to a political party, group, race,
person, institution, organisation etc., which is presently considered as politically discredited, socially
unacceptable or it is at least widely viewed with derision. We pay more attention to this issue when
discussing media manipulation techniques.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
of a narrow range of ‘experts’ to comment on individual issues, ignorance of dissenting views,
deliberate mixing of the real course of events etc.
All these instruments can be used alone, all together, as well as in various combinations,
both during war and peacetime. Employed by propaganda, they all serve, to a greater or lesser
extent, to influence and control the opinions and behaviour of the population, often without
the latter even realising it.
Propaganda is currently most frequently viewed and generally defined as media manipulation
aimed at achieving social control, especially in the context of politics. It is associated with
efforts of political parties, organisations and governments. Manipulation can be understood
as a way of influencing an individual, a group or entire society in order to significantly change
opinions and attitudes of the target group, which ends up believing that it is the true initiator
of a specific action and this decision is an expression of its own free will. In reality, however, it
is behaving in line with the manipulator’s script.4
Debates concerning the deficit of truth in the internet era and the issue of post-truth have
become ubiquitous in the search for possible causes and consequences of the aforementioned
phenomena and processes (demagoguery, rumours, disinformation, hoaxes and conspiracy
theories). Philosopher M. Paleček,5 when discussing fake news, notes that although their
presence is being portrayed as a novelty, it is in fact a very old phenomenon. Dissemination
of false news and disregard for true and verifiable information is neither new, nor experiencing
its heyday in our times. In fact, it can be seen continuously since the invention of the printing
press. Attempts to push through claims that would not aspire to verification date back to these
very times and they reached their peak with the propaganda activities of Nazi Germany and
the Soviet Union. Joseph Goebbels’ Reich Ministry of Propaganda regularly used the mass
media as the most effective channels for propaganda. They included the weekly tabloid-format
newspaper Der Stürmer, propaganda films promoting intolerance6, German radio and film
weeklies with domestic and international news screened in cinemas throughout Germany.
They were all loaded with disinformation, purposeful interpretations of events, manipulated
and distorted facts, which were often presented as scientific conclusions, and even open lies.
All information to be published was carefully examined in advance and censored, if deemed
necessary. This propaganda included both glorification of the Nazi regime and slander of all
possible enemies. The propaganda machinery in wartime Germany was built with high precision,
so that it was almost impossible to find alternative information. The ruling party thus easily
maintained a semblance of truthfulness and credibility in the eyes of the public, which was fed
on a daily basis with purposeful and targeted information, aimed at the subconscious with the
goal of enforcing obedience.
The philosopher Hannah Arendt7 distinguishes – mainly based on the example of Nazi
Germany – between classic and totalitarian propaganda, with the latter having no opposition,
while being chiefly backed by the movement that created it. According to Arendt, Nazi Germany
represented an example of totalitarian propaganda, as persuasion was not its real goal, but
it was instead aimed at the building up of power without the necessity of using violence. The
totalitarian propaganda in Nazi Germany prevailed over the propaganda of other parties mainly
because its content became indisputable, like the rules of arithmetic. One’s own opinions were
4
5
6
7
FTOREK, J.: Manipulace a propaganda na pozadí současné informační války. Praha : Grada, 2017.
PALEČEK, M. Strach v kultuře: fámy a falešné zprávy. Presented at a scientific conference entitled ‘Hradec
Philosophical Days-Man in a Post-truth Society‘, Hradec Králové October 4-5, 2018.
There are four basic categories of Nazi propaganda films according to social groups against which they
were supposed to incite intolerance: anti-Bolshevik („The Soviet Paradise“), anti-Semitic („The Eternal
Jew“ and „Jew Süss“), anti-democratic („Rothschilds“, „The Heart of the Queen“) and those promoting
Nazism and German chauvinism („Triumph of the Will“, „Olympia“, „The Victory of Faith“, „Day of Freedom“,
„Theresienstadt (The Führer Gives a City to the Jews)“ and „Festive Nuremberg“).
ARENDT, H.: Původ totalitarismu I. – III. Prague : OIKOYMENH, 1996.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
ruled out, while they were being steered by iron-like unquestionable rules. So it became very
difficult to fight such propaganda.
Czech political scientist Oskar Krejčí states that Fascist propaganda elaborated „very
effective principles for winning over people’s minds, with these methods being frequently used to
this day: (a) bypassing abstract ideas and appealing to emotions instead; (b) constant repetition
of a limited number of ideas, use of certain phrases following a single template; (c) exclusive use
of supporting arguments only, while excluding opposing arguments; (d) constant criticism of the
nation’s enemy; (e) identifying a specific enemy and developing special strategies to combat it.“8
Manipulation and propaganda in the post-truth era differ from the past especially in how
quickly individual contents are distributed. The information boom, brought about by the internet
and new information technologies, has allowed unverified, false and half-true information to
spread like cancer.
Philosopher and media theorist Lee McIntyre emphasizes that „especially in the past two
decades, there has been an explosion in the denial of science on topics such as climate
change, vaccination and evolution, which attests to the existence of a number of tactics used
in post-truth society.“9 According to him, it is a characteristic feature of the post-truth era that
‘alternative facts’ and feelings replace real facts in order to make reality politically subordinate [to
one’s will] (ibid.). The internet and social networks have created an environment that facilitates
these messages to be spread at unprecedented speeds. The whole situation is exacerbated
by the fact that the importance of content in the online environment depends on the number
of clicks. The advertising system on the internet has turned into a money machine, creating a
contest for obtaining as many clicks as possible, while the alternative media with their arsenal
of disinformation and hoaxes get the upper hand over traditional media and serious news. „We
live in a time of ‘sensationalist’ media narratives and decentralised events, which are devoid
of spatiotemporal context. The new media have created conditions for the emergence of a
virtual panopticon, where everyone is under constant supervision of all. Formerly fixed lines
have become fluid, with everything requiring immediate attention, although it immediately gets
forgotten amid an unstoppable information flurry.“10
According to Martin Paleček,11 culturally moulded fears reappear periodically (such as in
stereotyped fears of invasion by infidels, of contagion and extinction of civilisation as such).
Playing with fear is one of the most widespread appeals to emotions, especially when society
finds itself in an atmosphere of danger. Since 2001, when the so-called war on terror was
announced, fear has become almost a commodity to be traded by the media and political elites
and used to influence public opinion, frequently quite effectively. With the help of emotionladen, disturbing and even frightening messages, in conjunction with the anxiety, weaknesses
and fears of the audience, panic stories are being spread, e.g. about the imminent threat of a
Third World War or a clash of civilisations.12
Of course, fear is being fomented by showing scenes of violence and aggression in news,
films and other programmes, but it is a different kind of fear that concerns this manipulation
technique: it involves the transmission and dissemination of information on threats related
to changes in society (reforms and reshuffles, for example). The postmodern man thus feels
permanent danger posed by terrorism, environmental threats, migrants and pandemic diseases.
8
9
10
11
12
KREJČÍ, O.: Mezinárodní politika. Praha : EKOPRESS, 2001, p. 397.
MCINTYRE, L.: Post-truth. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2018, p. 14.
OLEJÁROVÁ, A.: Štyri poznámky k diskurzívnym aspektom skupinovej polarizácie v dôsledku pôsobenia
nových médií. In BUČKOVÁ, Z., KAČINCOVÁ PREDMERSKÁ, A., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, A. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy
a médiá 2019 – Digital Universe. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2019, p. 323.
PALEČEK, M.: Strach v kultuře: fámy a falešné zprávy. Presented at a scientific conference entitled ‘Hradec
Philosophical Days-Man in a Post-truth Society‘, Hradec Králové October 4-5, 2018.
GREGOR, M., VEJVODOVÁ, P. et al.: Nejlepší kniha o fake news, dezinformacích a manipulacích. Brno :
CPress, 2018.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
The post-truth era is generally considered as a transformation of the world for the worse, with
the information age placing high demands on man when it comes to distinguishing between truth
and untruth. Media expert Alexander Sängerlaub from German foundation Neue Verantwortung
told Czech Radio in an interview that he often meets people who feel intense pressure from
the presence of fake news and do not know how to deal with it. He replies: „And do you pay
for journalism? This is a huge problem that needs to be discussed: people want reliable news,
but they are not willing to pay for it.“13
An undeniably interesting view was also offered by Michal Ivan, who claimed that people
have never been factual, as the emergence of facts has always been accompanied by the
appearance of non-facts. According to him, those involved in the post-truth language game
seem to forget that they assume facts as being neutral and non-political.14 He notes that due
to excessive emphasis on the purification of facts, one essential point is being missed, namely
that those with a certain established notion tend to feed it by the selection of certain facts.
„The picture enforces its own facts,“ he says. „And it is not only the lack of facts that irritates
us and forces us to call this age as one of post-truth. Just having the facts does not necessarily
mean being rational, but merely having a long list of facts. Only their classification, the creation
of a big picture and the possibility of its use to describe the world as a whole make a linguistic
game of rationality possible.“15
We observe that in today’s world, which is being dominated by the digital media, the issue
of truth is becoming increasingly complex and ambiguous, with events and facts rarely having
a single and univocal interpretation. The necessity of distinguishing the truth from falsehood
has become the number one issue of media culture, while the truth is commonly understood
as agreement of a statement and belief with the state of affairs. „It needs to be discovered,
however,“ says philosopher Sabína Gáliková-Tolnaiová in reference to the truth, adding that
this is far from being a simple process: „The ‘online truth’ embodies the modern phenomenon
of mass in a fluid present. It cannot be grasped, regulated, corrected and even less so silenced
by the use of traditional tools, procedures and techniques ... .“16 When it comes to the media, it
is the internet that causes fragmentation and interruption of knowledge on the axis of cognition
– feeling – interpersonal understanding.
The emerging issue of hyperreality also goes hand in hand with the media, as pointed
out by the French sociologist Jean Baudrillard17, with the source of reality becoming unclear.
Reality as a social fact enters social communication only as its interpretation, not as reality itself.
Presented facts are only images, not real things; they are simulacra speaking of themselves
and preferring a certain picture of the world to the truth. The creation of reality in the mass
media and their contents takes place with the participation of the audience in such a way that
the mass media do not adapt their meanings to reality, which is independent of them, but on
the contrary – it is the audience that adapts reality to media meanings.
Recipients insert media images of reality between themselves and reality and out of
comfort and laziness they no longer deal with what is „real“ reality. The world thus created
is being fed further by the absorption of content from photos, press, television, film and the
internet. The staged reality becomes perfectly mixed with the reproduction of real events,
before these two entities merge completely. Reality mediated by the media tends to be twisted,
13
14
15
16
17
SLEZÁKOVÁ, M.: Potřebujeme veřejnoprávní facebook, pryč od trhu, efektů a emocí, říká průzkumník fake
news. [online]. [2020-07-02]. Available at: <https://www.irozhlas.cz/zpravy-svet/rozhovor-fake-newsdezinformace-alex-sangerlaub-jeden-svet-media_1803080600_mls>.
IVAN, M.: Nikdy jsme nebyli faktuální. Presented at a scientific conference entitled ‘Hradec Philosophical
Days-Man in a Post-truth Society‘, Hradec Králové October 4-5, 2018.
Ibid.
GÁLIKOVÁ-TOLNAIOVÁ, S.: Nové médiá, pravda a realita In BUČKOVÁ, Z., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, L., RYBANSKÝ, R.,
SOLÍK, M. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy a médiá 2018. Realita a mediálne bubliny. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2018, p. 10.
BAUDRILLARD, J.: Praecessio Simulacrorum. In Host, 1996, No. 6, p. 3-28. [online]. [2018-04-20]. Available
at: <http://www.egs.edu/faculty/baudrillard/baudrillard-simulacra-and-simulations.html>.
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as the media favour dazzling and unrealistic images – with sensationalism eventually becoming
the equivalent of reality. In the relatively short history of electronic and digital media, this symbolic
representation of reality has too often been presented as reality itself.
Many popular myths and dogmas representing societal norms and desires originate from
commercials and entertainment programmes. They are closely related to political and information
images presented on TV, thereby creating a coherent and comprehensive environment of
symbols. These are, of course, being interpreted from quite different perspectives. In addition,
it should be borne in mind that all these interpretations come from media outlets that act in a
selective manner and their nature is one of interpreting facts. The reproduced form of the event
then gains more social importance than the original itself, and what is real essentially becomes
an image of its images. The real thus must adapt and transform itself to its reproduction.
Last but not least, the way in which the audience approaches individual codes presented
by media content creators is also important for the interpretation of journalistic texts. Prominent
media theorist Brian McNair includes here both linguistic and ideological codes. Ideological
coding contains, in addition to facts and values, and apart from information, also a framework
for interpretation of these elements. McNair points out that the level of knowledge on a mediated
topic and its decoding depend on the availability of alternative sources of information, including
word of mouth and stories heard in daily contact with relatives or colleagues, but also personal
experience with reported events.18
However, in addition to empirical experience, knowledge, intelligence level and algorithms,
emotions also come into play. Meanwhile, emotions in the post-truth era are increasingly winning
over common sense. „Where an individual is exposed to a tremendous amount of information
and a plurality of equal views, emotions become his compass. At the same time, they are an
obvious source of identification for a group that feels to be threatened. In a complex, complicated
and chaotic world, in which pillars of support for trust are difficult to find, over-simplifications
presenting easy-to-grasp models of how society works have provided the answer,“19 says Andrea
Olejárová, a cultural scientist researching the new media.
The advent of the internet and digital technologies has fundamentally changed the way
recipients consume media content. In addition to the removal of spatiotemporal barriers, the
way in which content is regulated by media owners has also changed. This has made it more
difficult for the power elites to control the nature and quality of information in the public arena.
Alternative sources of information represent a stumbling block and a subject of disputes,
dilemmas, criticism and controversy, as well as an opposition to the traditional ‘mainstream’
media. Media theorist Henry Jenkins in his study Convergence Culture: Where Old and New
Media Collide discusses a ‘convergent culture’, in which old and new media collide, local and
corporate media meet, and where the power of media producers and the power of media
recipients is exerted in unpredictable interactions.20 This results in a range of convergent media
combining information and communication technologies in innovative ways.
Alternative media and sources of information are often labelled en bloc as disinformation
and conspiracy outlets – a label that we consider to be misleading and biased. So we can see
manipulative practices being applied also when dealing with the term ‘alternative media’ in the
media discourse and beyond. We believe that this is due to insufficient critical reflection and a
lack of interest on part of the professional public active in our socio-cultural environment. The
following part of the paper will therefore represent a modest attempt to produce a terminological
delineation of alternative media.
18
19
20
MCNAIR, B.: Sociologie žurnalistiky. Praha : Portál, 2004.
OLEJÁROVÁ, A.: Štyri poznámky k diskurzívnym aspektom skupinovej polarizácie v dôsledku pôsobenia
nových médií. In BUČKOVÁ, Z., KAČINCOVÁ PREDMERSKÁ, A., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, A. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy
a médiá 2019 – Digital Universe. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2019, p. 323.
JENKINS, H.: Convergence Culture. Where Old and New Media Collide. New York : New York University
press, 2006.
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4. Mainstream vs. Alternative
Ever newer alternatives in the internet environment allow the audience to gain new perspectives
on domestic and global events beyond those presented by the mainstream media for decades.
In the following part of the paper, we will take a closer look at the term ‘alternative media’ as
understood in Slovakia. The trends of media culture evolution after 1989 largely correspond
to globalisation effects brought about by the loosening of the borders between the West and
the East.
Global media culture is characterised by a number of features typical of Western capitalism,
including individualism and consumerism, hedonism and commercialism. For the media of the
21st century, it holds that they are becoming ever more globalised; they are primarily concerned
with profit, with this environment being dominated by mass media corporations, which pursue
their interests.
The most important phenomena and tendencies of globalisation in media culture can be
summarised as follows: preference for visual culture, commercialisation – currently reaching
also the public-service media –, displacement of art of value, rise of low-level entertainment
in all media, vulgarisation of language, mutual disrespect of the media and their audience, the
influence of advertising on viewers’ interests, the search for entertainment instead of experience,
low professional reflection of media culture, stereotyping, commercialisation, uniformisation
and homogenisation of media content.
The issues of objectivity, independence, freedom and diversity of the media in Slovakia must
be seen in the context of the globalisation of the media and shifts in the information ecosystem
with an emphasis on fragmentation, decentralisation and the levelling of information sources. In
addition, other contexts need attention, such as the oligarchisation of the media, attempts to
interfere with the content of newspapers, politicians’ scorn for the work of journalists, threats
to journalists’ freedom and even lives, etc. A structural transformation of the public is taking
place as we speak (as Jürgen Habermas has put it): communication is changing, the private
and public spheres merge, bringing along a great deal of uncertainty.
The rapid rise of digital media has brought, among other things, a decline of trust in the
traditional (mainstream) media and a boom in alternative information sources. Meanwhile, it
is not entirely clear what one should imagine under the term ‘alternative’ when applied to the
sphere of media. Perhaps free media? Or independent media? There are quite a few options to
delineate alternative/independent media as opposed to the mainstream media. In this part of
the paper, we will focus on why the term ‘alternative media’ has taken on significantly negative
connotations, often referring to an unprecedented expansion of disinformation and conspiracy
theories. Subsequently, we will point out why we hold it as more appropriate to adopt a more
neutral understanding of this term (not only) on academic grounds, as alternative sources of
information can be seen as providing space for different (independent) ways of how the dominant
social ideology and mediated information are interpreted.
In contemporary society, the homo medialis of the 21st century can hardly imagine a life
with a single unquestionable truth and without alternative interpretations of reality, including
reality as presented by the media. Alternatives can exist to virtually anything – be it lifestyle
or arts. So, alternative media make an important part of the media sphere when it comes
to dissemination of information and diverse content. Alternative interpretations of the world
represent a significant opposition platform to dominant opinion currents presented in the
mainstream media. A diversified media scene is of key importance for the functioning of
democracy, as it can be a catalyst for social change.21 J. D. H. Downing has defined the
term ‘radical media’, as generally small-scale media, which have various forms and present
21
ATTON, CH.: Alternative Media. London : Sage, 2002.; DOWNING, W. J.: Radical Media. Rebellious
Communication and Social Movements. London : Sage Publications, Inc., 2001.
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alternative views to political and cultural hegemons, their priorities and opinions.22 It follows
that one of the factors contributing to the emergence of alternative media may be the general
dissatisfaction and radicalisation of society. Alternative media are the voice of those who are
not given enough space in the mainstream media. „Societal groups that are represented onesidedly, disadvantaged, stigmatized, or even repressed can especially benefit from using the
channels of communication opened by alternative media.”23 A large number of ‘alternative’
online sources have still not been recognized and legitimised in our environment, either by those
holding official power or by the mainstream media. The degree of freedom of speech and media
independence (which should actually be inherent to the media) varies in individual countries,
but financial and political interests are to be seen everywhere. According to media theorists
Maciej Ilowiecki and Tadeusz Zasępa,24 it is possible to boast of freedom of speech, but it is
difficult to recognise that the media are also independent. Their independence is greater, the
greater their political pluralism and the higher the level of ethics of the journalistic environment.
Let us add, however, that not only political but also media pluralism is important.
Individual definitions of alternative media vary depending on several factors and criteria, e.g.
concerning their attributes, their standing within the media system, and their position vis-à-vis
the mainstream media. As for the latter comparison, alternative media claim to be independent,
incorruptible and not seeking profit. The designation for the traditional, mainstream media
is based on the term ‘mainstream/mainstreaming’. Slovník mediální komunikace [Dictionary
of Media Communication] understands this term as a process in which intense reception of
relatively homogenised and stereotyped contents from the media leads to a unification of
opinions and values held by recipients from varying social and cultural backgrounds.25 The
mainstream media (MSM) are defined as presenting the preferred view of reality. Linguist and
philosopher Noam Chomsky, with a dose of criticism, likens the MSM to corporate institutions
and ideological tools.26 Organisational structures of such media are essentially the same as
in any other business company, including hierarchy, division of labour, specified procedures,
goal-setting, supervision tools, with the main motive of their activities being the seeking of
profit. The authors of Understanding Alternative Media state that the mainstream media are
involved in creating ‘core’ societal values by their „permanent exposure to the audience.“27 This
produces a cultural hegemony, which most people may not even realise.
In any case, attempts to define alternative media have stirred up a lot of controversy. For
example, Chris Atton28 in his book Alternative Media asks whether anything that is not available
in regular newsstands should be called an alternative – is it perhaps a synonym for underground,
radical, opposition or samizdat press?
The authors of the entry ‘alternative media’29 in an Oxford dictionary entitled A Dictionary of
Media and Communication explain this term in three ways: 1. as one including both community
and ‘underground’ media; 2. or denoting radical media and press; 3. or media that serve as
alternatives in the areas of marketing and arts.
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
DOWNING, W. J.: Radical Media. Rebellious Communication and Social Movements. London : Sage
Publications, Inc., 2001.
BAILEY, G. O., CARPENTIER, N., CAMMAERTS, B.: Understanding Alternative Media. Berkshire : Open
University Press, 2007, p. 14.
ILOWIECKI, M., ZASĘPA,T.: Moc a nemoc médií. Bratislava : TYPI UNIVERSITATIS TYRNAVIENSIS, 2003.
REIFOVÁ, I. et al.: Slovník mediální komunikace. Praha : Portál, 2004, p. 126.
CHOMSKY, N.: What Makes Mainstream Media Mainstream. [online]. [2020-09-11]. Available at: <https://
chomsky.info/199710__/>.
BAILEY, G. O., CARPENTIER, N., CAMMAERTS, B.: Understanding Alternative Media. Berkshire : Open
University Press, 2007.
ATTON, CH.: Alternative Media. London : Sage, 2002.
CHANDLER, D., MUNDAY, R.: Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford : Oxford University
Press, 2011. [online]. [2020-07-14]. Available at: <https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/
acref/9780199568758.001.0001/acref-9780199568758-e-0078?rskey=E6JkId&result=155>.
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Mitzi Waltz, an activist involved in research of alternative media, presents another possible
view of this term in her book Alternative and Activist Media: she uses it to describe media that
serve as alternatives to widely available products of the mass media. As an example, she cites
American news-based TV channel CNN, which could be viewed as an ‘alternative’ to a repressive
regime, which prohibits activities of all foreign media, such as the regime in North Korea.30
M. Waltz31 cites some specific examples, including bulletins issued by various fellowships,
low-budget literary magazines, digital radio stations targeting audiences interested in marginal
music styles, as well as newspapers of radical political parties. Also included could be websites
of environmental activists, home-made punk fanzines and feminist radio shows aired by
community broadcasters. All of them represent ‘alternatives’ by covering issues that do not
receive enough attention in the mainstream media.
In the aforementioned publication, M. Waltz further conceptualised the so-called activist
media, which directly call on their audiences to take action that should lead to social change.
According to M. Waltz, a common denominator for alternative and activist media is their potential
to influence society in terms of economic and social changes.32
Theory as found in literature frequently delineates the alternative media as an opposite
to the mainstream media, which present contents widely accessible by the general public.
Alternative media, mainly those presenting disinformation, are pointed out as actively resisting
the dominant culture. „They have the function of a binary opposition to the mainstream. We
are discussing here an opinion ‘alternative’ and the dissemination of information described by
its creators as intentionally concealed by the ‘mainstream media’. (...) These are media that, in
addition to publishing news produced by news agencies, make extensive use of fake news in
various forms, most often as disinformation, conspiracy theories and hoaxes.“33
Alternative media in the Slovak media environment tend to be automatically labelled as
ones spreading disinformation and conspiracy theories, as evidenced, for example, by the
antipropaganda.sk website, operated by the Slovak Security Policy Institute. This website
presents ‘alternative’ media as agents of purposeful disinformation and fact distortion.34 We
believe that such biased attitudes result in all alternative information sources in the Slovak context
being put automatically into a single basket with disinformation sources and subsequently
labelled as illegitimate, without any effort to verify whether they publish true information or not.
According to journalist Jaroslav Bublinec35, it is not difficult to make the right guess about
the agenda of alternative media: it is largely about presenting alternative views to everything
and at any cost. This especially holds if the mainstream media – with their main agenda being
the moulding of society according to the liberal worldview – have been convicted by the
audience of long-term lies on some key issues.36 Their missteps thus significantly contribute
to inclinations of the public to alternative information channels, including those spreading
disinformation and conspiracy theories. Concerns arising from the flooding of public space
with deliberate distortions of facts, manipulations and lies often lead to people with a lack
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
WALTZ, M.: Alternative and Activist Media. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press, 2005.
Ibid.
Ibid.
KAPEC, M.: Mainstreamové a alternatívne médiá v slovenskom mediálnom priestore. In BUČKOVÁ, Z.,
KAČINCOVÁ PREDMERSKÁ, A., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, L. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy a médiá 2019 – Digital Universe.
Trnava : FMK UCM, 2019, p. 96.
Ako pracujú tradičné a „alternatívne“ médiá. [online]. [2020-09-09]. Available at: <https://www.
antipropaganda.sk/ako-pracuju-tradicne-a-alternativne-media>.
MORAVČÍKOVÁ, E.: Interview with Jaroslav Bublinec. [2019-03-04]. [cit. 2020-09-02]. Personal
communication.
For example, this was evident after the public learned that „...some media have not been critical, but rather
propagandistic (as in the wars in Iraq and Syria, when they echoed the establishment’s lies“) See DANIŠ, D.:
Komentár Daga Daniša: Prečo ľudia neveria systému a médiám. [Commentary by Dag Daniš: Why People
Don’t Trust the System and Media]. Published on January 17, 2017. [online]. [2019-04-14]. Available at:
<https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/407272/komentar-daga-danisa-preco-ludia-neveria-systemu-a-mediam/>.
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of critical thinking and without elementary media literacy opting for the alternative media. „Distrust
in the mainstream media and preference for alternative information sources (including those
working with hoaxes and conspiracy theories) could be associated with uncertainty experienced
by individual members of society. This uncertainty could have its source both in everyday and
wider political and economic contexts and could be recursively reinforced by the reception of
content from specific media sources.“37 According to Jakub Macek, who is a renowned Czech
expert focusing on the new media, it is necessary to examine the relationship between: a) trust
(or its lack) of members of society in specific information/news sources, b) attitudes of these
members of the public to politics, and c) their experience of attaining control and their feeling
of ontological security (Giddens, 1991).38 Similar conclusions were made by researchers Václav
Moravec, Marína Urbániková and Jaromír Volek in a study demonstrating a relationship between
the decline in trust (as seen in the Czech media environment) and responsibility attributed by
media consumers to journalists for their share in legitimising the transformation process after
the Velvet Revolution of 1989 and related social problems.39
The roots of distrust in authorities can therefore be found in an erosion of social justice,
globalisation processes, migration, corruption and people’s awakening vis-à-vis values. As a
result, we see the emergence of the post-truth era, including its deficit of truth and facts. This
implies another important consequence for life in post-truth society, namely a growing pressure
from the public for the regulation of media contents spread especially in the environment of
new media, chiefly social networks, as well as for the ethical and legal accountability of those
running these information channels. However, state regulations and the imposition of fines for
the dissemination of disinformation could obviously be misused: for example, they would provide
legitimate means for punishing only those with inconvenient or ‘seditious’ views. Regulation is
always a sensitive issue and there can be a fine line between freedom and its violation. In our
opinion, monopolised control over the process of distributing media contents is not possible
without restricting the freedom of speech – which would be contrary to some of the fundamental
pillars of democracy.
But how are we to understand the world of media, with which we do not live, but – as media
theorist Mark Deuze40 puts it – in which we live? How should we discern these manipulation
techniques? How are we supposed to find the truth in an information jungle? And can we even
distinguish essential information from irrelevant information?
McNair41 writes that the extent to which journalism produces a „trusting“ subject depends on
many circumstances, including whether the latter uses critical thinking in assessing journalistic
outputs. Tired, lazy or uneducated audiences can be so intoxicated by fluent and gleaming
streams of television news, modern looks and technology that they fail to see that such reporting
is as fabricated as products of the yellow press (and, let us add, of disinformation and conspiracy
journalists).
Petr Nutil, an independent journalist and author of a book entitled Media, Lies and a Too
Fast Brain, writes that one fundamental and meaningful task that a responsible state should
take on concerning the media would be education of its citizens in media literacy and critical,
independent and analytical thinking. Critical thinking is a conscious, rational process that leads
to certain conclusions, he says, adding that anyone should be intelligent enough to be allowed
to examine even nonsense. „Individuals should be aware of how the media work, who controls
37
38
39
40
41
MACEK, J.: Média v pohybu. K proměně současných českých publik. Brno : Masaryk University, 2015, p.
120.
Ibid., p. 120.
MORAVEC, V., URBÁNIKOVÁ, M., VOLEK, J.: Žurnalisté ve stínu nedůvěry: K některým příčinám klesající
důvěryhodnosti českých novinářů. In PETRANOVÁ, D., MINÁRIKOVÁ, J., MENDELOVÁ, D. et al. (eds.):
Megatrendy & médiá 2016. Kritika v médiách, kritika médií II. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2016, p. 82-123.
DEUZE, M.: Media life. Život v médiích. Praha : Karolinum, 2015.
MCNAIR, B.: Sociologie žurnalistiky. Praha : Portál, 2004.
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them and what their agenda is. They also understand key principles of the information war,
propaganda and how it works. Critical encounters with sensationalist aspects of the media,
fake news and disinformation websites could serve as great intellectual vaccination for medialiterate persons.“42
When discussing the media and their content, we consider it necessary to draw attention
also to another important and often unnoticed aspect of the presence of fake news in posttruth society, namely that fake news makes part of the so-called hybrid war, as pointed out by
journalist J. Bublinec.43 In this war, according to him, perhaps a stronger weapon than fake news
itself is the ability of effectively slamming the opponent for allegedly spreading disinformation:
„A question emerges: is this slamming of opponents a display of hysteria or part of a deliberate
strategy? These alternatives are not mutually exclusive, however – both hysteria and strategy are
at work here, albeit each in different agents, and these two approaches feed each other. With
this in mind, it is not primarily a question of being well-versed in journalism, but rather of being
able to find one’s bearings in propaganda as part of war machineries run by several stakeholders
in parallel. This also demonstrates: a) how easy it is, in technical terms, to create a reputation
of fake-news spreader about anyone; b) how this phenomenon has become a ready-to-use
weapon in political struggle. The formerly used label ‘enemy of progress’ is a blood relative to
this new one in addressing the recipient’s rationality, reading: ‘fake news!’“44 So we consider the
general term ‘fake news’ as too simplistic and superficial, when it comes to placing individual
statements in the category of misleading and fake content.
Also, we view attempts to squeeze alternative media into a box labelled as ‘conspiracy
and disinformation agenda’ to be misleading and far too little conceptual. For the purposes
of our research, we agree with definitions of the term ‘alternative media’ as presented by Jiří
Ftorek45 and Petr Nutil46 as the most appropriate for our theoretical research of the post-truth
era. We understand alternative media and their contents as standing in opposition to dominant
elements present in the public space and providing different interpretations of the dominant
social ideology and mediated information. Alternative media and media linked to individual
social movements offer the possibility of different (alternative) sources of information in the
media environment. They have been disturbing the information monopoly and challenging the
credibility of traditional media (press, radio and television) on the internet. „The possibility of
comparing the formulation of one’s own opinion on the basis of alternative information, the
credibility of which is confirmed over time, then boosts the popularity and relevance of the online
media alternative at the expense of the traditional mainstream media (press, radio, television).“ 47
Alternative media undermine – at least implicitly – the current concentration of media power.
It can be alternative information channels that eventually point to the unfortunate fact that the
media and journalists, instead of serving as watchdogs of democracy, often become obedient
and complaisant servants to their masters.
5. Conclusion
The media have become an arena in which a whole range of public life events take place; they
are a source of power, a potential means of influencing the masses and of control, and an
instrument allowing the promotion of one’s interests. They work like any production factory –
they produce their own messages, media personages, opinion leaders and pseudo-experts.
42
43
44
45
46
47
NUTIL, P.: Média, lži a příliš rychlý mozek. Průvodce postpravdivým světem. Praha : Grada, 2018, p. 92.
MORAVČÍKOVÁ, E.: Interview with Jaroslav Bublinec. 2019-03-04. Personal communication.
Ibid.
FTOREK, J.: Manipulace a propaganda na pozadí současné informační války. Praha : Grada, 2017.
NUTIL, P.: Média, lži a příliš rychlý mozek. Průvodce postpravdivým světem. Praha : Grada, 2018.
FTOREK, J.: Manipulace a propaganda na pozadí současné informační války. Praha : Grada, 2017, p. 75.
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This is a key problem of the entire media industry: there are unlimited opportunities for the
(uncensored) manipulation of recipients.
Of course, a positive role of the media must also be admitted. First of all, they create a
space for the presentation of opinions and they inform (either truthfully or in a distorted manner)
about events from other parts of the globe, thus allowing the public to reach, effectively, the
whole world. Almost any part of human knowledge is just a few clicks away on the internet. The
media create pressure on politicians and public figures, and their reach allows them to serve as
regulators of political life. They examine individual problems, including by way of investigative
journalism, and help to detect and solve social problems. It is indisputable that the media a
priori support social values, including literacy and education, but their interest in ordinary people
can easily be only a cover for their own interest in profit, as admitted (self-critically and with
a smile) by Vladimír Železný, former director of the Czech private TV broadcaster NOVA. He
said that it was not programmes that he used to sell on the screen, but viewers – especially to
advertising agencies and other customers. Viewers are nothing else than wrapped goods tied
with a bow, while there are thousands of them...
We can observe that explicit efforts on part of the media to persuade the public about
the veracity of their messages cannot be denied. Nevertheless, plurality of the media scene,
unfortunately, does not automatically secure plurality of opinions, as the media instead frequently
assault people’s minds with distorted, manipulated, tendentious and superfluous information
and a torrent of artificial entertainment.
In conclusion, we would like to make a strong appeal aimed at the development of critical
thinking and media literacy. Critical thinking means independent, analytical, conscious and
rational thinking. Petr Nutil, an independent journalist and author of Media, Lies and a Too Fast
Brain,48 relies primarily on the individual and his or her intelligence, which allows the person
to freely examine even the greatest nonsense. The solution also consists of the systematic
strengthening of information literacy49 and critical thinking in schools and outside them, ie in
the support of a critical-reflective approach to the media in formal and non-formal education.
Ideological manipulation can only be defeated if people educate themselves and actively
work with information and information sources. We believe that the most potent weapon in this
unequal struggle will be sceptical and critical views, verification of information and active thinking.
This requires one’s own effort to be transformed from being a passive, yea-saying consumer
of media messages to a critical evaluator. As Aristotle put it, he who tries to teach others must
above all be able to doubt. It is because doubts of the spirit lead to revelation of the truth.
Acknowledgement: The paper represents an output of a grant project entitled: VEGA 1/0282/18
Nature and Development of Independent Culture and Art in Slovakia after 1989.
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AROLDI, P., MARIÑO, M. V., VRABEC, N.: Evaluation and funding of media and information literacy.
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in Europe: cross-country comparisons. Abingdon : Routledge, 2017.
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BAILEY, G. O., CARPENTIER, N., CAMMAERTS, B.: Understanding Alternative Media. Berkshire :
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[2018-04-20]. Available at: <http://www.egs.edu/faculty/baudrillard/baudrillard-simulacra-andsimulations.html>.
MORAVČÍKOVÁ, E.: Interview with Jaroslav Bublinec. [2019-03-04]. [cit. 2020-09-02]. Personal
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at: <https://chomsky.info/199710__/>.
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Dag Daniš: Why People Don’t Trust the System and Media]. Published on January 17, 2017.
[online]. [2019-04-14]. Available at: <https://www.aktuality.sk/clanok/407272/komentar-dagadanisa-preco-ludia-neveria-systemu-a-mediam/>.
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Sage Publications, Inc., 2001.
DEUZE, M.: Media life. Život v médiích. Praha : Karolinum, 2015.
FTOREK, J.: Manipulace a propaganda na pozadí současné informační války. Praha : Grada,
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GÁLIKOVÁ-TOLNAIOVÁ, S.: Nové médiá, pravda a realita In BUČKOVÁ, Z., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, L.,
RYBANSKÝ, R., SOLÍK, M. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy a médiá 2018. Realita a mediálne bubliny.
Trnava : FMK UCM, 2018, p. 6-17.
GREGOR, M., VEJVODOVÁ, P. et al.: Nejlepší kniha o fake news, dezinformacích a manipulacích.
Brno : CPress, 2018.
CHANDLER, D., MUNDAY, R.: Dictionary of Media and Communication. Oxford : Oxford University
Press, 2011. [online]. [2020-07-14]. Available at: <https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/
acref/9780199568758.001.0001/acref-9780199568758-e-0078?rskey=E6JkId&result=155>.
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TYRNAVIENSIS, 2003.
IVAN, M.: Nikdy jsme nebyli faktuální. Presented at a scientific conference entitled ‘Hradecké
filosofické dny – Člověk v posfaktické společnosti’ [Hradec Philosophical Days-Man in a Posttruth Society], Hradec Králové October 4-5, 2018. Unpublished.
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KAČINOVÁ, V.: The topic of media-disseminated mis-information and dis-information as an
integral part of general education in Slovakia. In Media literacy and Academic research, 2020,
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BUČKOVÁ, Z., KAČINCOVÁ PREDMERSKÁ, A., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, L. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy
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klesající důvěryhodnosti českých novinářů. In PETRANOVÁ, D., MINÁRIKOVÁ, J., MENDELOVÁ,
D. et al. (eds.): Megatrendy & médiá 2016. Kritika v médiách, kritika médií II. Trnava : FMK UCM,
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NUTIL, P.: Média, lži a příliš rychlý mozek. Průvodce postpravdivým světem. Praha : Grada, 2018.
OLEJÁROVÁ, A.: Štyri poznámky k diskurzívnym aspektom skupinovej polarizácie v dôsledku
pôsobenia nových médií. In BUČKOVÁ, Z., KAČINCOVÁ PREDMERSKÁ, A., RUSŇÁKOVÁ, A.
et al. (eds.): Megatrendy a médiá 2019 – Digital Universe. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2019, p. 318-334.
PALEČEK, M.: Strach v kultuře: fámy a falešné zprávy. Presented at a scientific conference
entitled ‘Hradecké filosofické dny – Člověk v posfaktické společnosti’ [Hradec Philosophical
Days-Man in a Post-truth Society], Hradec Králové October 4-5, 2018. Unpublished.
REIFOVÁ, I. et al.: Slovník mediální komunikace. Praha : Portál, 2004.
SLEZÁKOVÁ, M.: Potřebujeme veřejnoprávní facebook, pryč od trhu, efektů a emocí, říká
průzkumník fake news. [online]. [2020-07-02]. Available at: <https://www.irozhlas.cz/zpravysvet/rozhovor-fake-news-dezinformace-alex-sangerlaub-jeden-svet-media_1803080600_mls.>.
WALTZ, M.: Alternative and Activist Media. Edinburgh : Edinburgh University Press, 2005.
Author
Mgr. Erika Moravčíková, PhD.
Department of Cultural Studies,
Faculty of Arts, University of Constantine the Philosopher in Nitra
Hodžova 1,
948 01 Nitra
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
emoravcikova2@ukf.sk
Erika Moravčíková – a cultural scientist and media theorist. She completed her doctoral studies at the
Department of Cultural Studies of the Faculty of Arts, University of Constantine the Philosopher in Nitra in 2009
and she has served as a lecturer at the department ever since. Her professional and scientific focus is on
current trends in culture, especially media culture (globalisation trends, the de-/tabooing of death in culture,
media and society, and metamorphoses of its displays under the influence of digital media and information
technology). She critically reflects on and analyses modern socio-cultural phenomena on the internet and
social networks, and the construction of media reality via media manipulation and propaganda in the posttruth era. In addition to lecturing on demand for a number of educational, cultural and artistic institutions,
she organises, in cooperation with non-profit organisations, various workshops focused mainly on the issue
of human rights. She organises and hosts debates with experts on current topics of cultural discourse.
Studies
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
photo: Kristián Pribila
Jos van Helvoort, Marianne Hermans
Effectiveness Of Educational
Approaches To Elementary School
Pupils (11 Or 12 Years Old)
To Combat Fake News
ABSTRACT
The purpose of this literature study is to obtain information about educational approaches to
teaching 11 to 12 years old children focusing on how to distinguish between real news and
fake news. With this purpose we studied 16 academic papers about learning activities to make
primary school children media-literate and able to recognise fake news. What we found is that
having children create their own news messages seems to be the most effective approach.
News messages that they create can be text messages as well as videos, audios, pictures and
animations. Based on this conclusion, students from The Hague University of Applied Sciences
Teacher Training Institute (PABO) have been asked to develop a set of learning materials that
can be used for instruction in primary schools. The effectiveness of those materials is currently
being tested at an elementary school in Rijswijk. The results of the literature and the field study
will be shared in the Dutch centre of expertise for media literacy education, Mediawijzer.net.
KEY WORDS
Media education. News literacy. Primary education. Literature review.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
1. Introduction
As in other European countries, primary education in the Netherlands has a demand for
instructional materials that teach 10 to 12 years old children how to distinguish fake news
from real news.1,2 Teaching pupils how to develop a critical attitude towards news messages
on the internet and social media is important at this young age because most children already
use mobile telephones with access to the internet and social media3 and because teaching of
media literacy skills is most effective at this age.4 The ability to identify false messages is even
more important for young people because they are relatively inexperienced in life.5
The spread of fake news is considered a threat for democracy and civic participation in a lot
of European countries. Although the Netherlands is assumed to be one of the most ‘fake newsresistant’ countries in Europe,6,7 the Dutch government still holds the opinion that it should take
measures against it to warrant societal stability. Fake news is not a new phenomenon but the
rapid spread of false information through the internet and social media worsens the problem,
especially because social media are the main sources of news messages for young people.8
Measures to combat fake news
The literature on the combat of information disorder (for instance9,10) distinguishes at least
four types of measures: technological approaches, stronger journalism, regulation by the
government and educational programs. Technological approaches imply, for instance, the
automated identification and blocking of spoof sites and advertisements that obviously contain
nonsense or illegal information (clickbait).11 One of the problems with these types of measures
is that the creators of information disorders will always find ways to avoid those algorithms,
thereby creating an „arms race“ between content creators and technological platforms.12
Factchecking by neutral third parties is an example of strengthening journalism practices.
It is sometimes practised in cooperation with technological partners. Facebook, for instance,
cooperates in the discovery and flagging of fake news with fact-checking organisations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
NATIONAL LITERACY TRUST: NewsWise: Pilot Report. London : National Literacy Trust, 2018. [online].
[2020-10-05]. Available at: <https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED588802.pdf>.
WALRAVEN, A., PAAS, T., SCHOUWENAARS, I.: Mediawijsheid in het Primair Onderwijs: Achtergronden en
Percepties. Hilversum; Nijmegen : Mediawijzer.net; ITS, Radboud Universiteit, 2013, p. 21.
KENNISNET : Monitor Jeugd en Media 2017. [online]. [2020-10-06]. Available at: <https://www.kennisnet.
nl/app/uploads/kennisnet/publicatie/jeugd_media/Kennisnet_Monitor_Jeugd_en_Media_2017.pdf>.
TAKAHASHI, A.: Education’s Role in Solving the Contemporary „Fake News“ Problem. In VANDERHEYDEN,
M. (ed.): The New State of the News: Confronting Misinformation in the Digital Age. Washington : University
of Washington, 2018, p. 57.
BALČYTIENĖ, A., WADBRING, I.: News Literacy: Reinventing the Ideals of Journalism and Citizenry in
the 21st Century. In WADBRING, I., PEKKALA, L. (eds.): Citizens in a Mediated World: A Nordic-Baltic
Perspective on Media and Information Literacy. Göteborg : Nordicom, 2017, p. 40.
HOSSOVÁ, M.: Fake News and Disinformation: Phenomenons of Post-Factual Society. In Media Literacy
and Academic Research, 2018, Vol. 1, No. 2, p. 31.
LAUF, E., SIERHUIS, R., WEGGEMANS, V.: Mediamonitor 2018. [online]. [2020-10-06]. Available at: <https://
www.mediamonitor.nl/wp-content/uploads/Mediamonitor-2018-Reuters-Institute-Digital-News-ReportNederland-2018.pdf>.
LOOS, E., IVAN, L., LEU, D.: „Save the Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus“: A Hoax Revisited. Or: How Vulnerable
Are School Children to Fake News? In Information and Learning Science, 2018, Vol. 119, No. 9, p. 521.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 57-74.
MARDA, V., MILAN, S.: Wisdom of the Crowd: Multistakeholder Perspectives on the Fake News Debate.
Philadelphia, PA : Internet Policy Observatory, Annenberg School of Communication, University of
Pennsylvania, 2018, p. 1, 10-14.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 58-59.
O’CONNOR, C., WEATHERALL, J. O.: Misinformation Age: How False Beliefs Spread. New Haven; London :
Yale University Press, 2019, p. 175.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
in different countries, although it makes an exception for utterances by politicians, which are
not fact-checked. Since June 2020, Facebook offers an opportunity to turn off political ads.13
Fact-checking organisations are supposed to bring extra accuracy to the public debate14, but
it is also believed that arguments based on facts will not convince people if that information is
contrary to a person’s world view.15
One of the main objections to technological solutions to combat false information is that they
restrict freedom of speech. This is, of course, true for all regulative measures by governments.
Marda and Milan discuss, amongst other topics, the German Network Enforcement Act, which
„promises to fine social media companies that fail to take down from their platforms hate speech
or fake news within 24 hours.“16 It is not surprising that this has caused objections by many
human rights organisations in Germany as well as worldwide, which hold the opinion that the
law threatens freedom of speech.
All described disadvantages of technological and regulative solutions to combat fake news
and other types of information disorder lead to the broadly accepted conclusion that false
information is best opposed by educational programs.17,18,19,20 Making young children critical
thinkers is a particularly long term solution to combat fake news and is therefore encouraged by
many experts.21 This is also the view of the Dutch government.22 In this paper we will therefore
focus on educational approaches aiming to develop children’s ability to handle disinformation.
Types of information disorder
There are various words for what can be considered ‘undesired information’: fake or false news,
misinformation, disinformation, information disorder, hate speech, and so forth. Information
disorder is the most general term for all of these types of content. In this research we follow
largely the Wardle and Derakshan’s distinction of three types of information disorder:23
• Misinformation is information that is false but is not created with false intentions. It is
often found in publications that can be characterised as bad journalism.
• Disinformation is information that is false and created to deliberately harm a person, social
group, organisation or country. In our view, disinformation includes false content that is
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
RODRIGUEZ, S.: Mark Zuckerberg Says Facebook Will Allow Users to Turn Off Political Ads. [online]. [202006-17]. Available at: <https://www.cnbc.com/amp/2020/06/17/facebook-will-allow-users-to-turn-offpolitical-ads-mark-zuckerberg.html>.
KANIŽAJ, I., LECHPAMMER, S.: The Role of Organisations of Journalists in Promoting Media Literacy:
Building Credibility and Trust. In Media Literacy and Academic Research, 2019, Vol. 2, No. 1, p. 30.
COOK, J., LEWANDOWSKY, S., ECKER, U.: Neutralizing Misinformation through Inoculation: Exposing
Misleading Argumentation Techniques Reduces their Influence. In PloS One, 2017, Vol. 12, No. 5, p. 3.
MARDA, V., MILAN, S.: Wisdom of the Crowd: Multistakeholder Perspectives on the Fake News Debate.
Philadelphia, PA : Internet Policy Observatory, Annenberg School of Communication, University of
Pennsylvania, 2018, p. 1.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 68-70.
MARDA, V., MILAN, S.: Wisdom of the Crowd: Multistakeholder Perspectives on the Fake News Debate.
Philadelphia, PA : Internet Policy Observatory, Annenberg School of Communication, University of
Pennsylvania, 2018, p.16.
STANFORD HISTORY EDUCATION GROUP: Evaluating Information: The Cornerstone of Civic Online
Reasoning: Executive Summary. Stanford (CA) : Stanford History Education Group, 2016, p. 4-7.
SCHMITT, J. B. et al.: Critical Media Literacy and Islamist Online Propaganda: The Feasibility, Applicability
and Impact of Three Learning Arrangements. In International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 2018, Vol.
12, No. 1, p. 4.
MARDA, V., MILAN, S.: Wisdom of the Crowd: Multistakeholder Perspectives on the Fake News Debate.
Philadelphia, PA : Internet Policy Observatory, Annenberg School of Communication, University of
Pennsylvania, 2018, p.12.
RIJKSOVERHEID, N. L.: Desinformatie en Nepnieuws. [online]. [2020-05-10]. Available at: <https://www.
rijksoverheid.nl/onderwerpen/desinformatie-nepnieuws>.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 20-22.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
created with the intention to generate clicks on paid content on internet websites (clickbait)
or simply to attract attention. The difference from misinformation is that disinformation
is consciously created with the intention to mislead people.
• Mal-information is information that is based on reality but is used to inflict harm on a
person, organisation or country. Examples of mal-information are hate speech, leaks
and harassment.
These different types of information disorders can be plotted in a matrix with four quadrants
in which the x-axis expresses the question as to whether false information is deliberately false
(the information producer is a liar) or not (the information producer is poorly informed himself/
herself). The y-axis presents the intention to mislead on the one side and the intention to harm
on the other side. The three types of information disorders identified by Wardle and Derakshan
are presented in the matrix in Figure 1.
FIGURE 1: The three types of information disorders (Wardle and Derakshan 2017) presented in a matrix
with two axe
Source: own processing
In our research on educational materials for primary school children, we will use the definition
of ‘fake news’ by Myhre,24 which means that we will focus on information that is ‘not reliable’.
We will focus on ‘real fake news’ (disinformation), but sources with untrustworthy content
(misinformation) are also part of our research. Types of mal-information are not included in
our research, although the spread of mal-information is a serious problem in groups of young
adolescents.
24
MYHRE, E.: Supranational or Compartmental: Applying the Question of European Union Identity to the Topic
of Disinformation. Harrisonburg, VA : James Madison University, 2019, p. 3.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Content types
Fake news has various content types. A content analysis of fake messages discovered by the
Turkish factchecking organization Teyit.org resulted in the conclusion that most fake news consist
of videos and photographs.25 A relatively recent development is the rise of ‘deepfakes’, that is,
videos that are created with artificial intelligence that can hardly be identified as ‘fake’.26 Due
to the popularity of images amongst young adolescents, this observation is very important for
our own research on educational materials to combat fake news.
A third distinction that can be made is that of different types of genres. Tandoc, Lim and
Ling27 discern political fake news (propaganda) from other genres such as photo manipulation,
fabricated news articles, advertisements and satire and parody news. The latter categories can
be considered as examples of disinformation whose purpose is to entertain or attract attention.
Research questions
The main question that will be answered in this literature study is: what are the most promising
learning activities to make 11 and 12 years old pupils skilled in distinguishing real news from
fake news?
The sub-questions are:
RQ1
What types of educational approaches can be used to make children resistant to fake
information?
RQ2
What does the literature reveal about the effectiveness of those approaches?
2. Procedure
Keywords that we used to find relevant information in Google Scholar are reported in table 1.
Major subject
„news literacy“
Modifier
effectiveness
Sphere
(„primary education“
OR
OR
(„media education“ AND „fake
news“)
„elementary education“)
NOT „higher education“
TABLE 1: Keywords to find relevant information
Source: own processing
Papers that were found with these search terms were rated on relevance for answering the
research questions based on the abstracts and quick searches with Ctrl-F. References listed
in those papers were checked for relevance in the same way (backward chaining). The time
filter was set on 2010-2019.
Using this search strategy we found 16 relevant papers. Those papers were read in detail
and relevant paragraphs were coded with the qualitative research tool Atlas.ti. The reports from
Atlas.ti were used to answer the research questions.
25
26
27
ÜNAL, R., ÇIÇEKLIOĞLU, A.: The Function and Importance of Fact-Checking Organizations in the Era of
Fake News: Teyit.org, an Example from Turkey. In Media Studies, 2019, Vol. 10, No. 19, p. 156.
KNIGHT, E., MOHAMMADI, R., LE BOMIN, L.: Game of Fakes: An Entertaining Approach to Analyzing
How Awareness of Fake News Affects Trust in News Media. [online]. [2018-10-20]. Available at: <https://
mastersofmedia.hum.uva.nl/blog/2018/10/20/game-of-fakes/>.
TANDOC, E., LIM, Z. W., LING, R.: Defining „Fake News“. In Digital Journalism, 2018, Vol. 6, No. 2, p. 141-147.
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3. Results
RQ1
What types of educational approaches can be used to make children resistant to fake
information?
One of the fundamental distinctions in approaches to counter fake news is the difference
between debunking and prebunking.28 Debunking means that false information is corrected by
providing counterarguments, alternative facts and so forth. The educational actions consist in
those cases of ‘interventions’ at the moment that pupils meet fake information.29 Prebunking
means that people are pre-emptively confronted with fake news to make them resistant at the
moment that they will meet fake information in reality. The prebunking approach parallels the
metaphor of the inoculation theory that implies that people become resistant to fake news if
they are exposed to a softer version of fake information beforehand. „Just as vaccines generate
antibodies to resist future viruses, inoculation messages equip people with counterarguments that
potentially convey resistance to future misinformation, even if the misinformation is congruent
with pre-existing attitudes.“30
The inoculation approach itself can be applied passively (by reading and recognition) or more
actively (by experience and generating one’s own pro- and counterarguments). Roozenbeek and
Van der Linden31 hold the opinion that active inoculation is more effective because it implies a
more involved cognitive process. They developed a game (‘Bad News’) in which participants
from different age groups and different educational backgrounds created their own fake news
using six different strategies: impersonation, emotion, polarisation, conspiracy, discredit and
trolling. The conclusion of their research was that all types of participants had improved their
„ability to spot and resist misinformation“ after playing the game.32
Other types of active inoculation that are mentioned in the literature entail children creating
their own news items,33,34,35 reflection assignments36,37 and discussions in peer groups.37 Another
example of active construction of knowledge about misinformation is fact-checking by student
groups at universities (for instance, Nieuwscheckers at Leiden University in the Netherlands).
Although fact-checking itself and the output of fact-checking centres are typically the examples
of debunking fake news,38 it can be maintained that fact-checking activities by students generate
learning processes for themselves that are typically associated with prebunking approaches.
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
ROOZENBEEK, J., VAN DER LINDEN, S.: Fake News Game Confers Psychological Resistance Against
Online Misinformation. In Palgrave Communications, 2019, Vol. 5, No. 65, p. 2.
STAUSS, C.: Critical Constraints in the Classroom: Assessing How Teachers Approach Media Literacy in
Middle and Secondary Schools. [Master Thesis]. Oregon : University of Oregon, 2012, p. 40.
COOK, J., LEWANDOWSKY, S., ECKER, U.: Neutralizing Misinformation through Inoculation: Exposing
Misleading Argumentation Techniques Reduces their Influence. In PloS One, 2017, Vol. 12, No. 5, p. 4.
ROOZENBEEK, J., VAN DER LINDEN, S.: Fake News Game Confers Psychological Resistance Against
Online Misinformation. In Palgrave Communications, 2019, Vol. 5, No. 65, p. 2-3.
Ibid., p. 1.
WALRAVEN, A., PAAS, T., SCHOUWENAARS, I.: Mediawijsheid in het Primair Onderwijs: Achtergronden en
Percepties. Hilversum; Nijmegen : Mediawijzer.net; ITS, Radboud Universiteit, 2013, p. 17.
ZEZULKOVA, M.: Whole Person Hermeneutic Media Learning in the Primary Classroom: An Intercultural
Grounded Philosophy [Doctoral Dissertation]. Bournemouth, Dorset, England : Bournemouth University,
2015, p. 17.
KLEEMANS, M., EGGINK, G.: Understanding News: The Impact of Media Literacy Education on Teenagers’
News Literacy. In Journalism Education, 2016, Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 75.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 69.
SCHMITT, J. B. et al.: Critical Media Literacy and Islamist Online Propaganda: The Feasibility, Applicability
and Impact of Three Learning Arrangements. In International Journal of Conflict and Violence, 2018, Vol.
12, No. 1, p. 6.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 6.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
A more passive prebunking approach that is, nevertheless, often mentioned as a promising
method to make children resistant to false information is the analysis and evaluation of existing
cases with news stories.39,40,41 Katsaounidou a.o. mentions the online game Factitious, „in which
the players should read the containing articles, swipe to the right if they think that it is a real
story, and swipe left if they think that it is a fake story.“42
As a last remark it is to be pointed out that fake news or media literacy should preferably
not be instructed at school as a subject in itself. Media literacy skills and knowledge are related
to other subjects.43 The ability to critically examine news, photographs and videos is typically a
competency that can be indicated as a 21st century skill. Experts on educational science indicate
that such broad skills are best integrated in other subject fields that are taught at school, like
history, geography or social studies (see for instance44).
RQ2
What does the literature reveal about the effectiveness of those approaches?
Hardly any information was found on the effectiveness of instructions on fake news. Existing
studies on effectiveness mostly investigate games as a learning tool.45,46 The results of these
studies suggest that there is a positive correlation between playing fake news games and
participants’ abilities to resist fake news. These positive results, however, do not prove that
playing games is the most effective approach to make young people resistant to fake news.
However, because of their experimental setting, these games give the opportunity to investigate
the effects of the inoculation with fake news in a quantitative way.
Research on prebunking and fake news games shows that creating your own news is a promising
approach to make people news-literate. This might be executed in a game but also in a ‘newsroom’
or a lab at school.47,48,49 News messages should not be restricted to texts. On the contrary, young
children are intrinsically motivated to make pictures, videos or podcasts rather than to write texts.
From an educational science point of view, it is important to emphasise that a detailed
description of learning outcomes is required if we want to assess the effectiveness of learning
materials.50 In the current research project, the desired learning outcome will be the recognition
of real and fake news, even if the children’s learning activities are more focused upon creating
their own news. A set of true/false questions like the online quiz Factitious seems to be an
adequate instrument to assess these learning outcomes.
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
LOOS, E., IVAN, L., LEU, D.: „Save the Pacific Northwest Tree Octopus“: A Hoax Revisited. Or: How Vulnerable
Are School Children to Fake News? In Information and Learning Science, 2018, Vol. 119, No. 9, p. 515.
WARDLE, C., DERAKHSHAN, H.: Information Disorder: Toward an Interdisciplinary Framework for Research
and Policy Making. Strasbourg : Council of Europe, 2017 (DGI(2017) nr. 09), p. 69.
ZENG, X.: Chinese Young People’s Engagement with Journalism: Perspectives and Attitudes towards the
News. [Doctoral Dissertation]. Bournemouth, Dorset, England : Bournemouth University, 2014, p. 225.
KATSAOUNIDOU, A. et al.: MAthE the Game: A Serious Game for Education and Training in News
Verification. In Education Sciences, 2019, Vol. 9, No. 155, p. 4.
KLEEMANS, M., EGGINK, G.: Understanding News: The Impact of Media Literacy Education on Teenagers’
News Literacy. In Journalism Education, 2016, Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 75.
WALRAVEN, A., BRAND-GRUWEL, S., BOSHUIZEN, H.: Fostering Students’ Evaluation Behaviour While
Searching the Internet. In Instructional Science, 2013, Vol. 41, No. 1, p. 143.
ROOZENBEEK, J., VAN DER LINDEN, S.: The Fake News Game: Actively Inoculating Against the Risk of
Misinformation. In Journal of Risk Research, 2018, Vol. 22, No. 5, p. 3-6.
ROOZENBEEK, J., VAN DER LINDEN, S.: Fake News Game Confers Psychological Resistance Against
Online Misinformation. In Palgrave Communications, 2019, Vol. 5, No. 65, p. 1-10.
NATIONAL LITERACY TRUST: NewsWise: Pilot Report. London : National Literacy Trust, 2018. Available
at: <https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED588802.pdf>.
WALRAVEN, A., PAAS, T., SCHOUWENAARS, I.: Mediawijsheid in het Primair Onderwijs: Achtergronden en
Percepties. Hilversum; Nijmegen : Mediawijzer.net; ITS, Radboud University, 2013, p. 17.
KLEEMANS, M., EGGINK, G.: Understanding News: The Impact of Media Literacy Education on Teenagers’
News Literacy. In Journalism Education, 2016, Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 75.
ROZENDAAL, E.: Effectieve Mediawijsheidprogramma’s: Inzichten en Aandachtspunten voor Uitvoerders,
Ontwikkelaars en Onderzoekers. [online]. [2018-04-04]. Available at <https://www.mediawijzer.net/
wp-content/uploads/sites/6/2018/06/MW-effectieveinterventies-rapport.pdf>.
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Integration in other subjects that are taught in school is another condition that increases
the potential success of fake news education. In answering research question 1 we mentioned
subjects like history, geography and social studies but even a more recent subject like citizenship
education might provide a good context in which to teach people how to identify fake news.
4. Conclusion
Summarising the results from research questions 1 and 2, it is concluded that the most promising
educational approach to making children news-literate is an activating instruction in creating
their own news messages. News messages may be text messages as well as videos, audios,
pictures, animations and so forth. It is preferred to integrate the activating instruction with
one of the other subjects taught, for instance in a course on citizenship education. To assess
the children’s ability to identify real and fake news, it is a good idea to keep the online game
Factitious in mind as an example.
5. Further research
In the next step of the current research project, students from The Hague University of Applied
Sciences Teacher Training Institute (PABO) have been asked to develop appropriate learning
and assessment materials. Those materials are currently being tested in an elementary school
in Rijswijk (near The Hague). The results will be shared in Mediawijzer.net, the Dutch centre of
expertise for media literacy.
A question for future research is whether the experiences of the Teacher Training students
will give rise to new learning goals or content for the education of primary school teachers in
the field of media education.
Acknowledgement: The organisation Nationaal Regieorgaan Praktijkgericht Onderzoek SIA –
an institute of the Dutch Research Council NWO - provided a KIEM-hbo grant to facilitate the
project on the effectiveness of educational approaches to combat fake news. This literature
study is the first publication within the project. The next publication will be the report on the
field research at the elementary school in Rijswijk.
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Authors
Dr. A.A.J. (Jos) van Helvoort
Research Group Sustainable Talent Development,
The Hague University of Applied Sciences,
Johanna Westerdijkplein 75,
2521 EN The Hague,
NETHERLANDS
a.a.j.vanhelvoort@hhs.nl
Jos van Helvoort (1957) is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of IT & Design and a member of the Research Group
Sustainable Talent Development of The Hague University of Applied Sciences. He received a PhD degree in
Library Science in 2016 at the University of Amsterdam with a doctorate thesis on assessment of information
literacy in higher education. Jos is a member of the Standing Committee of the European Conference on
Information Literacy. Currently, he is a project manager of Integrated Research Support at his university.
Drs. M.A.L.E. (Marianne) Hermans
Koninklijke Bibliotheek (KB),
National Library of the Netherlands
Prins Willem-Alexanderhof 5,
2595 BE The Hague,
NETHERLANDS
marianne.hermans@kb.nl
Marianne Hermans (1973) works as a research advisor at the Research Department of the Koninklijke
Bibliotheek (KB) | National Library of the Netherlands. She holds a master’s degree in Communication and
Information Sciences at Tilburg University and worked as a PhD-student in the field of secondary education.
Her current research interests focus on the innovation of public libraries, especially the changing role of
libraries as part of the cultural infrastructure and as platforms for literacy, learning and making, and democratic
dialogue. She and her colleague published the strategic Knowledge Agenda for Public Libraries (Hermans
& Oomes, 2019).
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
photo: Adrián Juríček
Sláva Gracová, Ľubica Bôtošová, Martin Graca, Andrej Brník
Comparison Of Television Broadcasting
For Children And Youth In A Public
Broadcaster In The Slovak And Czech
Republic During The Covid-19 Pandemic
ABSTRACT
The subject of the study is a comparison of television broadcasting for school-age children
and youth by public broadcasters in Slovakia and the Czech Republic during the first wave
of the coronavirus pandemic in spring 2020. The authors selected and researched programs
which were supposed to partially replace full-time teaching in primary schools. Radio and
Television of Slovakia (RTVS) broadcast a program called Školský klub (School Club) and Czech
Television broadcast the UčíTelka (Teaching TV) program. The aim of the group of authors was
to analyze five parts of both programs broadcast in one week and then compare the results. In
the theoretical part of the study, the authors characterize the broadcast during an emergency
situation and present the examined programs. Subsequently, they are presenting an overview of
television broadcasting during the mandatory quarantine in Slovakia in the children’s television
JOJKO, which they divided into two categories: broadcasting focused on coronavirus and
broadcasting focused on spending free time at home. In the research part, the authors carry out
a qualitative analysis of the researched lectures with a focus on several aspects: visual design,
tools used in the lecture, the role of the presenter and their performance, the overall contribution
of the lesson in terms of topics and curriculum and interaction with viewers. They compare the
results of both lectures and deduce the results of the analysis based on the findings. The result
of the study is a comparison of the level, processing and benefits of lessons aimed to partially
replace the teaching process of children and youth in primary schools in Slovakia and the Czech
Republic at the time of emergency measures and quarantine caused by the COVID-19 virus.
KEY WORDS
Television. Public television. Broadcasting for children. Pandemic. Coronavirus. COVID-19.
Školský klub. UčíTelka.
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1. Introduction
The emergency situation caused by the coronavirus pandemic was difficult to prepare for. It
has hit us in many areas of human life, and there is nothing left (and still is not) only to adapt.
Education is and will be a very important part. „The outbreak of this dangerous virus across
the globe has forced educational institutions to shut down to control the spread of this virus.
This happening made the teaching professionals think of alternative methods of teaching during
this lockdown. And thus it paves the way towards web-based learning or e-learning or online
learning.“1 The field of education in all its layers felt this new situation mainly by closing schools
and in many cases by switching to online education, or looking for other alternatives to replace
full-time teaching. „Online learning or e-learning are the buzzing words during this pandemic
situation among the community of students across the world.“2 From the authors’ own experience
(their work at university), we can say that in higher education, the conditions for the introduction
of online teaching are easier than in, for example, primary schools. Adult students of university
studies are required to own technical equipment and an Internet connection. For younger
students, meeting these conditions is more difficult. We start from the events in Slovakia in the
first wave of the pandemic. Some schools tried to switch to online teaching, others sent tasks
and assignments to students and only checked their fulfillment. The educational part remained
with the parents. Undoubtedly, it was a great burden for both parents and children. According
to the UK’s 2013 Good Childhood Report, several conditions need to met for children’s and
young people’s positive development, namely:
- the right conditions in which to learn and develop,
- a positive view of themselves and respect for their identity,
- enough items and experiences that matter to them,
- positive relationships with their family, friends and school,
- a safe and suitable home environment and local area and
- the opportunities to take part in positive activities which help them to thrive.3
Distance education was a big change for children. In distance education, student centered
learning is the soul of the program that demands a learner to work independently. Assignments
and examinations are also integral parts of this system that demands to provide some types of
activities where a student must be able to get regular lectures by expert teachers to understand
the lessons. Akhter’s cited article was published in 2011, but his claims were confirmed in
2020. Akhter says about the role of the media in the context of distance education: „In the
situation, media play vital role in providing educational assistance to learners where no other
regular interaction between teacher and student is possible. ETV, from broadcast media is an
important source that is used in many countries to telecast the educational lessons for distance
learners.“4 Opinions on distance education vary. Some distance educators claim that distance
education is the best way to learn because it allows students to acquire knowledge when it is
most relevant to them.5 Online education also brings about an increased burden on children
in terms of their increased exposure to cyberspace. „We therefore need to learn to trust media
1
2
3
4
5
RADHA, R. a kol.: E-Learning during Lockdown of Covid-19 Pandemic: A Global Perspective. In International
Journal of Control and Automation, 2020, Vol. 13, No. 4, p. 1088.
KOLLURU, V.: Students perspective on Online Learning and Contract Learning during Pandemic Situation.
In Internation Research Journal of Engineering and Technology, 2020, Vol. 07, No. 05, p. 7874.
LIVINGSTON, S.: Positive onlin content for children: Let kids create and participate. In PIJPERS, R., VAN
DEN BOSCH, N. (eds.): Positive digital content for kids. POSCON : Mijn Kid Online, 2014, p. 12.
AKHTER, N.: Evolution of educational television programs for distane learning. In TOJET, 2011, Vol. 10,
No. 4, p. 188.
SIMONSON, M. a kol.: Teaching and learning at a distance. Location. Charlotte, North Carolina Information,
United States : Age Publishing Inc., 2015, p. 12.
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with reserve, be critical, and spend at least part of the time we have without the influence of
media, especially away from the Internet cyberspace.“6 Challenges to reduce the time spent in
cyberspace collide with objective problems caused by students being reliant on online education
in the time of school closures.
At the time of the pandemic, caused by the spread of the coronavirus, newly established
programs appeared in Slovakia and the Czech Republic and on their public service television,
which aimed to partially fill the lack of full-time education for primary school students. The
program Školský klub was created in Slovak public television and the program UčíTelka in
Czech public television.
Public law has been present among the media for several decades. In the conditions of the
Slovak Republic, it dates its history since 1993. With the establishment of the independent Slovak
Republic, an autonomous public institution, Radio and Television of Slovakia was established.
At birth, its formation was governed by generally accepted attributes of public law, but the
transformation from a state broadcaster to a public one did not proceed without complications.7
Slovak Television merged with Slovak Radio ten years ago. RTVS as a Slovak public television
is established on the basis of Act no. 532/20108 and is aware of its public role. According to
this Act, among other things, its program structure also consists of educational programs
and programs for children and youth. In the second week of March, Radio and Television of
Slovakia began with the broadcasting of works of compulsory literature, which are intended
primarily for high school students and high school graduates, on the television program of the
Trojka circuit.. For example, masterpieces were broadcast. Judita Gembická from the Trojka
RTVS channel stated that RTVS is aware of its public role, and therefore it would bring drama,
especially part of compulsory literature, and often also school leaving exam questions, especially
to high school students.9
After this step, RTVS prepared a program for smaller children. On March 18, 2020, it started
broadcasting a new interactive show for young schoolchildren. Školský klub – a lesson from
the class without chalk was broadcast on Dvojka channel every working day from 9:15 am
and lasted 45 minutes. Via it, young learners were supposed to learn in an entertaining way
in 45 minutes. At the same time, children could take part in the tasks assigned to them by the
teachers and were able to share their solutions via the TV screen.10 After the success of the
show, the television decided to continue in its production and expanded it in time and content.
From March 30, 2020 to April 3, 2020, this program lasted twice as long and brought
activities for 2nd grade students as well. The creators announced that Školský klub would be
divided into three blocks from Monday for the 1st and 2nd year, the 3rd and 4th year and the
5th to 7th year. One broadcast week is organized as one school day – just as children have 5
lessons at school, so there would be a different subject in Školský klub every day. On Monday
it was about science subjects, on Tuesday about computer science, on Wednesday about
mathematics, on Thursday it was focused on social science subjects and on Friday it was
about Slovak language and literature.11
6
7
8
9
10
11
GÁLIK, S., GÁLIKOVÁ TOLNAIOVÁ, S.: Cyberspace as a New Existential Dimension of Man. In ABU-TAIEH,
E., EL MOUATASIM, A., AL HADID, I. (eds.): Cyberspace. London : IntechOpen, 2020, p. 23.
LALUHOVÁ, J. a kol.: Diskurzívne problémy v masmediálnych štúdiách. Trnava : FMK UCM v Trnave : 2012,
p. 25.
Zákon č. 532/2010 Z. z. Zákon o Rozhlase a televízii Slovenska a o zmene a doplnení niektorých zákonov
zo dňa 29.12.2010. [online]. [2011-01-01]. Available at: <https://www.zakonypreludi.sk/zz/2010-532>.
Trojka prinesie sfilmované diela povinnej literatúry. [online]. [2020-03-13]. Available at: <https://www.rtvs.
sk/televizia/clanky/219854/trojka-prinesie-sfilmovane-diela-povinnej-literatury>.
RTVS spúšťa reláciu Školský klub pre malých školákov. [online]. [2020-03-17]. Available at: <https://www.
rtvs.sk/televizia/clanky/219995/rtvs-spusta-relaciu-skolsky-klub-pre-malych-skolakov>.
RTVS rozšíri vysielanie školského klubu. [online]. [2020-03-25]. Available at: <https://www.rtvs.sk/televizia/
clanky/220761/rtvs-rozsiri-vysielanie-skolskeho-klubu>.
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The whole concept of the program was based on connecting subjects and grades, so
that siblings could also collaborate and discover the curriculum at home. In terms of content,
methodology and organization, Školský klub was supported by the educational non-profit
organization Indícia. The teachers were from several primary schools from different Slovak cities.
Apart from Slovak Radio and Television, other Slovak televisions did not prepare a program
aimed at children and young people whose full-time teaching in schools had been interrupted.
The background of the establishment of Czech Television (Česká televize or ČT) is closely
connected with the establishment of Slovak Television, as both could originate only after the
division of Czechoslovakia. Czech Television is established by Act no. 483/1991.12 Its main
tasks include, but are not limited to, the production and broadcasting of news, journalistic,
documentary, artistic, dramatic, sports, entertainment, educational and children’s and youth
programs. Czech Television reacted to the emergence of the extraordinary situation in the country
and from 16 March 2020 began broadcasting a unique program UčíTelka. It was broadcast every
day on the ČT2 program for primary school students. The entertainment and educational program
was created with a professional guarantee from the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports.13
The aim of the project was to help children, parents and, last but not least, teachers.
The selection of teachers for live broadcasting was directed by the Ministry of Education. It
aired from Monday to Friday, every day from 9:00 to 12:00. Half an hour was always set aside
for each stage, in between a short break filled by various forms of television programs. The
information was provided by the CEO of Czech Television Petr Dvořák before the start of the
broadcast. There was one subject every day. Twice a week there was Czech language, twice
a week mathematics and once a week the so-called social sciences.14
In April 2020, Czech Television announced that the program would be broadcast until June
19. According to the project leader Ľuboš Rosi, the project addressed almost 60 percent of
schoolchildren aged six to twelve.15
In October, the show returned to Czech Television in response to repeated distance learning.
Both freshmen and senior students could practice the material from the spring parts of the
show. Learning from home is supported and the help of parents and teachers is also offered
by the educational website of the Czech Television ČT edu.16 More than 75,000 educational
videos from more than thirty subjects are available on the web.
In addition to the examined programs, the children’s television Jojko adapted to the
emergency situation in the Slovak Republic by including several short videos in its program, in
which it explains to its youngest viewers what coronavirus is and what it brings. In the following
section, the authors of the study divide these videos into two categories and provide a brief
overview.
12
13
14
15
16
Zákon č. 483/1991 Sb. Zákon České národní rady o České televizi ze dne 29.11.1991. [online]. [2017-0702]. Available at: <https://www.zakonyprolidi.cz/cs/1991-483>.
UčíTelka. [online]. [2020-03-15]. Available at: <https://nadalku.msmt.cz/cs/vzdelavaci-zdroje/prurezove/
ucitelka>.
DVOŘÁK, P.: Učitelky zastoupí UčíTelka. [online]. [2020-03-15]. Available at: <https://ct24.ceskatelevize.
cz/domaci/3062918-ucitelky-zastoupi-ucitelka-opravdovou-skolu-nenahradi-ale-pomuze-rika-reditelct?_ga=2.68354962.206778854.1603964559-1987481581.1603964557>.
Česká televízia predĺži vysielanie relácie UčíTelka do 19. júna. [online]. [2020-27-04]. Available at: <https://
www.omediach.com/cesko/17939-ceska-televizia-predlzi-vysielanie-relacie-ucitelka-do-19-juna>.
Česká televízia vracia do vysielania špeciálne vysielanie pre žiakov UčíTelka. [online]. [2020-14-10]. Available
at: <https://www.omediach.com/cesko/19037-ceska-televizia-vracia-do-vysielania-specialne-vysielaniepre-ziakov-ucitelka>.
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2. Broadcasting of JOJKO children’s television
Jojko is a Slovak television station intended for children aged 4 to 12. It brings small, entertaining
and beautifully crafted series to young viewers, which are exclusively in the Slovak language.
When choosing the content, we made sure that the fairy tales did not contain violence,
inappropriate words and were, above all, educational and stimulate children’s imagination.
These are series whose creators take into account that today’s children like to learn, learn new
things and require new stimuli, but, at the same time, they need a good family background,
stability and a calming fantasy world.17
The children’s television includes in the program the broadcast of fairy tales and shows
songs for children created by Slovak artists. These include, for example, Miro Jaroš, a pair of
Paci Pac, Dúhalka, Sníček Hugo, Hanička and Murko, MalinyJAM. Their production, influenced
by the spread of coronavirus, was divided into two groups:
- coronavirus production,
- work aimed at spending time at home during quarantine.
2.1 Coronavirus production
As mentioned above, Jojko TV programs often include songs for children by Slovak composers.
In the current situation, it is very common that the song is replaced by a short video from
the same creators in an average length of 2-3 minutes, in which they deal with the topic of
coronavirus. Technically, some of them are easier to process and at first glance you can see
that the authors filmed them at home. Some are no different from others, because they are
either shot outdoors and their processing is at a higher level, or they were created in the past
by animations and puppets featured on a green background (for example, Hanička and Murko).
• Hanička and Murko – the characters who appear in the videos are puppets and the
environment around them is created by animation. In our analysis, we mentioned this
video first, because it deals in detail with the explanation of the emergency situation to
the youngest children. In addition to the children’s television broadcasting we can also
find the videos on youtube.com under the title Coronavirus – a video for children on how
to explain to children what Coronavirus is. The characters describe what the coronavirus
is, that it is dangerous to humans, and what the symptoms of an infected person are. In
the second part, they explain why we have to wear a mask and how to wash our hands
properly to keep them clean. This part also features a little girl Hanka, who is known to
children from several previous videos. The video is 6:25 long.
17
Jojko. [online]. [2019-10-10]. Available at: <https://jojko.joj.sk/o-nas>.
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PICTURE 1: Video Hanička and Murko - Coronavirus - video for children
Source: Hanička a Murko o koronavíruse. [online]. [2020-03-15]. Available at: <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QKKsXAW7pcI>.
• Dúhalka – the character of Princess Dúhalka is played by a young woman who, in this
extraordinary situation, prepared a video shot at home, in which she reads a fairy tale
from a book to children. The fairy tale is about the Rúškovo country, where everyone
wears a mask for their protection. In this way, she tries to explain to the youngest children
why it is important to wear a mask on their face if they have to go out of their homes.
• Miro Jaroš – this creator of children’s songs appears in a short video, which is shot at
home and in which the author introduces his little friend who knows how children can
make a mask at home. The little girl then makes a mask together with her smaller sister,
and the video ends with Miro again, who encourages the children and looks forward to
meeting them in person again.
• Paci Pac – the couple speaks to the children in a short video, where they state that in order
for the two of them to meet, they had to take certain measures so as not to endanger
each other. They remind you to wear masks and keep your distance from other people.
The duo was active on their YouTube channel at the time, playing three half-hour live
shows in March, the first of which has 13,747 views. During the concert, the singer wears
rubber gloves and, together with her guitarist, wear a masks on their faces.
• RaspberriesJAM – this group is not as active as the above mentioned artists. Their songs
are very funny and feature small children, other sceneries and characters, animals or
plants are hand-painted, so their work is original. They enter the performance during
quarantine with a short speech by two main members, who are wearing masks and
tell the children about the virus and the time spent at home. They mention all rescuers,
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firefighters, doctors who help us overcome this period. In the video, they stand side
by side and talk to the camera, the background created is similar to their video clips.18
The purpose of the mentioned videos was an explanation of the unknown situation, a
reminder of the importance of the use of protective equipment and increased hygiene.
2.2 Creation aimed at spending time at home during quarantine
Other authors have focused in their short videos on the ways of spending free time and activities
that can be done at home during quarantine. These include:
• Sníček Hugo (Dream Hugo) – in short videos, the children are introduced to the wellknown character of Jojko television, who, in addition to songs, also has his own show.
The videos are shot at home, they are very easy to process. In them, Hugo shows how
he spends his free time, for example dancing, cleaning, exercising and playing with a
dog. He encourages children to help at home, clean up after themselves, but also to be
able to have fun and dance.
• Knižky od stonožky (Books by the Centipede) – among the examined short videos we also
included a special part of the program Books by the Centipede. The presenter usually
focuses on children’s books which could be of interest to different age groups of children.
This particular episode states that if children have already read all the books and want to
have fun at home, they can download a board game, print it out and prepare it at home.
Jojko, the television’s icon, appears in the game.19
The videos in both examined categories disappeared from children’s television broadcasts
with the gradual release of the safety measures in the summer months. Some are still published
on youtube. These videos were intended primarily for younger children in preschool age, so
their processing was adapted to the target group.
3. Objective and methodology of research
The main topic of the study is television broadcasting for compulsory school children during
quarantine in Slovakia and the Czech Republic, which aims to partially replace the absence of
full-time teaching. The aim of the case study is to compare two programs broadcast on public
televisions in both countries. Another authors’ goal is to characterize the examined programs
and the background of their origin and in the first part to present an overview of the broadcast
intended for the smallest viewers of Jojko children’s television in Slovakia focused on the topic of
coronavirus. This television was chosen because several videos had appeared in its broadcast,
which introduced children to a hitherto unknown situation. The authors divided these videos
into two groups: coronavirus videos and home time videos. The presented case study mainly
uses the qualitative analysis with subsequent comparison of the results.
The object of the research are five episodes of the program Školský klub broadcast by
the public service Slovak Radio and Television of Slovakia and five episodes of the program
UčíTelka broadcast by the public Czech Television. The examined programs were broadcast
from April 20, 2020 to April 24, 2020.
18
19
GRACOVÁ, S.: Vysielanie pre deti a mládež počas mimoriadnej situácie. In HUDÍKOVÁ, Z., ŠKRIPCOVÁ, L.,
KAŇUKOVÁ, N. (eds.): Quo vadis masmedia. Trnava : FMK UCM v Trnave, 2020, p. 52-58.
Ibid., p. 52-58.
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Before starting the qualitative analysis of the selected programs, we determined the common
categories and evaluated attributes of the individual parts, while the attributes were the same
for both examined programs and all ten parts. We recorded the findings in a prepared template
with basic information and scaling questions. The basic information includes the name, date
and the length of broadcast of each particular part, the presence of a presenter, the presence
or absence of a teacher in the lecture, the presence or absence of other guests, the topic of the
examined part of the program. Subsequently, we observed the attributes divided into four parts:
- Visual design:
a. Is the equipment of the studio adapted to the target group?
b. Are children present in the studio during the broadcast?
c. Is the color of the studio adequate, doesn’t it interfere?
- Lecture preseter:
d. Is the presenter dominant?
e. Are they just an accompanying person, a program escort?
f. Does the presenter speak in an encouraging way to strengthen the viewer’s self
effectiveness?
g. Was the tone and tempo of the talk in the lecture appropriate for the target audience?
h. Does the narrator emphasize or repeat important points so as not to be missed?
- Tools in explaining the curriculum:
i. Blackboard,
j. TV,
k. Tablets,
l. Mobiles.
m. Other tools.
- Overall rating of a specific lesson:
n. Was the instruction explained when demonstrating the curriculum?
o. Was the information useful, stimulating and motivating learning?
p. Were complex concepts defined and explained to the student in a simplified way?
q. Was the viewer overwhelmed with too much content, did the show provide too much
information at once?
r. Was the content presented relevant to the achievement of the objectives and helped
to strengthen and support the overall objectives?
s. Did the lecture suggest to the student to apply their new knowledge and encourage
them to use it?
t. Did the presenter call for interaction?
u. Did the lecture refer to other materials that could be found and used for the topic
covered?
After marking the specific part of the lesson examined, we wrote down its broadcaster,
the date of the broadcast, whether it had a specific topic, a presenter, whether a teacher or
another guest was present. After this characteristic, we marked the individual attributes of the
program mentioned above.
In the first group Visual design of the studio, we focused on the appearance of the space
from which it was broadcast, the chosen color, props and especially the presence of children
and their involvement in the program and teaching.
Subsequently, we followed more closely the character of the Lecture presenter, and
their position in a particular program. We were mainly interested in whether they are only an
accompanying person, i.e. they only present individual parts and topics, or are involved in the
educational process. Whether their performance, tone of voice and overall rhetoric is adapted
to the target group of the show, whether it encourages the viewer to activity and can explain
and repeat important information for better memorization. The next part was focused on the
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occurrence of tools in explaining the topic, we focused mainly on technical tools such as tablets,
televisions, smartphones and whiteboards.
The main part of the observation was the fourth subgroup of questions, in which the
authors were interested in how the information was presented to children, whether complex
concepts were sufficiently explained, providing interesting information and stimulating learning.
Whether the whole procedure and instructions were clarified in explaining the curriculum,
whether the children were not overwhelmed with too much information. In the end, the authors
were interested in whether the program contained references to literature or other sources that
children could find, study or learn more about the topic in another interesting way. The findings
from the qualitative analysis are presented in the next part of the study.
4. Results
For the purposes of this analysis, we watched five consecutive parts of Školský klub and
UčíTelka broadcast in one week between April 20 and April 24, 2020. All monitored parts of
the Školský klub program had a time allowance of an hour and a half, with approximately half
devoted to first-grade students and the other half to second-grade students. All monitored parts
of the UčíTelka show had a time allowance of three hours. Those lectures have a more complex
structure. It is divided into five parts of about twenty minutes and each part is dedicated to the
1st – 5th year of primary schools. Among these are pauses for, for example, physical education,
music education, educational videos, etc.
Within the initial characteristics of both examined programs, the following information
came from the analysis:
- both shows have a presenter, one was always present in one part, but several took
turns during the week,
- guests were present in all ten selected programs, mostly teachers of given grades
and other guests representing some of the topics examined (e.g. a sign language
translator, an Olympic athlete),
- the topics of the lectures were:
o in Školský klub: Slovak Language, Mathematics, Informatics, Physics, one lecture was
dedicated to Earth Day.
o In UčíTelka, the schedule for the week was given in advance: twice Czech language,
twice Mathematics, one program was devoted to the topic of Earth Day, similarly to
Slovakia.
Subsequently, we monitored the selected attributes in the program in four parts. The first
was the visual design. Based on the analysis, the authors agreed that in both examined types
of programs the equipment of the study is adapted to the target group, i.e. primary school
students. The studio of the UčíTelka show was bigger. In both cases, part of the studio evoked
the school, it contained props from the school environment (benches, blackboards, globe,
gym equipment), part of the studio resembled a children’s room (toys, puzzles), or the two
parts intertwined.
In terms of color, the analysis showed differences. On a scale from 1 to 5, where 1 means
that the color of the studio was very disruptive, the number 2 was marked in all five programs
of Školský klub, i.e. the color, according to the evaluators, was rather disruptive. The scenery,
props, and studio equipment contained many colors, which attracted a lot of attention and
disturbed the curriculum. As for the UčíTelka show, we can state that the color of the studio
does not interfere. The colors in the studio, on the equipment and props are not so distinctive
and diverse. The studio looks more harmonious. The big difference between the two examined
programs is the fact that the Slovak program did not work with children present in the studio.
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The Czech program had children present in each part and these were directly involved in
explaining the topics covered.
The second part of the analysis was the role of the presenter of the program. The authors
focused on their way of acting, whether they were incorporated into the show and its course, or
served only to present topics and guests, and whether their speech was adapted to the target
group. The analyses show that in all five examined parts of Školský klub, the presenter acted
dominantly. Their presence was a benefit. We must add that during the week the presenters
changed, the authors of the study identified everyone as the dominant character of each show.
A different situation occurred during the analysis of selected five parts of the UčíTelka
show, where in three out of five cases the presenter did not act dominantly. In this show, the
presenters also changed during the week. Based on this fact, we cannot generalize about the
statement that the Slovak program has more dominant presenters than the Czech one, as it
could depend on specific persons presenting on individual days.
We can say with certainty that the presenters of the Slovak show were mainly the
accompanying persons in the show and did not explain the subject matter themselves. They
entered the course of the teaching and the program only marginally. In the selected Czech
programs, we met with both types of presenters, i.e. some of them directly participated in the
explanation (in two cases) and some only accompanied the viewer throughout the program.
We see equal results of the analysis in both examined programs in the focus on the
moderator’s performance in relation to the target group. In all ten parts of the programs, the
evaluators agreed that the presenters were acting in an encouraging way so as to strengthen
the audience’s self-efficacy. Their tone and tempo were adapted to the target audience. In
all cases, they tried to repeat the essential facts and information so that the viewers could
remember them better and more easi. The same applies to teachers and guests who were
largely devoted to explaining the topics covered.
In addition to one part of the show, Školský klub invited the presenter/teacher to interact
with the audience. The children were approached through the screens to solve tasks with them,
do experiments and send their results, for example via e-mail.
The third part was the use of tools in explaining the curriculum and the topics covered.
The authors focused on the use of whiteboards, televisions, tablets, mobile phones and other
tools. In all ten researched shows, the blackboard to which children are accustomed from the
normal school teaching process was actively used. The Czech show UčíTelka actively used a
television/monitor, the Slovak show did not have it in any of the examined parts of the show.
Tablets, mobile phones and other equipment were not used in any part. Various other props
were used, such as pictures, objects for experiments, stationery, etc., with which all teachers
in both programs worked to explain the individual topics to the children.
In the Czech program, short videos were presented as part of the „break“, which served as
divisions between individual years. The videos covered various topics processed in the form of
a series. The broadcast from the studio was not interrupted in the Slovak program.
In the last evaluated part focused on the overall evaluation of the program, it was possible
to choose from a scale from one to five for individual statements, depending on whether the
evaluators agreed with the statement or not. The value of one represented a complete agreement
with the statement and the value of 5 did not agree with it at all.
Based on the analysis, we can say that in the UčíTelka program, the instructions were
explained in all examined cases of demonstrating the curriculum. The viewer saw the exact
process of how the teachers came to a particular result. In Školský klub, the answers were
not so clear-cut. In two parts, the authors concluded that the explanation of the instructions
in a particular case was not sufficient. This has been the case in the last three parts. The
same situation occurred when claiming that the information in a particular section was useful,
stimulating and motivating enough to teach the viewer. We can therefore say that in two parts of
the Školský klub program, the subject matter was not explained and presented as interestingly
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and thoroughly as in the others. In the case of UčíTelka, the results of the analysis showed that
in each of the examined parts, the information was interesting and stimulating.
When evaluating whether both shows involved the viewer with too much content and a
lot of information, the evaluators determined that this was not the case in either of the shows.
The amount of information shared was appropriate to the subject matter and the target group.
The findings differed when considering the further claim. In the UčíTelka program, the authors
agreed with the statement that the presented content was relevant to the achievement of
goals and helped to strengthen and support the overall goals, in all five examined parts. In the
Školský klub show, this was again the case only in the three parts examined. In two parts the
authors concluded that the specific content of teaching had not been chosen appropriately
for the topic dealt with.
At the end of the analysis, the authors also monitored whether the presenters and teachers
called on viewers to apply the newly acquired knowledge and use it in their lives. In the case
of the Czech program, this was the case in all five studied works of the program, and in the
case of the Slovak program in four out of five.
A large difference between Školský klub UčíTelka was noted in the last step examined:
whether the programs contained links to other materials that viewers can search for, study,
and use to further exploit the topic. This was not the case in the Školský klub show, and the
only interaction with the audience was in the invitation to send the elaborated assignments
from a specific show to an e-mail address. On the contrary, in the UčíTelka program and on its
website, the viewers can find many links to materials related to the subject matter. A complete
comparison is given in the conclusions of this study.
5. Conclusions
Over the last two or three decades, we have experienced great cultural and social changes that
have significantly affected the field of education.20 A wide range of empirical research focuses
on the question of the extent to which and how media education contributes to increasing key
competences at the level of individuals as well as social groups.21 Online media play an important
role in this context, but a significant part of the responsibility also remains with television
broadcasters which can reduce the digital divide, especially in social groups with limited internet
access. Modern mass media are looking for effective strategies to help disseminate media
texts to promote sustainable cultural significance and effectively evoke a mass response from
the target group.22
Based on the analysiss of selected parts of Slovak and Czech public television programs
carried out within this research, large differences are visible in the way the programs were
processed, attempting to complete the task of partially replacing and supplementing full-time
teaching at primary schools in the pandemic period. In the conclusions of this study we present
the biggest differences found, as well as the positives and negatives of both examined programs.
The structure of the Slovak and Czech programs was not the same. Similar features of both
programs are noticeable. Both shows had a presenter and guests, most of them teachers who
explained specific topics, phenomena and objects to the audience. The studio was adapted
20
21
22
Compare to: GÁLIK, S.: Philosophical Reflection of the Influence of Digital Media on Current Education.
In: Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie), 2020, Vol. 60, No. 1, p.100-106. ISSN 1994-4160.
Compare to: AROLDI, P., MARIÑO, M. V., VRABEC, N.: Evaluation and funding of media and information
literacy. In FRAU-MEIGS, D., VELEZ, I., MICHEL, J. F. (eds.): Public policies in media and information literacy
in Europe: cross-country comparisons. Abingdon : Routledge, 2017, p.194-224. ISBN 978-1-138-64437-3.
Compare to: STASHKO, H. , PRYKHODCHENKO, O., ČÁBYOVÁ, Ľ., VRABEC, N.: Media images of Slovak and
Ukrainian presidents: ‚I/We‘ binary pronominal opposition in political speeches. In: Lege Artis : Language
yesterday, today, tomorrow, 2020, Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 352. ISSN 2453-8035.
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to the target audience, it contained props reminiscent of the school and the home environment
close to children. The teaching did not take place as a classic full-time teaching in schools,
but in both cases the creators and presenters tried to present the information in an interesting,
engaging way to involve the viewer in the problem-solving process.
Found differences of the examined programs:
1. Time allowance for one part:
a. Školský klub – 1,5 hour.
b. UčíTelka – 3 hours.
2. Division of the program according to the target audience:
a. Školský klub – approximately half of the broadcasting time was devoted to the first
stage of primary schools, the second half devoted to the second stage of primary
schools.
b. UčíTelka – exact schedule: 20 minutes for 1st-5th primary school level, between these
„lectures“ there were breaks filled with thematic videos to be continued (for example
Exercise with the Olympian part 1, exercise with the Olympian part 2, etc.).
3. Presence of children in the studio:
a. Školský klub – no.
b. UčíTelka – yes. Children were involved in teaching process.
4. Use of teaching tools:
a. Školský klub – The program mainly used whiteboards and other props related to the
discussed topic.
b. UčíTelka – TV/monitor is also used. Other things were similar to those in Školský klub.
5. Links to supplementary materials to the topics covered:
a. Školský klub – There were no additional materials.
b. UčíTelka – Materials for all years were available for each part of the program, and
links to them could be found on the television website and on social networks.
Based on the results of the analysis, the authors came to the conclusion that the Czech
program UčíTelka was processed qualitatively better and at a higher level. This is indicated in
particular by a more precise division of individual parts for several classes of primary schools,
each part had a predetermined „schedule“ with precise topics for each year, each of them had
assigned materials to study the topic and work after the broadcast. The schedule of individual
parts also contained the themes of the partitions, and each individual part of the work can be
viewed separately on the television page. As part of the supplementary materials, it was also
stated for each year what tools would be needed for a given lesson. Czech Television later
prepared a related program, UčíTelka kabinet, in which experts address the issues of parents
and teachers.
PICTURE 2: Example of the UčíTelka Facebook group
Source: Facebook UčíTelka. [online]. [2020-03-15]. Available at: <https://www.facebook.com/CTucitelka>.
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The Školský klub program has a separate website, where we can find a description of
individual topics for each program and a list of tools used in the broadcast. The page does
not link to additional materials. After the analysis, we must state that in both programs the
presenters, teachers and guests were selected appropriately, adapting their speech to the
target audience. They tried to involve the viewer in the story, the topics, called for interaction,
repeated important information as needed and explained it thoroughly. Teaching itself was
original, interesting and stimulating.
Acknowledgement: This study was elaborated within the research project supported by the
Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education of the Slovak Republic (KEGA) No. 010UCM-4/2018
titled „Material and didactic support of the teaching of media education through the media
training center at FMC UCM.“
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Trojka prinesie sfilmované diela povinnej literatúry. [online]. [2020-03-13]. Available at: <https://
www.rtvs.sk/televizia/clanky/219854/trojka-prinesie-sfilmovane-diela-povinnej-literatury>.
STASHKO, H. PRYKHODCHENKO, O. ČÁBYOVÁ, Ľ. VRABEC, N.: Media images of Slovak and
Ukrainian presidents: ‚I/We‘ binary pronominal opposition in political speeches. In: Lege Artis :
Language yesterday, today, tomorrow, 2020, Vol. 5, No. 1, p. 350-389. ISSN 2453-8035.
UčíTelka. [online]. [2020-03-15]. Available at: <https://nadalku.msmt.cz/cs/vzdelavaci-zdroje/
prurezove/ucitelka>.
Zákon č. 483/1991 Sb. Zákon České národní rady o České televizi ze dne 29.11.1991. [online].
[2017-07-02]. Available at: <https://www.zakonyprolidi.cz/cs/1991-483>.
Zákon č. 532/2010 Z. z. Zákon o Rozhlase a televízii Slovenska a o zmene a doplnení niektorých
zákonov zo dňa 29.12.2010. [online]. [2011-01-01]. Available at: <https://www.zakonypreludi.
sk/zz/2010-532>.
Authors
Mgr. Sláva Gracová, PhD.
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University od Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava
Nám. J. Herdu 2
91701 Trnava
SLOVAKIA
slava.gracova@ucm.sk
Sláva Gracová is a graduate of the Faculty of Mass Media Communication and has been working as an
assistant professor for several years. She mainly deals with the promotion and building of the image and
good name of the Faculty of Mass Media Communication. She is a member of a promotional group that
organizes Open Day, Welcome Day, FMK Day, FMK Roadtrip and others. Every year she participates in the
organization of the UCM Children's University. She heads the event organization cabinet and is a member
of the Department of Media Education.
Mgr. Ľubica Bôtošová
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University od Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava
Nám. J. Herdu 2
91701 Trnava
SLOVAKIA
lubica.botosova@fmk.sk
Ľubica Bôtošová is in her third year of doctoral studies in the field of mass media communication at Faculty
of Mass Media Communication UCM. In her scientific work she deals with the concept of learning-by-doing
and its application in the context of media education. She is interested in the creation of student media and
functioning of their editorial offices. She is also involved in radio production at radio Aetter and also works
for Slovak Radio as a reporter.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Mgr. Martin Graca, PhD.
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University od Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava
Nám. J. Herdu 2
91701 Trnava
SLOVAKIA
martin.graca@ucm.sk
Martin Graca has been working at the faculty as an assistant professor since 2017. He graduated from
the Department of Mass Media Studies at FMK UCM in Trnava. He deals with mobile applications and the
use of new technologies in education. He is involved in the promotion of the faculty, organizing Open Day,
Welcome Day, FMK Day, RoadTrip FMK event, graphic editing of the text and graphic design of the covers
of various publications. He collaborates on the scientific journals MLAR and Acta Ludologica as a Grafic
Production Coordinator.
Mgr. Andrej Brník, PhD.
Faculty of Mass Media Communication
University od Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava
Nám. J. Herdu 2
91701 Trnava
SLOVAKIA
andrej.brnik@ucm.sk
Andrej Brník has been working at the Faculty of Mass Media Communication for several years. From the
beginning, he has been scientifically focused on student radio broadcasting, the preparation of speakers
and the technical side of radio broadcasting. 9 years ago, he founded the student radio Aetter and since
then he has been involved in the training of speakers and its technical side.
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photo: Sabina Pechová
Petra Polievková
Family Socioeconomic Status
And Parents’ Education As Indicators
Of The Primary Use Of Digital Media
By Children
ABSTRACT
This paper is a response to studies conducted in other countries on how the socioeconomic
status of families affects the media use patterns and media education strategies imposed by
parents on their children. Admittedly, research on the subject in Slovakia is largely lacking. Our
study is based on an assumption of a close relation between the level of education, household
income and parents’ preference for the purpose to which children are allowed to use digital
media. Our research was conducted on a sample of 572 parents with children aged between
3 and 8 living in the Žilina self-governing region. Based on the analysis, a mild correlation was
observed between household income and the preference to allow children to use digital media
to avoid boredom and fill in the time without parental attention. The correlation between the
level of education and preference for digital content was not confirmed. The research has led
to a conclusion that most parents tend to prefer exploiting the entertainment potential of digital
technologies while minimizing screen time. The conclusions of this research are compatible
with similar studies pointing to the prevalence of restrictive (quantitative) mediation present in
Slovak families.
KEY WORDS
Digital media. Functionality of digital media. Level of education. Restrictive mediation.
Socioeconomic status.
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1. Introduction
The massive impact of media on family life augmented by a more recent emergence of digital
technologies has been of concern to both scholars and general public for a long time. Digital
media are regarded as one of the drivers of significant changes – or sometimes even crises –
affecting families today. One of the primary concerns is that the use of media leads to isolation
of family members, which in turn results in less time spent together as a family. Nevertheless,
paradoxical as it may seem, media are generally regarded as instruments of socialization.
The use of media by children and adolescents is a separate research topic. Undoubtedly,
media and latest technologies are not the only factor which affects families today. Scholarly
discourse cannot ignore other factors which have a significant impact on the daily lives of
families in addition to traditional media and digital technologies. The actual quality of the family
itself, along with the values of the family members as well as the economic background also
play a role and add up to the partial effect of media present in the lives of families. The aim of
this study is to examine the impact of household income and the level of education on parents’
decision to allow their children to use digital technologies.
2. Literature Review and Research
Undoubtedly, recent technological advances have led to an increase in the number of households
equipped with digital technologies. According to an Australian research carried out in 2012
on a large sample of children aged 5 – 14 years, children spend more time on media than on
any other leisure activity. The study also confirmed an increase in the number of children with
internet access.1 According to another study conducted in the USA, even children or adolescents
themselves acknowledge they spend unreasonable amount of time using technologies.2 The
trend of excessive use of media is also supported by another study conducted in 20193, which
suggests children aged 8 – 12 years spend 5 hours a day in front of the TV screen, and 2.5
hours more in older age groups. The EU Kids Online research conducted in Slovakia4 shows
that every fifth child or adolescent aged 9–17 years spends more than 4 hours on the internet
during schooldays and even more time during weekends. Restrictive (quantitative) mediation5
is often suggested as one way to address excessive media consumption by children. This
approach is the most frequently used strategy of media education within the context of Slovak
families: as many as 40% of parents impose a limit on the time their offspring spend in virtual
1
2
3
4
5
The author of this study has performed an extensive foreign literature research on the subject as part of
her previous publication activity (Compare to: POLIEVKOVÁ, P.: Dieťa cez prizmu digitálnej zábavy [A Child
Through the Lens of Digital Entertainment]. In Digitálne detstvo [Digital Childhood]. Catholic University in
Ružomberok : VERBUM – Catholic University Press, 2019, pp. 65-92.).
See: JIANG, J.: How Teens and Parents Navigate Screen Time and Device Distractions.[online]. [2020-0609]. Available at: <https://www.pewresearch.org/internet/2018/08/22/how-teens-and-parents-navigatescreen-time-and-device-distractions/>.
RIDEOUT, V., ROBB, M. B.: The common sense census: Media use by tweens and teens 2019. [online]. [202006-10]. Available at: <https://www.commonsensemedia.org/sites/default/files/uploads/research/2019census-8-to-18-full-report-updated.pdf>.
IZRAEL, P., HOLDOŠ, J., ĎURKA, R., HASÁK, M.: Slovenské deti a dospievajúci na internete: Záverečná
správa z výskumu EU Kids Online IV – Slovenská republika [Slovak Children and Adolescents on the Internet:
Final Report from the EU Kids Online IV Research – Slovak Republic]. Ružomberok : Catholic University in
Ružomberok, 2020, p. 18. [online]. [2020-06-02]. Available at: <http://www.ku.sk/images/dokumenty/ff/
Sprava_z_vyskumu__EU_Kids_Online_Slovensko_2018_-_2020.pdf>.
IZRAEL, P.: Rodičovská mediácia [Parental Mediation]. In PAVLÍČKOVÁ, H., ŠEBEŠ, M., ŠIMÚNEK, M. et al.
(eds.): Mediální pedagogika: Média a komunikace v teorii a učitelské praxi [Media Pedagogy: Media and
Communication for Teachers in Theory and Practice]. České Budejovice : University of South Bohemia in
České Budějovice, 2009, pp. 78-86.
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environment.6 Nevertheless, this strategy does not seem to be effective since children spend
a lot of time in virtual environment to perform a broad range of other activities.
Admittedly, focusing solely on the amount of time spent in virtual environment may not be
the right approach to assess the negative impact virtual environment may have on children.
Many authors point out that digital technologies help develop creative skills in children such as
through educational applications. „As for the use of appropriately targeted and well-designed
didactic strategies, digital platforms can be used in a broad range of areas – from individual
learning and practical skills development or application at all levels of education, to informal
educational projects and lifelong education institutions.“7 Another study conducted at the
Columbia University found that although 20% of children played video games for more than
5 hours per week, this should not cause any issue. On the contrary, having fun at playing
games which require teamwork may lead to better relationships with schoolmates. However,
the authors of the study also note that this does not suggest that an unlimited screen time is
desirable.8 Lewalter9 also highlights the added value of multimedia features offered by digital
media (especially for pre-school children), and suggests they may help the child follow and
understand the story and remember more information. Another team of authors10 suggest digital
applications may help develop creativity in pre-school children.
The above studies and other research projects on the subject support the notion that a
combination of reasonable time spent with digital technologies and an appropriate selection
of content (ideally supported by subsequent clarification with parents/caregivers) may be one
of many (but definitely not the only) stimuli for development of children and adolescents.
Parents/caregivers are in the best position to coordinate the activities of their children in virtual
environment. The extent to which parents or caregivers are successful in that respect depends
on a number of variables.
Earlier studies carried out in other countries suggest that the impact of parents’ income
and level of education on their decision to allow children to use digital technologies for either
educational or entertainment purposes is not insignificant. One of the studies suggests11 that
higher income families tend to prefer educational content to entertainment. Authors of that
study also conclude that internet and mobile devices are less accessible to children raised in
lower income families, and they are mostly used for entertainment. Mascheroni et al.12 concurs
with another study (Chaudron, 2015) in that low-income families including one-parent families
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
IZRAEL, P., HOLDOŠ, J., ĎURKA, R., HASÁK, M.: Slovenské deti a dospievajúci na internete: Záverečná správa
z výskumu EU Kids Online IV – Slovenská republika [Slovak Children and Adolescents on the Internet: Final
Report from the EU Kids Online IV Research – Slovak Republic], p. 35. [online]. [2020-06-02]. Available at:
<http://www.ku.sk/images/dokumenty/ff/Sprava_z_vyskumu__EU_Kids_Online_Slovensko_2018_-_2020.pdf>.
VRABEC, N.: Deti a učenie sa prostredníctvom digitálnych médií [Children and Learning Through Digital
Media]. In Digitálne detstvo [Digital Childhood]. Catholic University in Ružomberok : VERBUM – Catholic
University Press, 2019, p. 39.
See: KOVESS-MASFETY, V., KEYES, K., HAMILTON, A. et al.: Is time spent playing video games associated
with mental health, cognitive and social skills in young children? In Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric
Epidemiology, 2016, Vol. 51, No. 3, pp. 349-357.
See: LEWALTER, D.: Cognitive strategies for learning from static and dynamic visuals. [online]. [2020-06-11].
Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222299439_Cognitive_strategies_for_learning_
from_static_and_dynamic_visuals>.
See: MARSH, J., PLOWMAN, L., YAMADA-RICE, D., BISHOP, J. C., LAHMAR, J., SCOTT, F., WINTER, P.:
Exploring Play and Creativity in Pre-Schoolers’ Use of Apps: Final Project Report. [online]. [2020-06-10].
Available at: <www.techandplay.org>.
See: HOLLOWAY, D., GREEN, L., BRADY, D.: 0-8: Young children’s Internet use. [online]. [2020-06-10].
Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270583255_0-8_Young_children’s_Internet_use>.
See: MASCHERONI, G., LIVINGSTONE, S., CHAUDRON, S., DREIER, M.: Learning versus play or learning
through play? How parents’ imaginaries, discourses and practices around icts shape children’s (digital)
literacy practices. In Media education – Studi, ricerche, buone pratiche, 2016, Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 263. [online].
[2020-02-20]. Available at: <http://riviste.erickson.it/med/wp-content/uploads/6%20MED_Novembre.pdf>.
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tend to use media as babysitter, and these parents also spend less time with their children. It
was also observed that parents who are familiar with downloading educational applications
for their children represent a minority compared to parents who seek entertainment for their
children. The selection of downloaded applications based on their entertainment potential is
important to parents – a notion which is supported by another study, according to which their
primary concern is the entertainment value and playability of an application whereas educational
value is considered secondary. Apart from that, studies confirm that part of the downloaded
applications for the youngest children do have some potential to develop creativity.13 Another
foreign study supports the assumption of a large share of parents using digital technologies as
babysitter, i.e. to fill in the time when parents themselves require assistance of a third person,
or when they need to engage in other activities such as housework (70% of parents), or when
they are unable to discipline an anxious child (65% of parents).14 The risks of such an approach
have been discussed in several studies by Jenny Radesky. One of them15 suggests there is
a significant correlation between the increased social and emotional strain of infants and the
tendency of parents to sooth their children using mobile technologies; this approach is typical
of families with lower social and economic status.
3. Purpose Statement, Research Questions
and Hypotheses
The Slovak research environment dynamically responds to the penetration of digital technologies
into the lives of children and adolescents. The Faculty of Mass Media Communication of the
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava is one of the research centres which focus on
the impact of (digital) media on the activity of children and adolescents – as part of a research
project led by the Department of Media Education in cooperation with the Department of
Psychology and the Department of Journalism of the Philosophical Faculty of the Catholic
University in Ružomberok. The primary aim of these research projects is to map the time spent
by adolescents on media, identify the content they consume and assess their capacity to
understand it, as well as to examine their ability to apply critical thinking and comprehend the
risks of desocialization due to the excessive use of media including the potential for developing
an addiction. In addition, research on the parental mediation is also gaining momentum. On the
other hand, the research efforts on the economic indicators and the use of digital technologies
remain relatively subdued.
With respect to the above, the aim of this research is to examine the following questions:
RQ1 Is there a correlation between the economic status of households and the preferred
purpose of allowing children aged under 8 years to use digital media?
RQ2 Does parents’ education level correlate with the media content they make available
to their children?
13
14
15
See: MARSH, J., PLOWMAN, L., YAMADA-RICE, D., BISHOP, J.C., LAHMAR, J., SCOTT, F., WINTER, P.:
Exploring Play and Creativity in Pre-Schoolers’ Use of Apps: Final Project Report. [online]. [2020-02-20].
Available at: <http://www.techandplay.org/reports/TAP_Final_Report.pdf>.
KABALI, H. K., IRIGOYEN M, M., NUNEZ-DAVIS R., BUDACKI, J. G., MOHANTY, S. H., LEISTER, K. P.,
BONNER, R. L.: Exposure and Use of Mobile Media Devices by Young Children. In Pediatrics, 2015, Vol.
136, No. 6, pp. 1044-1050. [online]. [2020-06-02]. Available at: <https://pediatrics.aappublications.org/
content/136/6/1044>.
See: RADESKY, J. S., PEACOCK-CHAMBERS, E., ZUCKERMAN, B.: Use of Mobile Technology to Calm
Upset Children Associations With Social-Emotional Development. In JAMA Pediatrics, 2016, Vol. 170, No.
4, pp. 397-399. [online]. [2020-06-02]. Available at: <https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamapediatrics/
fullarticle/2498404>.
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Based on the findings from previous studies carried out in other countries, the following
assumption was articulated:
H1 There is a significant correlation between the household income and parents’ decisions
to allow their children to use digital media for entertainment and avoid boredom; as well
as between the same and parents using the media as babysitter to fill in children’s time
when parents need to engage in other activities.
Our research on the subject as described above was carried out in the geographical area
of the Žilina self-governing region.
4. Research Sample and Methodology
This research study is based on the data obtained as part of an earlier project Media habits
and competences in children from early childhood to early school-age16. The project focused
primarily on media habits and media literacy in children during their early childhood and early
school age (0 – 8) with a focus on potentially positive or negative aspects of the use of digital
media. Social and psychological determinants were also evaluated as part of the project by
addressing parents/caregivers as mediators of media content.
The data was gathered on a sample of 572 parents or caregivers of children aged up to
8 years in the Žilina self-governing region. Anonymous questionnaires were used as part of
data gathering.
The figures on household income and the use of digital media to avoid boredom were
based on 511 responses, which represents 89,30% of the entire sample of parents; figures
on household income and the use of digital media when parents need time to engage in other
activities were based on 510 responses, which represents 89,20% of the analyzed sample. The
difference in the percentage of responses between the above two items was only one tenth
of percentage point, which is regarded insignificant with respect to the articulated research
conclusions.
As for the second research question, the total number of responses related to parents’
education and their willingness to allow children to use digital technologies for entertainment,
has reached 550 (96,20%); 547 responses (95,60%) were obtained on the question to what
extent specific subgroups of parents with a certain level of education are inclined to prefer
educational digital content for their children.
The data obtained were analyzed using standard statistical procedures and methods.
Initially, the correlation analysis was applied followed by the descriptive analysis with the use
of contingency tables so as to identify differences between individual groups of respondents.
As part of the analysis, specific income and education level groups were identified and
their behaviour examined. The education categories were defined as follows: elementary
education, secondary education, university undergraduates, university graduates and university
postgraduates. Three income thresholds were defined to categorize parents based on household
income. The sum of income of the economically active household members was used for this
purpose. Initially, our research was based on the income thresholds derived from the Report
16
The research was carried out in the period 2017 – 2019. The target group for the research – children
aged up to 8 years – previously did not have a significant representation in Slovak research efforts. The
research was led by the Philosophical Faculty of the Catholic University in Ružomberok, in association
with the research centre of the Pedagogical Faculty of the Catholic University in Ružomberok and the
Faculty of Mass Media Communication of the University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava. The project
was subsidized by the Scientific Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, Science, Research and Sport
of the Slovak Republic.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
of the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic (ŠÚ SR). According to the available data from
a report covering 4785 households, the average household had 2.94 members, out of which
2.23 were not children dependent on their parents. This number represented the economically
active household members, pensioners or other members (social security or health insurance
beneficiaries). Hence, 0.71 members of an average household represent children economically
dependent on their parents.17 For the purpose of this research, income thresholds were defined
based on an assumption that two members of each household earn some income.
The smallest category of respondents (40) were in the under 700 euro income group (net
household income). The upper limit was based on an assumption that these are families, in
which one household member is on minimum wage; or families, in which one or both household
members receive social security benefits or other forms of social support, pension or health
insurance benefit.
The medium-income category of 701 – 1600 euros was based on the median of average
gross wage (according to the Statistical Office of the Slovak Republic, the average gross wage
currently represents 1092 euros). The statistics show that the median of the average gross wage
is by about 70 to 100 euros lower than the actual average gross wage. For the purpose of our
research, the second income range included households with at least two sources of income
in the amount of minimum gross wage, or at least one income in the amount of the median of
the average gross wage; or alternatively, the income in the amount of median average gross
wage and/or a concurrent source of income in the amount of the minimum wage/one source
of income in the amount of social security benefit or other form of social support, pension or
health insurance benefit.
The upper income range is represented by high-income households with the amount of
income of over 1601 euros, where at least one source of income is in the amount of the gross
minimum wage along with at least one concurrent source of income in the amount of the median
of the gross minimum wage.
The most populated income category was the medium category of 701 – 1600 euros,
which represented 60% of all respondents who responded to the question on the household
income. This reflects the fact that, statistically, in 58,00% of households there was at least
one person employed, and within additional 12,90% of households, at least one member was
self-employed.18 Our research also accounts for the fact that the average household has two
members with some monthly income, i.e. in addition to the main provider, there is one additional
economically active person or a person receiving pension, social security or health insurance
benefits. The highest income range was populated with 165 respondents, which represented
32,28% of the sample.
Respondents were asked to choose an answer from the following range – never/seldom–
sometimes – often/very often. The option ‘sometimes’ was evaluated as socially acceptable,
hence a higher percentage of these responses could be expected; this expectation has been
confirmed.
17
18
Compare to: STATISTICAL OFFICE OF THE SLOVAK REPUBLIC: Príjmy, výdavky súkromných domácností
za rok 2018 – simulované údaje [Income and Expenditure of Private Households in 2018 – Simulated Data].
[online]. [2020-04-15]. Available at: <https://slovak.statistics.sk/wps/portal/2b2d4f1a-8d66-4840-9c1086e5581e422b/!ut/p/z1/rVLLcoIwFP2WLlxibkKAsMQX4qMWKCLZdABRU-ShUq1_X-y4aBeKnWkWmTz
OOcm59yCOFojn4VGsw0oUebit9wFX32zNYp0ONgA0pQfWyOvZpqtjoID83wDWmROwtGcHj23bfHEI4re
vlRm-8rumMaTaBIBNTAUsY-g5ui3LYMiP8eHGMKCJP0cc8TivymqDgiI6hBvpkErlR9SCetqKNIxF0oLjIanS
888TEpElXeFQYktVlSijIOkxBompiaIwnFBCoot2GYslCh5C-03F5vet-pf3GrrxDRi4L8TQqdntObMBWK9dwt
yJSsBUGwCAr4B7DWv6ZlDb1G7aHBPkH0VyQl5e7LM6gu4fqzgENEJcRFn7FGdtaGPCNJUSTJlO5Hp9y
TTZT7vTdS0bVhtJ5KsCLR7SrqnifbfjRp2ZIq-Szwot_j00ZeZ5Xsbks5Q6_dW0L1MenU_G0xeRnlIc/dz/d5/
L2dBISEvZ0FBIS9nQSEh/>.
Compare to: ŠÚ SR: Príjmy, výdavky súkromných domácností za rok 2018 – simulované údaje [Income
and Expenditure of Private Households in 2018 – Simulated Data].
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5. Research Outcome and Interpretation
Correlation of Household Economic Status and Digital Content
A statistically significant correlation (r = 0.11; p < 0.5) was observed between household income
and the use of media when children are bored – these are primarily situations, in which the
activities of children are limited, such as waiting at the doctor’s office or during travel. Apart
from that, a statistically significant correlation (r = 0.14; p < 0.5) was also observed between
the total income of households and the use of digital media when parents need to engage in
other activities.
It is also clear that the relation between parents’ intentions behind their decisions to allow
children to use digital media is also very strong. The correlation (r = 0.59; p < 0.5) suggests it
is likely that if a child is allowed to be entertained through media in situations requiring certain
amount of patience, parents also tend to resort to digital media as a substitution activity for
that child when they are busy with other activities.
A more detailed analysis has revealed differences in behaviour within individual income
groups (Table 1). The question as to how often parents allow their children to use digital media
to entertain themselves and avoid boredom has brought the following responses: the response
‘never/seldom’ was obtained from 15,75% of respondents from the highest income group,
21,24% of respondents from the medium-income category, and 22,50% of respondents from
the low-income households. The response ‘often or very often’ was selected by 21,80% of
high-income respondents, 19,93% of medium-income respondents, and 15,00% of low-income
respondents. The high-income group is the only category with the prevalence of ‘often/very
often’ responses – this is the group which tends to regard digital media as a means to avoid
boredom in children, unlike those who do the same ‘seldom’ or ‘sometimes’. It should be noted
that the response ‘sometimes’ allowed respondents to avoid taking more extreme positions,
and it is therefore regarded as an option which enjoys the highest level of social acceptance.
The research outcome has confirmed that this option has a significant share in each of the
reviewed income groups.
How often do you allow your child to use digital media for entertainment, for example, when they
are bored (at home, at the doctor’s office, during travel)?
household income
never/seldom
sometimes
often/very often
total
0 – 700 euros
22,5%
62,5%
15%
40
100%
701 – 1600 euros
21,24%
59,15%
19,93%
306
100%
1601 or more
15,75%
62,42%
21,8%
165
199%
TABLE 1: I never/seldom/often/very often allow my children to use digital media when they are bored
Source: own processing, 2020
The second question addressed to what extent parents/caregivers were willing to use
digital media as babysitter, i.e. when they needed to engage in other activities (Table 2). Out
of the total of 510 respondents (regardless of income) 183, i.e. 35,88% of the respondents
opted for ‘never/seldom’ as opposed to just 60 respondents (11,76%), who often/very often
resort to digital media as babysitter. The so-called socially acceptable response ‘sometimes’
was selected by as many as 267 respondents (52,35%).
The structure of the responses for individual income groups shows that out of the
economically most vulnerable categories, 7.50% of the respondents ‘often/very often’ allow
their children to use digital media when parents are busy; 37,50% do the same ‘sometimes’,
and 55,00% ‘seldom/never’. Within the medium-income category, 10,80% are highly positive
about digital technologies, 54,09% opted for ‘sometimes’, and 35,08% of the respondents opted
for ‘never/seldom’. As for the high-income category, ‘never/seldom’ was selected by 32,72%
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of the respondents, 14,50% opted for ‘often/very often’ and as many as 52,72% responded
‘sometimes’. Based on the above, one can observe a pattern of the prevalence of respondents
who are generally less interested in allowing their children to use digital technologies when
parents are busy.
How often do you allow your child to use digital media so that you can engage in other activities?
household income
never/seldom
sometimes
often/very often
0 – 700 euro
55,00%
37,50%
7,5%
40
total
100%
701 – 1600 euro
35,08%
54,09%
10,80%
305
100%
1601 or more
32,72%
52,72%
14,50%
165
100%
TABLE 2: I never/seldom/often/very often allow my children to use digital media so that I can engage
in other activities
Source: own processing, 2020
Interestingly, the high-income category is the only group with the prevalence of parents
willing to use digital media as a source of entertainment when the child is bored. However, as
for the use of digital media as babysitter, the behaviour of this group follows the pattern of the
other two income groups.
Education as Indicator of Preferred Digital Content
According to studies from other countries, parents with higher education are less likely to prefer
the use of digital media to entertain their children. However, in our research, the relationship
between the education of parents and the preferred digital content has not been statistically
significant.
The data obtained (Table 3) show that the group of undergraduates is the only one with
the prevalence of parentswho are often or very often willing to offer digital technologies to
their children so they can obtain new knowledge (out of 100 respondents within this group,
it was 29,16%); compared to 20,83%, who have opted for the response ‘never/seldom’. The
response ‘never/seldom’ accounted for 33,33% of parents with completed elementary education,
29,37% of parents with secondary education, 26,87% of university graduates, and 29,41%
of respondents with completed postgraduate education. For the sake of comparison – in
respect of the motivation to give children access to digital media to obtain new knowledge –
the response ‘often/very often’ was selected by 16,67% of parents with elementary education,
18,22% of respondents with completed secondary education, 23,89% of university graduates
and 23,53% of respondents with completed higher degree of education. This means that the
response ‘never/seldom’ outweighs the responses ‘often/very often’ in all categories mentioned
above (except for undergraduates).
Further analysis of the data show that education has virtually no impact on the perception
of the purpose to which parents allow their children to use digital media. It is a paradox that in
the context of the first question of the questionnaire (on new knowledge obtained through digital
media) undergraduates stand out compared to other categories. Within this group there were
more respondents (28,57%) who ‘often/very often’ perceive digital media as an instrument for
entertainment, compared to 24,49% of parents within this group, who ‘never/seldom’ give their
children access to digital media to avoid boredom. At the same time, and as mentioned above,
this is the group with highest share of parents who give digital media to their children to obtain
new knowledge. The distribution of responses for postgraduates was leveled; their responses
‘never/seldom’ and ‘often/very often’ in terms of educational purposes were equal at 29,41%.
As for the question about the use of digital media to avoid boredom through entertainment,
the response ‘never/seldom’ was selected by 24,33% of parents with elementary education,
20,37% of parents with secondary education, 19,31% of university graduates. To the same
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
question, the response ‘often/very often’ was selected by 16,67% of those with elementary
education, 19,26% of parents with secondary education, and 15,85% of university graduates.
I allow my child to use digital media
to learn something new.
Highest level
of education
achieved
never/
sometimes
seldom
often/
very
often
Elementary
33,33%
50%
16,67%
Secondary
29,37%
52,42%
18,22%
Undergraduate
20,83%
24%
29,16%
Graduate
26,87%
49,25%
Postgraduate
29,41%
8%
I allow my child to use digital media for
entertainment to avoid boredom.
never/
sometimes
seldom
often/
very
often
12
24,33%
58,33%
16,67%
12
269
20,37%
60,37%
19,26%
270
48
24,49%
46,94%
28,57%
49
23,89%
201
19,31%
64,85%
15,85%
202
23,53%
17
29,41%
41,18%
29,41%
17
Total
(100%)
Total
(100%)
TABLE 3: I never/seldom/often/very often allow my children to use digital media to obtain new knowledge
and/or for the purpose of entertainment
Source: own processing, 2020
6. Discussion
In general, with the diminishing household income, the parents’ interest in using digital media
is also slightly lower, regardless of the purpose of use – when parents try to prevent boredom
of their children or when they want to fill in children’s time while engaging in other activities.
As for the latter, these may be specific situations where children have limited opportunities to
move around or interact with their peers, or engage in play (such as waiting at the doctor’s
office, during shopping, travel etc.). Our research suggests that higher-income households are
more likely to use digital media in those situations as a substitute activity for their children.
However, this finding does not accord with the outcomes of studies conducted abroad, which
tend to suggest a preference for the use of digital technologies as babysitter in socially and
economically more vulnerable category of families.
The reason for such behaviour of the low-income groups (specific to the Slovak environment)
is (likely) to be associated with more limited availability of digital technologies or limited mobile
data packages19. With respect to the preferences of the strongest economic category in terms
of allowing children to use digital media in specific situations (when bored), it should be noted
that information and communications technologies (ICT) sector offers one of the highest paid
jobs in Slovakia. The data obtained for this particular target group could reveal to what extent the
competence of parents in providing safe digital environment (the so-called technical mediation)
19
This assumption is supported by the analysis of the Education Policy Institute (IVP). The report inter alia
concludes: „From the perspective of social and economic background, the internet is significantly less
available to children from the Roma households as well as children from poor households of the ethnical
majority. Based on a representative survey conducted in April 2019, internet access is enjoyed only by
52% of children from poor households, and 40% of children from the Roma households – compared to
95% of common households connected to the internet. [....] The differences in terms of technological
equipment are significant among children from various social and economic environments. According to
the representative survey conducted in 2019, children from poor households or children from the Roma
households have significantly limited access to various types of technological equipment; only 21% of
children from the Roma families, and 28% of children from poor families have access to a notebook or laptop
compared to 86% of children from common households; only 17% of children from the Roma households
and 29% of children from poor households have a desktop PC compared to 51% of children from common
households.“ BEDNÁRIK, M., ČOKYNA, J., OSTERTÁGOVÁ, A., REHÚŠ, M.: Ako v čase krízy zabezpečiť
prístup k vzdelávaniu pre všetky deti [How to Provide for Access to Education for All during Crisis], 2020.
[online]. [2020-06-07]. Available at: <https://www.minedu.sk/data/att/16113.pdf>.
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affects parents’ decisions to allow their children to use digital technologies. The specific nature
of high-income group is reflected in the fact that it is the only group with different approach to
both situations. Whereas 21,8% of this group is ‘often/very often’ willing to accept digital media
as an instrument for entertainment to avoid boredom, this option is ‘never/seldom’ preferred by
15,75% of high-income parents/caregivers. When parents are busy, 14,40% of them ‘often/very
often’ resort to using digital media as a substitution for parental attention; however as many as
32,72% of high-income parents refuse or only rarely consider this an option. This finding may
point to a specifically organized schedule of high-income families with busy parents, and as
a result, they have less time to supervise the non-organized leisure activities of their children.
However, thanks to high income of their parents, these children are likely to enjoy more organized
leisure activities (such as leisure-time centres, clubs, etc.).
In both cases – i.e. when children are bored and when parents/caregivers need time for
their own activities – one can observe that parents within the 701–1600 euro income group
are less inclined to resolve those situations by giving children access to digital media; the
calculated discrepancies account for several percentage points (Table 1 and Table 2). The
composition of this income group in terms of education is also quite interesting. As many as
52,60% of medium-income households include one member (likely to be the person filling in the
questionnaire) with completed secondary education; 33,98% of them graduates and 10,45%
undergraduates (negligible number of households – 0,98% and 1,96% – account for elementary
and postgraduates, respectively)20. In this respect, one can only observe some signs of a pattern:
the income group has reasonable economic background, and both the education structure (of
at least one household member) and the total income suggest non-managerial roles. Based on
the above one can assume that this group is not likely to be exposed to subsistence pressures,
and at least one member of the household has an opportunity to maintain work-life balance,
and thus may find some time to identify and introduce reasonable stimuli for their children.
This also includes sufficient time of attention as well as a tendency to organize children’s time
spent with digital media. Based on the EU Kids Online IV Research carried out in Slovakia, the
most popular parental mediation strategy is restrictive mediation associated with significant
limitation of time spent in virtual environment without checking the content.21 The tendency to
impose time limits corresponds to the usual behavioural pattern of this income group.
Our research suggests that the pattern of preference for restrictive mediation is reflected
primarily in limiting the child’s time spent with digital media rather than excluding specific
content – a pattern, which can be also associated with the highest education level. Hence, a
correlation between parents’ education and the change in preference for digital content was
not observed. This means, parents tend to perceive higher risks in the excessive use of digital
media in terms of time rather than content.
7. Limitations of Research
The sample of parents having children aged up to 8 years was obtained in cooperation with
the elementary schools seated in the municipalities and towns of the Žilina self-governing
region. The related randomness resulted in different quantitative incidence of education-based
20
21
The data point on the relation between the household income and education is just a secondary indicator
to support the assumed composition of households for the purpose of subsequent research on the
subject; the questionnaire was used to obtain data on the total income of households, i.e. all members
of the household, however, the question on education was aimed only at the parent/caregiver who has
filled in the questionnaire.
Compare to: IZRAEL, P., HOLDOŠ, J., ĎURKA, R., HASÁK, M.: Slovenské deti a dospievajúci na internete:
Záverečná správa z výskumu EU Kids Online IV – Slovenská republika [Slovak Children and Adolescents
on the Internet: Final Report from the EU Kids Online IV Research – Slovak Republic], p. 78.
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and income-based groups. Moreover, not all respondents were willing to respond to each
question. The available data from such a selection of respondents is a limitation, but it allows
us to present the conclusions of the study as a certain assumption of the behaviour of individual
education-based and income-based groups within the Slovak context. Our research was based
on the conclusions of studies carried out in other countries; however, future research projects
focusing primarily on the relation of social and economic indicators and the use of digital media
as well as the preferred purpose of their use will be able to refer to the findings presented here
that are based on domestic data. Hence, the behavioural patterns of Slovak population can
be formulated based on this research.
The option ‘sometimes’ is deemed a limiting factor for the interpretation of research
conclusions. The prevalence of these responses raises questions about the intentions of
respondents who may have selected this choice just to conform to a socially acceptable
standard. Therefore, it is recommended that future questionnaires avoid this option completely
and provide a less neutral option instead.
Our research has relied on the available data on the income of the household as a whole,
and the highest education level achieved by one member of the household (most probably
the one filling in the questionnaire). It is suggested that future studies rely on a more rigorous
approach to measuring the impact of social and economic status of families on their preference
for digital content and the way in which children are allowed to use digital media; such an
approach will require targeted mapping of the total net income for each household as a whole,
and specific datapoints on the education level of all income providers.
8. Conclusion and Future Research
Despite the research limitations outlined above, the findings presented in this study are useful
as they support the assumption of a relationship between household income and children
being allowed to use digital media to avoid boredom and/or when parents need to engage
in other activities. However, a significant relationship between these indicators could not be
established; on the contrary, the results point to a rather weak correlation. The research also
shows that the education factor does not play a significant role in terms of parents’ preferences
for specific digital content.
The analysis of the data set into the context of the conclusions derived from other studies
suggests that the low-income groups are somewhat restricted in their parental media education
through limited availability of digital technologies mainly due to the limits of their mobile data
packages. A larger proportion of technical mediation can be anticipated for the high-income
group mainly due to the supposed prevalence of IT-related professional background of those
parents. The relationship between income and education seems strongest within the mediumincome category, and both factors have a potential to positively affect the selection of an
adequate strategy of parental mediation.
The limited impact of education and the economic status of families on the selection of digital
content as well as the purpose of digital media use observed as part of our research speaks in
favour of the restrictive quantitative mediation. The preference for non-specific restriction on the
use of digital media by children – rather than imposing limits on specific activity – is also supported
by the data from other research projects such as the one carried out by P. Izrael22. The observed
prevalence of parents (regardless of income and education) who prefer entertainment to educational
content correlates with the outcome of research projects carried out in other countries.
22
IZRAEL, P.: Mediálne návyky detí do osem rokov a rodičovská mediácia používania [Media Habits of
Children up to Eight Years Old and Parental Mediation of Use]. In Digitálne detstvo [Digital Childhood].
Catholic University in Ružomberok : VERBUM – Catholic University Press, 2019, pp. 28-29.
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Based on these conclusions, one could argue that parents seldom or never allow their
children to have access to digital technologies in various situations (such as when children
are bored or parents busy). However, the preference for such an approach does not seem to
be driven primarily by parents being aware of the risks of an excessive use of digital media,
but it can be explained more as a consequence of external influences and economic factors
in particular.
Based on the findings of this research, it is of concern that most parents – regardless of
education and income – do not seem to fully comprehend the educational potential of digital
technologies. One way to address this problem might be parental media education; in that
respect, an increased demand for the development of parental skills in this area can be expected.
In the recent period, many parents have experienced or come to recognize the benefits digital
media have to offer in terms of education and more effective communication. Due to the impact
of the COVID-19 pandemic, the period of March – June 2020 has become a period of distance
learning marked by extensive use of digital technologies. As the pandemic-driven preference for
distance learning gradually fades away, the current period can be regarded as an opportunity for
a profound re-evaluation of the competences and approaches to digital education of children.
All the factors outlined above also create an opportunity to conduct a new research to explore
changes in the mindset of parents and their attitudes toward digital media, as well as choices
they make in terms of content their children consume. At the same time, it would be quite
interesting to examine whether the time designated for digital education is already included in
children’s daily limit set by parents for the use of digital media. Clearly, there are a number of
variables that enter into the equation and eventually may lead to a change in the mindset, but
household income or education will definitely play a role in that respect.
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Author
Petra Polievková, PhD.
Department of Journalism
Faculty of Arts and Letters , Catholic University in Ružomberok
Hrabovská cesta 1
034 01 Ružomberok
SLOVAKIA
petra.polievkova@ku.sk
Lecturer at the Department of Journalism of the Philosophical Faculty of the Catholic University in Ružomberok
focusing on media language and media education within the context of formal and informal system of
education. Drawing on her extensive experience in media education on regional level, Petra is the co-author
of the textbook Media Education at Elementary Schools for Grades 5–9, and the author of several academic
papers on the subject.
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photo: Soňa Maléterová
William Mel C. Paglinawan
University Students Engagement
With And Disengagement
From Fake News
ABSTRACT
The immensity of the exposed news online has given everybody the chance to manipulate
information; and so, confusion and misinformation transpire, and the evaluation of credibility
and trustworthiness becomes intricate. In spite of the continuous efforts of various academic
institutions to provide a wide array of databases and resources among learners – still the
current phenomenon called fake news has become incessantly dispersing. This research has
explored university students’ dis/engagement from/to fake news. Using quantitative measures,
it was revealed that the students had used online platforms for communication processes and
for retrieving and allocating information. Moreover, upon text mining the student responses,
nearly all defined fake news as satirical with misleading and fabricated content which tends to
deceive and do harm to people. Students also have a moderate view in which they scarcely
believe that as they disengage from fake news, they will develop their communication skills
since they learn how to fact check information before sharing it. Lastly, the content analysis
has revealed various themes divulging students’ experiences of fake news and its implications
to the curriculum.
KEY WORDS
Fake news. Online media. Engagement and disengagement. Media studies.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
1. Introduction
People trust what they know – what is familiar to them. So, it only makes sense that as coverage
of their local communities has dwindled, so too has people’s trust in the media. For decades,
some pollsters have shown data on the deterioration in audience’s dependence and trust of
the online media in providing accurate and unbiased news – hence, fake news.1 The notion of
fake news is connected to the complex situation of a decline in public trust coupled with the
current state of journalism.2
The Google Trend of 2017, the term fake news experienced a dramatic surge in Google
searches.3 Jokes, rumours, lies, deceit, and propaganda had all earned a new name – fake
news, however, has proven to be an elusive term.4 Within the media itself, its definition includes
satire, hoaxes, poorly reported news that often gets retracted, a misuse of data, and imprecise
and sloppy journalism.5
In the United States of America (USA), the perplexity and wide definition of the term was
further convoluted when Donald Trump received the electorate majority necessary to become
the 45th president of the United States. Shortly after, only weeks into his presidency, the term
fake news received a massive overhaul. Lies, deceit, and deception are not new concepts in
relation to news media and politics. Since the beginning of news media, the spread of information
has caused worry over the possibility of said information to be misconstrued, incomplete, or
entirely fabricated.
In the Philippines, the National Union of Journalists (NUJ) and the Cebu Citizens-Press
Council (CCPC) in March 2017 released its definition of „fake news“ or „false news.“ The
definition states that fake news occurs when standards of journalism are violated, and scope
of content.6 According to Pachico A. Seares, CCPC executive director, who in an article in
SunStar Philippines said: „The definition sees „fake news“ from the viewpoint of media and the
public it serves. Hence, fake news is a fabricated content presented as factual information in
the guise of news. With this, the government (referring to two pending bills) in the Senate and
the House that seek to penalize fake news.“ 7
With this, while journalists and politicians have categorized and discussed what they think
fake news“ is and what implications they think it might have in the current news media context,
no one has ever asked audiences. To overlook the audiences who either engage or disengage
with fake news would be to ignore many key dimensions in the discussion of fake news and
how it fits into the current era of current affairs dissemination.
Locally, in an institution such as the Notre Dame of Dadiangas University (NDDU) in
the Philippines, college students have been exposed to different media both for leisure and
socialization. This exposure has led to various media activities such as blogging, reading
articles online, watching vlogs (video blogs), online streaming and virtual chatting.8 During the
rapid field assessment, it was found out that the student’s substantial screen time exposure
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
SWIFT, A.: Media Bias: How the Bias Affects Public Perception of the Media. Cambridge, Massachusetts:
MIT Press, 2018. [online]. [2018-10-12]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/yy74t2w5>.
ZARYAN, S.: How Audiences are making sense of Fake News. [Dissertation Thesis]. Sweden : Lund University
Press, 2017, p. 2. [online]. [2018-09-07]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/y5nh9h27>.
Google Trend. [online].[2018-10-08]. Available at: <https://trends.google.com/trends/>.
JOHNSON, H.: Journalistic Hoaxes in American Culture. Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT Press, 2018.
[online]. [2018-10-12]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/y64u36dt>.
SCHOW, A.: The Case against the Media. New York, USA: New York Media LLC, 2019. [online]. [2018-1211]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/zm2sn6g>.
National Union of Journalist (NUJ). [online]. [2019-09-07]. Available at: <https://www.nuj.org.uk/home/>.
SEARES, P.: CCPC Offers Definition of Fake News. Released on 06 March 2018. [online]. [2019-10-12].
Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/y36aen4k>.
DECENDARIO, A.: Health Implications on Technology Usage among College Students. [Thesis]. General Santos
City, Philippines : Notre Dame of Dadiangas University. Research and Publications Center, 2017, p. 3-5.
page 78
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
and engagement with online media (e.g. exposure to mostly all forms of media) has incrementally
led to various conflicts academically, socially and in terms of peer interaction.
With this, NDDU adhered towards providing students with authentic and reliable materials.
In fact, the institution’s library (for instance), has subscribed to diverse print and online resources
for the students. In the 1st semester of SY 2019-2020, there were a total of 15,076 student
library users who maximized various library print and online materials. This is an initiative of
the university to capitalize on the extent of resources by providing them with quality databases
and materials essential in their academic journey at the university.
However, as per interview, some university students tend to spread wrong information
during class participation. The information they have read online has been shared in their
classes which was later discovered to be a hoax. Moreover, with the students’ exposure to
online media, they tend to disseminate wrong news such as the presumptuous class-off and
holidays without official declaration. Added to that, social conflict has also occurred due to
giving wrong judgments and misinformation towards their peers. All these are dilemmas brought
by university students’ engagement with fake news. Experts say that overexposure and too
much engagement with social media may affect one’s life drastically.9
On the basis of the above-cited scenarios, the researcher became motivated to conduct
this study due to its topicality and sense of urgency. In the Philippines alone, there have been
comparatively fewer studies conducted focusing on fake news, such as on identifying political
fake news10; the effects of fake news in media and economy11; and, on fake news production
and social media „trolls.“12 There have been minimal studies related to the effects of fake news
among students and how academic institutions encourage students to become responsible in
retrieving and processing online information. Further, this research hopes to make a contribution
to knowledge by better understanding news audiences and how they engage with journalism
in the public sphere.
2. Statement of the Problem
The research has examined the students’ dis/engagement from/with fake news within the
context of online news media. Specifically, the following research questions were answered:
1. What are the online activities engaged in by the university students?
2. How do the university students define fake news in the context of online media?
3. How do the university students view the effects of their engagement with and disengagement
from fake news in their development in terms of:
3.1.1. Academe
3.1.2. Communication Skills; and,
3.1.3. Interpersonal Skills
4. What are the experiences of the university students to fake news in the context of online
media?
5. What are the implications of the students’ engagement with fake news to the curriculum?
6. Based on the findings, what media literacy program can be designed?
9
10
11
12
SCHUDSON, M.: The Power of News. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press, 1996,
p. 208.
BAUM, M.: Foundations of Fake News: What We Know. In BAUM, M., LAZER, D., MELE, N. (eds.): Combating
Fake News: An Agenda for Research and Action. Cambridge : Harvard University press, 2017, p. 6. [online].
[2018-10-15]. Available at <https://tinyurl.com/yy99ty4s>.
MANALO, S.: The Effects of fake news on the Philippine media and the economy. Released on 06 August
2018. [online]. [2018-10-15]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/yylg6hh2>.
CABANES, J.: Fake news and scandal. Released on 07 September 2017. [online]. [2018-10-15]. Available
at: <https://tinyurl.com/y6r9b4rs>.
Studies
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
3. Methodology
This study utilized the quantitative - qualitative method of research. Specifically, this involved
a conducted survey on students’ most frequent online activities and how they view the effects
of fake news as they dis/engage with such. Furthermore, with their online experiences and
exposures, this research also text mined the student’s definition of fake news and how their
experiences affect the institution’s program through examining its implications in the academe.
For the purpose of this study, the researcher will employ Moustakas’ Phenomenological Thematic
Analysis procedure. This described the procedure of preparing and analyzing the data. The
general procedures include preparing data for the analyses, reducing the phenomenological
data, engaging in imaginative variation, and uncovering the essence of the experience.
Moustakas Thematic Analysis in 1994 includes identifying, analyzing and reporting patterns
of relevant statements and revealing the core themes within the data. Hence, the Thematic
Content Analysis as paraphrased by Moustakas, includes the following procedures:13
Horizontalizing or listing all relevant expressions. In this part of the data analysis, the
researchers should look at all data as every statement has equal value. If some statements
are irrelevant to the investigating phenomena and are repetitive or overlapping, researcher
should ignore these statements. In other words, researchers can create a list from the verbatim
transcripts of and delete all irrelevant expressions. After cleaning the data, the remaining parts
of the data are called horizons. Horizons are the textural meanings or constituent parts of the
phenomenon. The horizons are unlimited and horizonalization is a neverending process.14
Reduction of horizons into relevant statements. In this step, researcher should cluster
horizons into relevant statements. The translated data should be split into meaning of units so
that each of the horizons has only one meaning. This step of the phenomenological reduction
describes the phenomena in „textural language.“
Creating clustered core themes. In this step, the researchers should cluster and thematize
the relevant statements which became the „core themes of the experience“ of the phenomenon.
Construction of individual textural descriptions. The textural description is a narrative that
explains participants’ perceptions of a phenomenon. Moreover, the researcher explains the
meaning of units in a narrative format to facilitate the understanding of participants’ experiences.
Developing a composite structural description. After researcher writes the textural
description, researcher should incorporate the textural description into a structure explaining
how the experience occurred. Researcher adds the structures at the end of each paragraph in
order to create structural description. This process helps researchers to understand experiences
with the phenomena under investigation.
4. Sampling Method
The research participants of this study were randomly selected students of Notre Dame of
Dadiangas University (NDDU) in the 2nd semester of school year 2018-2019. There were 2,099
students enrolled in the university by means of the Slovin’s Formula. As per computation, using
5% margin of error, the researcher has chosen 16% of each population in every department.
Box 1 shows the distribution of the respondents:
13
14
SALINAS, E.: Academic Journey of the Blaan Tertiary Learners. [Dissertation Thesis]. Davao City, Philippines :
University of Immaculate Conception Graduate School, 2016, p 198-200.
MOUSTAKAS, C.: Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE Publications, 1994,
p. 178-184.
page 80
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Department
Total Population
Percentage
Sampling Size
284
16%
45
College of Arts and Sciences
Business College
791
16%
126
College of Education
244
16%
39
College of Engineering, Architecture
and Technology
601
16%
96
College of Health Science
179
16%
28
Total
2099
16%
334
Table 1: Distribution of the respondents of the study
Source: own processing, 2020
5. Results and Discussion
FIGURE 1: Online activities engaged in by the university students
Source: own processing, 2020
The data implies that in terms of online activities, students utilized online platforms primarily
for communication purposes. Sending instant messages online or through electronic mails or
any other social messaging sites was the most convenient way of sharing information.15
An email, for example, is a digital message sent electronically from one computer to
one or more other through the internet. Emails are flexible and can be used in schools in
giving instructions, serving as documentation, providing confirmation, for communication,
making recommendations, providing a status update and making an inquiry.16 Moreover, with
its increasing availability, dynamic nature and easy use, the Internet has become a popular
source of information that has inevitably changed citizens’ media repertoires.17 The data also
revealed that students have used internet and social media as a source for current events. This
means that many students have instead turned to social network sites such as Facebook and
Twitter rather than to television, radio or newspapers to read and acquire their news.
15
16
17
SALUDO, R.: Fake News in PH: Here’s the real story. Released on 15 February 2018. [online].[2018-02-15].
Available at: <https://www.manilatimes.net/2018/02/15/opinion/columnists/topanalysis/fake-news-phheres-real-story/380295/>.
SYJUCO, M.: Behind the fakes in the country. Released on 24 October 2017. [online]. [2018-08-18]. Available
at: <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/24/opinion/fake-news-philippines.html>.
MARCHI, R.: With Facebook, Blogs, and Fake News, Teens Reject Journalistic Objectivity. In Journal of
Communication Inquiry, 2012, Vol. 36, No. 3, p. 246-262. [online]. [2012-10-03]. Available at: <https://
journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0196859912458700>.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
On the other hand, upon text mining18 students’ definitions of fake news, it was revealed
that the student respondents define fake news as information that can deceive and harm
people. In terms of its content, students define fake news as a satire or parody, or information
with misleading and false content19. This means, fake news are news information that has no
intention to cause harm but has the potential to fool and the information are used to frame an
issue in which the new content is 100 % false, invalidated, unverified and designed to deceive
and do harm. The following are excerpts from students’ definitions.
A report or an information broadcasted live, personal and online which are not yet proven true
or factual. Today, fake news circulates around the world today in different forms from different
platforms - mainly to divert people from the authentic truth, to sway someone in the wrong info, to
spread wrong type of awareness or to fight a government. By spreading wrong info, it illuminates
a macroeffect that threatens people, their identity and their existence. (Student B)
Fake news is basically, false information being put out to the public, mostly by reporters and
journalists. It is mainly used in order to mislead and damage an identity, a company etc. This type
of news can happen within the news media or social media platforms. (Student E)
The table shows the overall view of the students on the effects of their engagement with
and disengagement from fake news. As revealed, the student’s engagement with fake news
is 3,35 which is interpreted as moderate. This means that as students engage with fake news,
they believe that it has a moderate effect in the academe, their communicative competence
and interpersonal skills.20
Moreover, the data also presented the overall result of the students’ disengagement from
fake news. The table shows an overall mean of 3,49 or interpreted as high. This means that as
students disengage from fake news, they feel that it has a high effect on their academe, their
communicative competence and interpersonal skills
Overall Mean
Engagement with Fake News
3,35
Interpretation
Moderate
Academic
3,31
Moderate
Communication Competence
3,37
Moderate
Interpersonal Skills
3,38
Moderate
Disengagement from Fake News
3,49
High
Academic
3,32
Moderate
Communication Competence
3,55
High
Interpersonal Skills
3,60
High
TABLE 2: Overall view on student's engagement and disengagement to fake news
Source: own processing, 2020
18
19
20
DASRI, Y.: Text mining framework, methods and techniques. In IOSR Journal of Computer Engineering
(IOSR-JCE, 2017, Vol. 19, No. 4, p. 19-22. [online]. [2017-07-15]. Available at: <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.
org/2249/6c8251735204fcf66cceb0feedb946a68e25.pdf>.
WARDLE, C.: Six types of misinformation circulated this election season. [online]. [2018-08-05]. Available
at: <https://www.cjr. org/tow_center/6_types_election_fake_news.php (2017-05-05)>.
KIERMAN, S.: With The Rise of Fake News on Social Media, Can Information Literacy Impact how Students
Evaluate Information on their Social Media Channels. [Dissertation Thesis]. Sydney, Australia : Anglicare,
2017, p. 29. [online]. [2017-08-19]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/yyow3xeu>.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
This implies that, in terms of how students view the effects of their engagement with
fake news, they believe that it has a moderate effect in the academe, their communicative
competence and interpersonal skills.21 Moreover, in terms of their views on their disengagement,
results revealed that it has a high effect on their academe, their communicative competence
and interpersonal skills.
Student Experiences on Fake News
In addition, the researcher has analyzed and extracted relevant themes from the clustered
statements using the lens of Moustakas22, the following were the themes:
Clustered Core Themes
Relevant Statements
Deception in Fake News
• Thought it was an interesting advertisement but it was
a software virus
• My computer has been damaged so badly
• Fake news scammed me.
• It was not a job opportunity at all.
• It’s all a scam
Fake News Caused
Disappointment and
Inconvenience
•
•
•
•
•
Harmful Effects of Fake
News on Students’
Academics and
Relationships
• I copied some reviews but it turned out the source gives
wrong information
• Reviews were made by netizen and was not professionally
made
• Mali ang nabasa ko (I read wrong information)
• I don’t know which sites are fake and which are not.
• My assignment was not accepted.
• I got no grade on that activity.
• Parang contradicting yung information na naresearch namin
(It was as if that our researches were contradicting)
• I think she (classmate) built this hard feeling towards me.
• So di nya ako pinapansin. (My classmate starts ignoring me)
• Parang nagka conflict kami a little bit. (It seems we had
a little conflict)
Conventional Responses
to Fake News
• Where did I go wrong?
• Maybe I don’t know which sites are fake and which are not
fake
• (Fake news) It’s a scam!
• maybe mali lang talaga nabasa ko (Maybe I read the wrong
ones)
• Professor reacted and sort of got angry upon hearing it.
• That post was not reliable at all.
• Everybody in class laughed
It really caused disappointment to us fans.
We found out that the job source was just a hoax.
It’s a simple fake news but it affects a lot of people.
A trending news says „no class“ but stated otherwise.
The person tweeted that holiday post was not reliable.
TABLE 3: Experiences of the university students on their engagement with fake news
Source: own processing, 2020
21
22
KEARSLEY, M., SCHNEIDERMAN, J.: Engagement theory. Columbia, USA : Journalism Review, 1999, p. 15.
YUKSEL-ARSLAN, R., YILDIRIM, S.: Theoretical Frameworks, Methods, and Procedures for Conducting
Phenomenological Studies in Educational Settings. In Turkish Online Journal of Qualitative Inquiry, 2015, Vol.
6, No. 1, p. 9-15. [online]. [2015-07-01]. Available at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271833455_
Theoretical_Frameworks_Methods_and_Procedures_for_Conducting_Phenomenological_Studies_in_
Educational_Settings on September 2019>.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Implications of Fake News on the Curriculum
This research also examined the implications of student engagement with fake news as viewed
by various subject matter experts (SME) and university administrators. After examining the
responses of the SME or faculty informants, when asked about the implications of fake news,
the following were the themes extracted:
Clustered Core Themes
Relevant Statements
Fake News Radically
Alters and Manipulate
Truth
• Spread of information to misinform and alter public opinion
• Satire or mock a subject or position with all its metaphors and
overstatements
• Manipulate public stance and opinion
Fake News Misleads
Students
• Students possibly use wrong concepts in their future
academic tasks
• It is difficult to correct or change students’ perspective
especially if they strongly believe the misinformation shared in
social media despite the evidence proving otherwise.
Fake News Compromised
Critical Thinking and
Research Skills
Too Much Exposure
to Fake News Affects
Students’ Psychological
Well-Being
•
•
•
•
Skeptical in identifying sources to support claims
Students should be critical of them not to be easily deceived.
Students should know how to differentiate facts from opinion
Fake news would be a hurdle in training students’ critical
thinking.
• Critical thinking is greatly affected.
• The more students have increased access to media; so too
they have more exposure to fake news
• Fake news affects their confidence and well-being.
• Teach students to navigate the challenges of the digital age
• It is difficult to correct or change students’ perspective
especially if they strongly believe the misinformation
• Integrate Digital Literacy in our respective classes.
• Substantial training for students on how to contextually
analyze sources
• Integrate authentic materials such as using real news and
compare it with fake news.
Proposition to Combat the • Integrate media literacy
Spread of Fake News
• Situate symposiums about topics concerning the issue
• Integrate awareness in various disciplines especially among
General Education (GE) courses.
• Students must be taught with skills on identifying the
demarcation between real and fake news.
TABLE 4: Implication of fake news to the curriculum
Source: own processing, 2020
With the abovementioned results, an intervention program has been proposed to strengthen
the current stance of the students on the subject matter. Even though, the students are aware
of fake news, it is still necessary for the institution to build a program to intensify the values
of trust and truth.23
Looking at the last thematic statements, it can be implied that the faculty informants hope to
discourse this issue with a collective and collaborative effort in the academe through formulating
a concrete mechanism to mitigate the continuous spread of fake news.24
23
24
SHERMER, M.: Reasons why people ignore facts and believe fake news. Released on 19 March 2017. [online].
[2017-03-19]. Available at: <https://www.businessinsider.com/why-do-people-believe-fake-news-2017-3>.
BALMAS, M.: When Fake news becomes real: Combined Exposure To Multiple News Sources And
Political Attitudes Of Inefficacy, Alienation, And Cynicism. In Communication Research, 2014, Vol.
41, No. 3, p. 430-454. [online]. [2014-04-01]. Available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/
abs/10.1177/0093650212453600?journalCode=crxa>.
page 84
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
FIGURE 2: Media literacy program
Source: own processing, 2020
It is imperative to convey the importance of teaching and embedding media and information
literacy into the curriculum.25 This could have been an initial step towards addressing the issue
of fake news and its further implications.
Through the lens of the aforementioned results, this study also aims to build a program
which primarily aims to address the issues under study. Hence, the researcher proposed a
media literacy program named „Trust and Truth: A Media Literacy Program.“ This Media literacy
program primarily encompasses the practices that allow students to access, use and critically
evaluate media contents available.
6. Conclusion
Based on the findings, it was concluded that students utilized online platforms primarily for
communication purposes. Sending instant messages online or through electronic mails or any
other social messaging sites was the most convenient way of sharing information.
Moreover, fake news, as defined by the students, are news information that has no intention
to cause harm but has potential to fool. The information is used to frame an issue in which
the new content is 100 % false, invalidated, unverified and designed to deceive and do harm.
In terms of how students view the effects of their engagement with fake news, they believe
that it has a moderate effect in the academe, their communicative competence and interpersonal
skills. Moreover, in terms of their views on their disengagement, results revealed that it has a
high effect on their academe, their communicative competence and interpersonal skills.
Lastly, various themes were extracted which helps the researcher analyzing the students’
experiences on their engagement with and disengagement from fake news; as well as the
implications fake news might have brought to the pedagogical curriculum of the institution.
With this, this study had probed on the university student’s engagement with and disengagement
from fake news. From the start of this research, there is still more to be explored in this topic. Hence,
the following were recommended: Future research in this field may also discover other salient issues
that the informants may experience in relation to the subject. Aside from this, other researchers
may also include different participants coming from other ethnic backgrounds.
25
RAYESS, E.: Fake News Judgment: The Case of Undergraduate Students of Notre Dame University-Louaize,
Lebanon. [Dissertation Thesis]. Lebanon : Notre Dame University- Graduate School, 2018, p. 298.
Studies
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Moreover, it is also recommended that a study on the experiences of teachers in the
context of fake news will also be conducted. This will also determine if professionals also
have personal experiences of fake news and how they cope with the spread of misinformation.
Teachers may instil among their students the value of critical thinking and research skills. Aside
from this, teachers may also learn and update themselves with various information gathering
and searching tools to expand their versatility in teaching. The material output proposed in
this paper will be launched and implemented. This will serve as the institution’s initiative and
mechanism in order to address the issue of fake news.
Bibliography and sources
BALMAS, M.: When Fake news becomes real: Combined Exposure To Multiple News Sources
And Political Attitudes Of Inefficacy, Alienation, And Cynicism. In Communication Research,
2014, Vol. 41, No. 3, p. 430-454. ISSN 00936502. [online]. [2014-04-01]. Available at: <https://
journals.sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0093650212453600?journalCode=crxa>.
BAUM, M.: Foundations of Fake News: What We Know. In BAUM, M., LAZER, D., MELE, N.
(eds.): Combating Fake News: An Agenda for Research and Action. Cambridge : Harvard
University press, 2017. [online]. [2018-10-15]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/yy99ty4s>.
CABANES, J.: Fake news and scandal. Released on 07 September 2017. [online]. [2018-10-15].
Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/y6r9b4rs>.
DASRI, Y.: Text mining framework, methods and techniques. In IOSR Journal of Computer
Engineering (IOSR-JCE), 2017, Vol. 19, No. 4, p. 19-22. ISSN 2278-0661. [online]. [2017-07-15].
Available at: <https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2249/6c8251735204fcf66cceb0feedb946a68e25.pdf>.
DECENDARIO, A.: Health Implications on Technology Usage among College Students.
[Thesis]. General Santos City, Philippines : Notre Dame of Dadiangas University. Research
and Publications Center, 2017.
Google Trend. [online]. [2018-10-08]. Available at: <https://trends.google.com/trends/>.
JOHNSON, H.: Journalistic Hoaxes in American Culture. Cambridge, Massachusetts : MIT
Press, 2018. [online]. [2018-10-12]. Available at <https://tinyurl.com/y64u36dt>.
KEARSLEY, M., SCHNEIDERMAN, J.: Engagement theory. Columbia, USA : Journalism Review,
1999.
KIERMAN, S.: With The Rise of Fake News on Social Media, Can Information Literacy Impact
how Students Evaluate Information on their Social Media Channels. [Dissertation Thesis]. Sydney,
Australia : Anglicare, 2017. [online]. [2017-08-19]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/yyow3xeu>.
MANALO, S.: The Effects of fake news on the Philippine media and the economy. Released on
06 August 2018. [online]. [2018-10-15]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/yylg6hh2>.
MARCHI, R.: With Facebook, Blogs, and Fake News, Teens Reject Journalistic Objectivity. In
Journal of Communication Inquiry, 2012, Vol. 36, No. 3, p. 246-262. ISSN 01968599. [online].
[2012-10-03]. Available at: <https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0196859912458700>.
MOUSTAKAS, C.: Phenomenological research methods. Thousand Oaks, CA : SAGE Publications,
1994, p. 178-184.
National Union of Journalist (NUJ). [online]. [2019-09-07]. Available at: <https://www.nuj.org.
uk/home/>.
RAYESS, E.: Fake News Judgment: The Case of Undergraduate Students of Notre Dame
University-Louaize, Lebanon. [Dissertation Thesis]. Lebanon : Notre Dame University-Graduate
School, 2018, p. 298.
SALINAS, E.: Academic Journey of the Blaan Tertiary Learners. [Dissertation Thesis]. Davao
City, Philippines : University of Immaculate Conception Graduate School, 2016, p. 200.
page 86
Studies
Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
SALUDO, R.: Fake News in PH: Here’s the real story. Released on 15 February 2018. [online].
[2018-02-15]. Available at: <https://www.manilatimes.net/2018/02/15/opinion/columnists/
topanalysis/fake-news-ph-heres-real-story/380295/>.
SCHOW, A.: The Case against the Media. New York, USA : New York Media LLC, 2019. [online].
[2018-12-11]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/zm2sn6g>.
SCHUDSON, M.: The Power of News. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard University Press,
1996.
SEARES, P.: CCPC Offers Definition of Fake News. Released on 06 March 2018. [online]. [201910-12]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/y36aen4k>.
SHERMER, M.: Reasons why people ignore facts and believe fake news. Released on 19 March
2017. [online]. [2017-03-19]. Available at: <https://www.businessinsider.com/why-do-peoplebelieve-fake-news-2017-3>.
SWIFT, A.: Media Bias: How the Bias Affects Public Perception of the Media. Cambridge,
Massachusetts : MIT Press, 2018. [online]. [2018-10-12]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/
yy74t2w5>.
SYJUCO, M.: Behind the fakes in the country. Released on 24 October 2017. [online]. [2018-0818]. Available at: <https://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/24/opinion/fake-news-philippines.html>.
WARDLE, C.: Six types of misinformation circulated this election season. [online]. [2018-08-05].
Available at: <https://www.cjr. org/tow_center/6_types_election_fake_news.php (2017-05-05)>.
YUKSEL-ARSLAN, R., YILDIRIM, S.: Theoretical Frameworks, Methods, and Procedures for
Conducting Phenomenological Studies in Educational Settings. In Turkish Online Journal of
Qualitative Inquiry, 2015, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 9-15. ISSN 1309-6591. [online]. [2015-07-01]. Available
at: <https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271833455_Theoretical_Frameworks_Methods_
and_Procedures_for_Conducting_Phenomenological_Studies_in_Educational_Settings on
September 2019>.
ZARYAN, S.: How Audiences are making sense of Fake News. [Dissertation Thesis]. Sweden :
Lund University Press, 2017, p. 104. [online]. [2018-09-07]. Available at: <https://tinyurl.com/
y5nh9h27>.
Author
William Mel C. Paglinawan, MEAL
College of Arts and Sciences,
Notre Dame of Dadiangas University,
Marist Avenue,
General Santos City 9500,
PHILIPPINES
wpaglinawan@nddu.edu.ph
Mr William Mel C. Paglinawan is University Instructor at the Notre Dame of Dadiangas University (NDDU)
in General Santos City, Philippines. He earned a Bachelor’s Degree in Arts major in Mass Communication
and also a Masters Degree in English with specialization in Applied Linguistics. In 2017, he joined the
University of Michigan – Ann Arbor, USA as an exchange scholar and adjunct professor through the Fulbright
Scholarship Grant. In the university, he handled various classes including teaching languages, journalism,
methods of research and critical media and communication studies. Moreover, his research interest draws
on the theories and methods from applied linguistics, journalism, up to media and communication studies
mostly on how media topics are communicated in the society. He also works in areas of corpus linguistics,
particularly in relation to Discourse Analysis (DA), Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), or in recent diachronic
change. He also works on topics such as the representation of identity, especially gender and sexuality and
analysis of news or online corpora.
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photo: Soňa Maléterová
Vladimíra Hladíková
Mobbing And Cybermobbing: Risk Aspects
Of (Digital) Communication In The Workplace
And Possibilities Of Legislative And NonLegislative Protection Under The Conditions
Of The Slovak Republic
ABSTRACT
The paper deals with the issue of negative phenomena related to the field of communication
in the workplace and has the character of an interdisciplinary study using knowledge from the
theory of law, personnel management, psychology, theory of communication and media studies.
The main aim of the paper is to examine the issue of communication in the workplace with
a specific emphasis on mobbing and cybermobbing as negative aspects and consequences
of this communication, and the legislative and non-legislative options for protection against
them. In the paper, we present a reflection of the basic theoretical background and defining
frameworks from various author's perspectives. In this paper, we focus on the origin of mobbing,
its forms, and manifestations, as well as a brief description of cyberspace as a determinant for
the transformation of mobbing into the virtual environment. The dominant part is the second
section of the paper, where the current possibilities of legislative protection in the context of
victims of mobbing and cybermobbing are identified regarding various manifestations and
selected types of aggressive communication and behaviour.
KEY WORDS
Mobbing. Cybermobbing. Legislation. Protection. Prevention. Employee. Cyberspace.
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1. Introduction
A democratic society brings an open debate on the importance and acceptance of human
rights and the rule of law. In the context of complex interpersonal relationships in the private
and especially work areas, space has therefore been created for the emergence of a specific
form of aggression and bullying –so-called mobbing. This is one of the most serious problems
of the present, which can affect anyone, regardless of gender, education, occupation, or social
status. With the constant expansion of modern communication technologies and digital media,
aggression is also shifting to cyberspace, where the potential for defence is even more difficult.
It is obvious that the basic elements of a functioning corporate culture are correct
relationships in the workplace. It may also be the result of media content, but violence is
generally becoming a common part of our lives, becoming literally „anaesthetic“ to it – insensitive.
Therefore, even in the work environment, the negative phenomena presented in this paper are
occurring more and more often. According to statistics available from The European Foundation
for the Improvement of Living and Working Conditions in 2000, approximately four percent of
employees have been victims of physical violence in the workplace.1 Several recent researches
indicate that in Slovakia approximately a third of employees encounter mobbing or its forms2,
the results of Holubová’s research3 confirm that up to two thirds of employees have had such
experiences. Other data even show that up to 80% of employees witness such behaviour4,
in the Czech Republic more than 30% of employees are victims.5
Given the seriousness and topicality of the phenomenon of mobbing, we have subjected
this issue to a deeper analysis, and in the conclusion, we propose several preventive measures
to eliminate it.
2. Theoretical background
From the etymological point of view, the term mobbing has its origin from the English term „to
mob“, which means to oppress, humiliate, harass, attack.6 Kratz defines mobbing as „a series
of negative communicative acts committed by an individual or several people against a person
over a longer period of time.“7 Mobbing can also be defined as a form of hostile, spiteful and
unethical communication that is systematically controlled by an individual or a group of people,
especially against a particular individual.8 Çelíköz-Çelíköz add that this is most often an emotional
attack manifested by disrespectful and inappropriate behaviour, which includes discrediting
and ridicule.9 The definition by the Czech author Halík, who defines mobbing very expressively,
is also interesting, but this statement is very appropriate: „Mobbing is malicious manipulation,
systematic humiliation, psychological terror, manoeuvres aimed at inducing stress.“10 However,
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
STEFFGEN, G.: Physical violence at the workplace: Consequences on health and measures of prevention.
In Europen review of applied psychology – Revue européenne de psychologie appliquée, 2008, Vol. 58, No.
4, p. 287.
See e.g. ONDREJKOVIČ, P.: Násilie – spoločensky nežiaduci jav. In Sociológia, 2008, Vol. 40, No. 5, p.
401.; KONČEKOVÁ, Ľ.: Prieskum mobbingu u pracovníkov troch slovenských miest. In KUBÁNI, V. et al.:
Psychologická revue III. Prešov : Prešovská univerzita v Prešove, 2009, p. 127-131.
HOLUBOVÁ, B.: Šikanovanie? Zažili ho už dve tretiny ľudí. In Hospodárske noviny, 2007, Vol. 43, No. 22, p. 14.
OLŠOVSKÁ, A.: Mobbing a bossing na pracovisku. Bratislava : Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny, 2013, s. 8.
WAGNEROVÁ, I.: Psychologie práce a organizace: Nové poznatky. Praha : Grada, 2011, s. 131.
NOVÁK, T., CAPPONI, V.: Sám sobě psychologem. Praha : Grada, 2003, s. 73.
KRATZ, H. J.: Mobbing, jak ho rozpoznat a jak mu čelit. Praha : Management Press, 2005, s. 16.
DUFFY, M., SPERRY, L.: Mobbing. New York : Oxford University Press, 2012, s. 42.
ÇELİKÖZ, M., ÇELİKÖZ, N.: Exposure to Mobbing: Perceptions of Primary School Teachers. In Journal of
Education and Practise, 2017, Vol. 8, No. 3, p. 195.
HALÍK, J.: Vedení a řízení lidských zdrojů. Praha : Grada, 2008, s. 108.
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in the context of mobbing, it is often simply referred to as bullying and harassment in the
workplace. It can also be the case where a superior terrorizes a subordinate to cover up his own
shortcomings. Howard11 states that workplace violence can be spoken of when inappropriate
behaviour reduces the safety of employees, superiors, or the organization as a whole.
However, mobbing is not a modern phenomenon or behaviour; on the contrary, it has existed
as long as work itself. However, as an undesirable phenomenon, this process of behaviour
was described and further investigated in the 1980s. In this context, mention may be made
of the Swedish scientist and work sociologist H. Leymann, who introduced the concept of
mobbing in the field of social sciences and created a definition of mobbing on the basis of
intensive research (1984). Theoretical frameworks of the issue state that mobbing can be
spoken of if the victim is attacked at least once a week by one or more people for a period of
at least half a year. However, it is obvious that this phenomenon cannot be explicitly expressed
metrically, so it can therefore be, for example, a shorter but more intense period of attacks. It is
a deliberate humiliation of human dignity, damage to a specific employee by active permanent
psychological pressure. As early as 1999, Zapf12 stated in the context of workplace mobbing
that this is an extreme type of social stress at work. In Slovakia, the first research on bullying in
the workplace was carried out in the 1970s by psychologists Zelin and Palovkin. The essence
of these systematic attacks is the will to harm, humiliate, destroy or sabotage the victim’s work,
as well as make working conditions uncomfortable so that the victim is unable to do a good
job and perform quality work, most often through psychological terror. „It is a severe disorder
of communication or relationships in a team of co-workers, a form of unwanted aggression
in interpersonal relationships, the most serious distortions of social relationships, roles and
norms of life.“13 Kowal & Gwiazda-Sawicka consider mobbing to be the most dangerous and
destructive phenomenon in the workplace, the presence of which is drastically increasing.14
Despite the fact that the definition of the term mobbing and its complex definition varies from
author to author, it is always possible to see the consensus that it is a systematic violation of the
rights of another person in the workplace. Mobbing causes enormous psychological suffering to
victims, which can damage their mental health and often has lasting consequences. The main
aim is also the effort of victims to leave from given job. Several leading U.S. businesses and
companies have identified workplace violence as one of the most significant security threats
they face.15 In this context, one can also agree with Rasool et al.16, who cites a reduction in
work productivity and, in particular, a reduction in morale and unity amongst co-workers and
colleagues as risks of mobbing in the workplace.
Forms of mobbing can have different character, indications, and courses in practice.
According to Drgoňová17, these are the following:
1. Bossing – when a manager exerts pressure and attacks a subordinate to force their
adaptability or obedience, or to force them out of the job.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
HOWARD, J.L.: Workplace Violence in Organizations: An Exploratory Study of Organizational Prevention
Techniques. In Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2001, Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 59.
ZAPF, D.: Organisational, work group related and personal causes of mobbing/bullying at work. In
International Journal of Manpower, 1999, Vol. 20, No. 1-2, p. 70.
RITOMSKÁ, M.: Mobbing, história a príčiny vzniku. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://euractiv.
sk/section/podnikanie-a-praca/opinion/mobbing-historia-a-priciny-vzniku-017785/>.
KOWAL, J., GWIAZDA-SAWICA, G.: Mobbing as a problem in management ethics. In Annales. Ethics in
Economic Life, 2018, Vol. 21, No. 5, p. 132.
HUNT, M. L., HUGHEY, A. W.: Workplace Violence: Impact and Prevention. In KCA Journal of Business
Management, 2010, Vol. 29, No. 1, p. 40.
RASOOL, S. F., et al.: Sustainable Work Performance: The Roles of Workplace Violence and Occupational
Stress. In International Journal of Enviromental Research and Public Health, 2020, Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 912.
[online]. [2020-08-19]. Available at: <https://www.mdpi.com/1660-4601/17/3/912/htm>.
DRGOŇOVÁ, Z.: Mobbing a ďalšie nové formy násilia na pracovisku. In Zamestnanosť a sociálna politika,
2009, Vol. 11-12, p. 4.
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2. Staffing – these are attacks by employees on managers or management. The goal of
staffing (in English, staff means management) is to destroy the superior, management or
personnel or corporate policy.
3. Bullying – represents tyrannizing, intimidation, abuse. It is derived from the noun „bully“,
which means brutal „man“ or „tyrant, despot, grobian.“ It is an obvious and situationally
conditioned direct manifestation of the bully’s aggression. It takes place between two
people and is not as destructive as mobbing.18
4. Stalking – (in English, stalking means hunting, chasing, persecution) means harassment,
persecution by telephone terror, threats of violence and public scenes.
5. Chairing – (in English, it means chair, sofa) is a specific form of unfair attacks at the level of
top leaders, a kind of „fight for the chair“, while top management has a number of specific
tools and methods that it can use.
6. Defaming – similarly to shaming, it means ridicule, slander, defamation. It is an open and
unfair attack, especially on the reputation of an individual, group or organization in public.
7. Shaming is tied to a specific gossip; defaming can hit the worker unexpectedly. The
destructive roles are played mainly by the media.
8. Hightech-mobbing – is behaviour in which computer files are deleted and exchanged, or via
the sending of anonymous threat emails or viruses. Some authors use the terms mobbing
and bullying synonymously, others include both terms under the Slovak term bullying.
9. Bullying-mobbing – is generally not made public at all because it is not reported and made
public by victims who do not ask anyone for help. This creates an increased risk because
the aggressor is not afraid of punishment, does not worry about it at all, and similar acts
continue to be overlooked and tolerated in the future.
Mobbing is a long-term process that is characterized by immense dynamism. It consists
of several developmental stages that describe the origin, course, and end of this undesirable
behaviour. Leymann defined four basic phases of mobbing:
1. Mobbing mostly begins with an unresolved conflict on the part of the victim and the
aggressor.
2. There is a deepening and intensification of attacks, other people also join in, this is a phase
of systematic psychological terror.
3. The victim is exposed to almost unbearable stress. Under the influence of the escalation
of attacks, there is room for the occurrence and repetition of errors, to which personnel
management is already responding.
4. Resignation of the victim and their departure from the workplace.19
In addition to the above phases, it is important to note that situations and events outside
the premises and outside standard working hours, but with negative motives focused on the
work performance and abilities of the employee, may also be part of mobbing and violence
in the workplace.20
The consequences for victims of mobbing are very serious; in addition to socio-economic
interventions (e.g. dismissal at work), the result of psychological terror in the workplace are
also health problems (stomach problems, headaches, insomnia and others), as well as poor
mental health (anxiety, nervousness, stress, fear, depression, self-destruction, etc.). For victims,
18
19
20
Compare to: MAKAROVA, E. A. MAKAROVA, E. L. MAXIMETS, S. V.: Intentional Concepts of Verbal
Bullying and Hate Speech as a Means of Expressing Intolerant Attitude to the Speech Object. In Media
Education(Mediaobrazovanie), 2020, Vol. 60, No. 3, p. 445-446. ISSN 1994-4160.
KALLWASS, A.: Das Burnout-Syndrom. Stuttgart : Kreuz Verlag, 2007, p. 19.
HOWARD, J. L.: Workplace Violence in Organizations: An Exploratory Study of Organizational Prevention
Techniques. In Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 2001, Vol. 13, No. 2, p. 61.
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the end of working hours is often a time of redemption when the mobbing ends. However, there
are also cases where mobbing does not stop and limit itself to the workplace but continues
and blends into cyberspace and the virtual environment. In this case we are talking about
so-called cybermobbing. The 21st century has confirmed the massive increase in the influence
of the Internet on all areas of life – in cyberspace we communicate, work, have fun, and live
virtual lives. It is therefore possible to agree with Gálik, who in this context defines it as a new
existential dimension of man.21 Cybermobbing, as a negative phenomenon of cyberspace,
therefore represents a specific type of cyberbullying, which is connected to the work area. It
is therefore a modified form of mobbing implemented in cyberspace using information and
communication technologies, digital media, and the Internet. In this context, Kohut also offers
an interesting opinion: „Technologies provide treacherous weapons that have no limits, no
boundaries, no conscience. The Internet has changed the world of the information society and
made life in industrialized countries easier. However, it is a psychological weapon of unimaginable
power 22 In the context of cybermobbing as one of the forms of cyberbullying, the aggressor is
offered much more powerful and insidious weapons in the form of ICT resources.23 Positive and
optimistic approaches to the Internet are widespread, as it can be considered the most popular
medium that facilitates communication and provides various forms of entertainment.24 However,
it is also important to point out its negative aspects and risks, among which cybermobbing
can undoubtedly be included.
Cybermobbing therefore belongs to a group of different forms and manifestations of
cyberbullying with a specific link to work and employment, so we consider it important to state
Belsey’s classic definition that cyberbullying „involves the use of information and communication
technologies to encourage intentional, repetitive and hostile behaviour by an individual or group,
aimed at harming others.“ 25
Hollá26 defines cyberbullying, to which cybermobbing undoubtedly belongs, as behaviour
that involves the harassment, threat, humiliation, persecution, or other negative behaviour
of an individual or group using the Internet, interactive and digital technologies or mobile
phones. The purpose of this behaviour is to harm victims through the use of general insults,
homophobic, sexist, racist and other discriminatory prejudices, with a significant mismatch in
ICT skills between cybermobber and victim, and the victim has long been exposed to negative
online material and attacks. An interesting view is also provided by Smith et al.27, who consider
cyberbullying to be a type of aggressive and deliberate behaviour that is regularly repeated at a
given time through the individual or group use of electronic and digital devices against the victim
who cannot easily defend themself. Therefore, it can be stated that in both forms – mobbing
and cybermobbing, it is possible to indicate common characteristic attributes, which include
intention, repetition, disproportionate forces, and damage.
The nature and character of cybermobbing are determined by the very characteristics
of cyberspace. „How one behaves there depends on the interaction of these traits with the
personality characteristics of each individual.“28 Several experts (Vybíral 2002; Šmahaj 2003;
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
GÁLIK, S.: Influence of cyberspace on changes in contemporary education. In Communication Today,
2017, Vol. 8, No. 1, p. 31.
KOHUT, M.: The complete guide to understanding, controlling, and stopping bullies: a complete guide for
teachers&parents. US, Florida, Ocala : Atlantis Publissh Group, 2008, p. 26.
HLADÍKOVÁ, V., GÁLIKOVÁ-TOLNAIOVÁ, S.: Cyberagressors, their motives, emotions and behavioural
tendencies in the process of cyberbullying. In AD ALTA, Vol. 9, No. 2, p. 73.
GÁLIK, S., GÁLIKOVÁ-TOLNAIOVÁ, S.: Influence of the internet on the cognitive abilities of man.
Phenomenological and hermeneutical approach. In Communication Today, 2015, Vol. 6, No. 1, p. 6.
BELSEY, B.: Cyberbullying. [online]. [2020-04-15]. Available at: <http://www.cyberbullying.ca/>.
HOLLÁ, K.: Kyberšikana. Bratislava : Iris, 2013, p. 4.
SMITH, P. K. et al.: Cyberbullying: Its nature and impact in secondary school pupils. In Journal of Child
Psychology and Psychiatry, 2008, Vol. 49, No. 4, p. 368.
DIVÍNOVÁ, R.: Cybersex: forma internetové komunikace. Praha : Triton, 2005, p. 25.
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Hulanová 2012; Šmahel 2003) characterize cyberspace and with it the Internet as an environment
without barriers, which can have a negative effect. This is mainly related to the attribute of
anonymity, which further enhances the whole character of cyberspace and is incredibly attractive
for many participants in the virtual environment – especially aggressors. Although anonymity in
cyberspace plays an important role in selected situations and also has positive consequences,
it is often the factor that encourages immoral behaviour and supports the criminal activity of
users.29 As Šmahel says: „...if an Internet user has confidence in his anonymity, and therefore
in his security, he behaves differently than if he does not have that trust.“30 In correlation
with anonymity and the character of cyberspace as an environment without barriers, it is
undoubtedly possible to combine the disinhibitory effect, which is one important element of
online communication. The effect of disinhibited behaviour can be described as the loss of social
barriers. Psychology has been recording this concept since the 1960s – it is not a completely
new concept, which is put into context exclusively with the virtual environment.
Holdoš refers to Zimbard (1977), who characterizes this type of behaviour as „any behaviour
that is characterized by a reduction in fear of self-presentation and condemnation of others.“31
It can therefore be the opposite of social inhibition, which includes impulse control, nonexpression of emotions and overall social control. In general, according to Holdoš, we can
understand disinhibited behaviour on the Internet as behaviour that is less socially hampered than
comparable behaviour outside cyberspace. According to Horská et al. disinhibition in the virtual
environment means „greater relaxation and audacity of participants in electronic communication,
loss of inhibitions, embarrassment, doubts. It thus becomes a source of greater openness and
straightforwardness.“32 At the same time, language is changing and being released, as users
often present their personal experiences, feelings and moods through an anonymous virtual
environment and online communication.33
In the context of cybermobbing, it can also be stated that, according to Vybíral34, the
following can be considered as typical manifestations of disinhibition:
- loss or postponement of inhibitions, shame, shyness, feelings of embarrassment and
inadequacy;
- circumvention of censorship (nothing is forbidden, everything is allowed);
- turning off the conscience (turned off „call to responsibility“, I can give passage to
immorality);
- no restraint, impatience, speed (I don’t have to tame, control);
- interest in taboo topics (violence, extremism, paedophilia, etc.);
- increased curiosity;
- instinctive behaviour, impulsive decision-making;
- allowing the forces of „ID“ (unconsciousness): behaviour is driven by an urge to pleasure
or destructiveness (desire to enjoy, desire to harm);
- exhibitionism;
- departure from reality and escape to the world of fantasy.
The consequences of disinhibited behaviour can also include increased aggressiveness in
communication in cyberspace, manifested, for example, in discussions under articles, blogs
or videos on the web, partly also the boom of pornography on the Internet, superficiality, lack
29
30
31
32
33
34
SARDÁ, T. et al.: Understanding online anonymity. In Media Culture & Society, 2019, Vol. 41, No. 4, p. 560.
ŠMAHEL, D.: Psychologie a internet. Děti dospělými, dospělí dětmi. Praha : Triton, 2003, p. 14.
HOLDOŠ, J.: Disinhibičný efekt používateľov internetu v čase sociálnych sietí. In ALUMNI Conference of
Graduates, Ružomberok : Verbum, 2016, p. 64.
HORSKÁ, B. et. al.: Internet jako cesta pomoci. Praha : Sociologické nakladatelství, 2010, p. 18.
SÁMELOVÁ, A., STANKOVÁ, M.: Some Ideas On Facts and No Facts Within Media Language. In European
Journal of Media, Art & Photography, 2018, Vol. 6, No. 2, p. 121.
VYBÍRAL, Z.: Výzkum disinhibice u mladých uživatelů chatu. In PLAŇAVA, I., PILÁT, M. (eds.): Deti, mládež
a rodiny v období transformace. Brno : Barrister&Principal-studio, 2002, p. 27.
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of interest in others, selfishness or lies. There is also an increased willingness to accept risky
behaviour, either with oneself or with others (e.g. flirting with strangers, illegal downloading,
spreading spam and hoaxes, intolerable content, etc.).
Disinhibitory behaviour can be both positive and negative. Suler35 gives a basic division into
the benign and the harmful, and toxic disinhibition. The first type allows us to better understand
ourselves by losing barriers, because it allows us to express ourselves as we would like, but in
the offline world, for example, we would not dare to behave in this way. Thanks to this, users in
cyberspace sometimes behave more positively than the live world – they are more supportive
and express their understanding and praise.
Thus, one of the biggest positives of benign online disinhibition is primarily the social
consequences, e.g. philanthropic gestures, counselling, emotional support, and greater selfdisclosure.36 Harmful disinhibition is the opposite – it includes aggressive behaviours and negative
emotions, harsh criticism, hatred, threats, etc. It is obvious that if we deal with cybermobbing
and cyberbullying, the second type of disinhibitory behaviour is essential for us.
Mobber – an attacker from the workplace does not only limit their activities and attacks
to the physical space at work, but also continues to attack via the Internet. It is not a new
phenomenon, but its digital form is governed by different laws and has other consequences:
1. Cybermobbing can take place almost continuously – the constant availability of digital
media and the Internet enables the possibility of carrying out online attacks and at the
same time prevents the victim from escaping from them. Unlike mobbing, it does not end
after leaving the workplace. However, if all virtual accounts are blocked to avoid contact
with the cybermobber, it can also have a negative consequence and can cause some form
of social exclusion, as well as access to information, etc.
2. Cybermobbing reaches a wide audience – social networking sites, e-mails or SMS
messages enable rapid and immediate dissemination of negative content to the public.
As soon as some data is published on the Internet, it is exceedingly difficult to delete it.
Since the memory of the Internet is unlimited, even deleted data could have been previously
copied and archived. Attacks or the spread of negative content can be carried out very
actively and easily, so there exists an endless audience.
3. Cybermobbing can also take place anonymously – aggressors often hide behind fictitious
identities. On the one hand, it can reduce disinhibitory behaviour – cybermobbers do not
have to face the reactions of victims face to face and often do not realize the consequences
of their attacks on victims. On the other hand, the anonymity of attackers is another source
of fear and insecurity for victims of cybermobbing.37
There is ambiguity in the classification of individual manifestations of mobbing and
cybermobbing in professional literature. By synthesizing and comparing several relevant sources
and studies (Hollá, Šmahaj, Horváth, Ritomská, Dvončová, etc.), we created the following lists
of possible forms and manifestations of mobbing in offline and online environments:
35
36
37
SULER, J.: The Online Disinhibition Effect. [online]. [2020-04-19]. Available at: <http://users.rider.edu/~suler/
psycyber/disinhibit.html>.
LAPIDOT-LEFLER, N., BARAK, A.: The benign online disinhibition effect: Could situational factors induce
self-disclosure and prosocial behaviors? In Cyberpsychology: Journal of Psychological Research on
Cyberspace, 2015, Vol. 9, No. 2, Article 3. [online]. [2020-08-20]. Available at: <https://cyberpsychology.
eu/article/view/4335/3402>.
Aktiv gegen CyberMobbing. [online]. [2020-04-13]. Available at: <https://www.saferinternet.at/fileadmin/
categorized/Materialien/Aktiv_gegen_Cyber_Mobbing.pdf>.
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MOBBING
CYBERMOBBING
1. Defamation – by defamation the attacker gives
false information about the other person (victim of
mobbing), and thus tries to „win“ a better position
for themself, while the topic of defamation may be
from the private life of the affected person or from
the work environment.
1. Flaming – internet debate, fiery quarrel,
in which offensive, vicious language, insults
and threats are used. It usually takes place in
a public communications environment, e.g.
discussion forums, chat rooms, etc.
2. Laughter – the target of ridicule can be a
hairstyle, clothing, certain characteristics, and
physical defects (stuttering, squinting, obesity,
etc.). After a longer period, the victim of mobbing
starts to avoid the collective and thus gets into
isolation, which can affect their work performance.
2. Harassment – harassing the victim by
repeatedly sending offensive, insulting, or
threatening messages via SMS/MMS, e-mail,
chat, social networking sites. The aggressor
sends a huge number of messages, is onesided, lasts a long time and causes the
victim’s emotional distress.
3. Retention of important information – by
withholding important information necessary for
the performance of the work function, the bully tries
to artificially create stressful situations for the other
person, with people working under stress being
more prone to make mistakes, making wrong
decisions, whereby the bully tries to form an image
of the opponent as unreliable and an incompetent
worker, so the mobber tries to strengthen their
position.
3. Defamation, slander – publishing and
disseminating verbal, graphic or audio
content about the victim and the results of
their work, which are derogatory, untrue,
offensive, ridiculing. The victim is not a
direct recipient of messages, the aim is to
destroy their reputation, name and disrupt
friendships, or cause possible social harm
to the victim or exclusion. This includes e.g.
photomontages of victims that are hurtful or
sexual in nature.
4. Isolation of the worker – the result of slander, 4. Imitation, identity theft – the aggressor
ridicule, or so-called voluntary isolation of the introduces himself or herself and acts
victim to avoid negative attacks.
on behalf of the victim, uses negative
communication, insults, slanders others,
sends inappropriate, misleading, derogatory
information or files as if sent by the victim
themself. This can communicate with the
victim’s friends and cause significant damage
or even the destruction of social relationships.
This is a kind of hacking activity.
5. Administrative and work measures –
they are used mainly by superiors. At short
intervals, the employee is transferred to another
workplace, where they perform menial work that
does not correspond to their qualifications. The
consequence of these measures is the loss of the
employee’s interest in the assigned work.
5. Uncovering secrets and fraud –
disclosure of private, secret, intimate
information about the victim without their
consent. This is data that embarrasses the
victim, damages their reputation or name.
In this context, we can also talk about the
so-called disinformation (fabricated) and
misinformation (based on facts) aimed at
deliberately and intentionally harming the
victim.38
6. Excessive workload – this can be the
assignment of unnecessary and pointless tasks
or the assignment of constantly new and newer
tasks beyond the abilities and competencies of the
worker. The result is the overwork of an employee
who is under constant pressure, stress. This is one
of the ways in which a superior try to „remove“
or „disable“ a more capable subordinate, who is,
for instance, trying to get their position. Excessive
workload is not always related to mobbing, but
can be a sign of poor work organization by the
superior, which can contribute to the creation of
an atmosphere that supports the emergence of
mobbing
6. Exclusion and ostracization –
intentional exclusion from the online group or
online meetings, online conferences, etc. It is
about directly and purposefully ignoring the
victim, preventing access to digital data and
materials.
38
KAČINOVÁ, V.: The Topic of Media-Disseminated Mis-Information and Dis-Information As An Integral Part
of General Education in Slovakia. In Media Literacy and Academic Research, 2020, Vol. 3, No.1, p. 19.
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7. Excessive criticism – this method is used by
superiors as well as workers at the same level.
Excessive and constant criticism is frustrating
and raises doubts in the victims about their
abilities, lowers self-confidence. Criticism can be
justified or often unjustified and generalizes over
time. Ultimately, it leads to apathy, resignation,
insufficient performance of assigned tasks and,
in the worst case, to „voluntary“ or „involuntary“
leaving the workplace.
7. Persecution – this is about stalking, sharing,
or persecuting the victim and their loved ones
through ICT means. Cybermobber repeatedly
sends harassing and threatening messages,
including extortion. These messages are
extremely hurtful, offensive, and humiliating. An
aggressor can often hide their identity behind
anonymous means of communication.
8. Sexual harassment – mainly women, rarely
men, are exposed to sexual harassment by their
superiors. It is important to distinguish between
expressing sympathy and actual harassment,
which can take various forms, e.g. verbal – slander,
making suggestions for sexual intercourse;
conative – stroking against the will of another
person, in more serious cases also violent coercion
of sexual intercourse, etc.
8. Happy slapping – this is a specific
phenomenon when the victim is recorded
(most often on a smartphone) at moments
when he or she is ridiculed or physically
assaulted. Subsequently, this record is
published on the Internet and distributed
virally. An alternative is to take the victim out
of self-control by indecent behaviour and then
filming and publishing their uncontrollable
reaction. It has fatal consequences that can
lead to suicide of victims. For aggressors, it
is a form of fun and prestige.39
9. Physical attacks – they rarely occur in the 9. Cyber threats – these are electronic
workplace, because physical assault, in contrast materials that either generally or specifically
to the above points, is punishable by law.
raise concerns that their author intends to cause
harm or violence. We also include technological
attacks: hacking attacks, sending viruses,
malware, creating automatic programs for
simultaneous sending of thousands of e-mail
messages, which will cause the e-mail box
to collapse, or account blocking, etc. Cyber
threats also include phishing and pharming
(trying to obtain passwords, especially for bank
accounts, online banking, etc.).
TABLE 1: Manifestations of mobbing and cybermobbing
Source: own processing
The Internet can now be considered an absolute matter of course in our lives, and it can
undoubtedly be described as the largest and most powerful medium today.40 Although the virtual
world is often referred to as parallel to the real world, it has its own rules and specifics that make
it significantly different from reality in certain ways. The presented phenomena cannot always be
said to affect the entire population of cyberspace participants and in all circumstances. They also
differ in their influence according to different types of communication environments. We therefore
tried to show the ways in which people can perceive cyberspace and the communication in it,
what type of „filter“ they put over their eyes when they enter this environment. This „filter“ then
influences their behaviour and the overall perception of the virtual world.
It can be stated that the digitization of relationships and people has changed the boundaries in
the mutual perception of interactions. Digital media and online communication have brought many
opportunities on the one hand, but also several risks and negative phenomena on the other.41 Therefore,
the behaviour of people in cyberspace is quite different from their behaviour in real life. Hence, we
consider it important to point out that in cyberspace, in addition to the perception of others, the
perception of oneself also changes, often with negative inclinations and consequences for other users.
39
40
41
CHAN, S. et al.: Understanding ´happy slapping´. In International Journal of Police Science & Management,
2012, Vol. 14, No. 1, p. 44.
HUBINÁKOVÁ, H., MIKULA, M.: The Importance of the Internet in the Life of Students of Media Studies.
In Media Literacy and Academic Research, 2018, Vol. 1, No.1, p. 32.
GÁLIK, S., HLADÍKOVÁ, V., PAVLÁK, L.: Cyberbullying and Opportunities for its Prevention. In Media Literacy
and Academic Research, 2018, Vol. 1, No. 1, p. 7.
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3. Material and Methods
The aim of the paper is to examine in more detail the issue of communication in the workplace
with a specific emphasis on mobbing and cybermobbing as negative aspects and consequences
of this communication and the possibilities of legislative and non-legislative protection against
them. Based on the defined main aim, partial goals were also defined:
• to define the issue of mobbing as a risk phenomenon in the context of personnel
management;
• to define the issue of cybermobbing as a risky aspect of communication in cyberspace
and as a consequence of the negative atmosphere in the workplace;
• to analyse and to define the possibilities of the currently valid legislative protection in
connection with mobbing and cybermobbing;
• to analyse non-legislative options for mobbing solutions;
• to set levels of prevention for mobbing and cybermobbing;
• to define solutions and possibilities of prevention and elimination of mobbing in the
context of the hierarchy of a company unit or organization;
• to define proposals for a society-wide solution to the issue of mobbing and cybermobbing.
The main method used in the article was the hermeneutic method42, which includes the
understanding and interpretation of texts and the phenomenological method43, through which
we examined the nature and basic structure – the eidos of specific phenomena. We believe
that it is the phenomenological method that complements the hermeneutic method within the
theoretical basis. Using qualitative methods, we defined individual research problems, and we
used critical in-depth analysis, descriptive method, as well as other general cognitive methods.
4. Results and discussion
Legislative aspects of mobbing and cybermobbing
It is obvious that mobbing and all its forms and manifestations can be described as a serious
social problem. Given that the issue of mobbing generally concerns the dignity of the employee
(human in general) and the protection of human rights, it is possible to derive the protection
of the victim of mobbing from this general regulation. Many states that have not specifically
adapted for mobbing in their legislation also rely on discriminatory legislation or occupational
safety and health legislation. The basic context of the solution to mobbing in the workplace is
also enshrined in labour law regulations, or in collective agreements or other internal regulations
of the employer and companies.
Given that the legislation of the Slovak Republic does not explicitly contain legislation
on mobbing and cybermobbing, it is necessary to proceed from the above sources of law
and those legal regulations that affect this issue (e.g. Civil Code governing the protection of
personality, Criminal Code if mobbing would reach such an intensity that the characteristics
of some crimes would be fulfilled).
The basic source of law in our country is the Constitution of the Slovak Republic (No.
460/1992 Coll.). In relation to issues of mobbing and its legal protection, the following may be
mentioned in the context of the Constitution of the Slovak Republic:
• Art. 12, which guarantees fundamental human rights and freedoms, does not, however,
directly regulate relations between persons within the framework of private law relations.
42
43
Hermeneutika. [online]. [2020-08-19]. Available at: <http://film.ff.cuni.cz/rozcestnik/metodika/
hermeneutika.pdf>.
VYDROVÁ, J.: Fenomenologický a estetický postoj. Poznámky k ich svojbytnosti a prekrývaniu. In Filozofia,
2008, Vol. 63, No. 7, p. 619.
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• Art. 16, par. 1, according to which the inviolability of the person and their privacy is
guaranteed and par. 2 – no one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman, or
degrading treatment or punishment.
• Art. 19, par. 1, according to which everyone has the right to respect for human dignity,
personal honour and reputation and to the protection of their name.
• Art. 19, par. 2, according to which everyone is guaranteed the right to protection against
unauthorized interference with private and family life.
• Art. 36, according to which employees have the right to fair and satisfactory working
conditions, in the context of mobbing, especially par. c, protection of safety and health
at work.44
The basic legal framework for protection against mobbing and its forms and manifestations
is contained in Act no. 311/2001 Coll. The Labour Code as amended (hereinafter also referred
to as the „Labour Code“). This protection is mainly related to the application of the principle of
equal treatment, which is already reflected in the basic principles of the Labour Code (Article
1). The aggressor often abuses their position in the workplace, using the means and force
resulting from their job position to intimidate, humiliate or endanger the victim of mobbing.
In this context, it is appropriate to mention Art. 2 of the basic principles of the Labour Code,
according to which the exercise of rights and obligations arising from employment relationships
must be in accordance with good morals, no one may abuse these rights and obligations to
the detriment of the other party to the employment relationship or co-employees.
Furthermore, the provision of § 13 par. 1 to 3, stipulates the obligation of the employer
to treat employees in accordance with the principle of equal treatment with reference to the
Anti-Discrimination Act. At the same time, it prohibits discrimination against employees on nine
explicitly listed grounds. The prohibition of bullying is defined in paragraph 3: „The exercise of
rights and obligations arising from employment relationships must be in accordance with good
morals. No one shall abuse these rights and obligations to the detriment of the other party of
the employment relationship or co-workers.“45 The Labour Code also stipulates that no one
may be persecuted or otherwise punished in the workplace in connection with the performance
of employment relationships for filing a complaint, lawsuit, motion to prosecute or otherwise
report crime or other anti-social activity against another employee or employer.
Every employee, as well as every manager, must behave in accordance with good morals and
must not abuse their rights and obligations to the detriment of another employee. However, the
abstract definition of good manners is perceived differently and is therefore the most common
problem. Good manners have an exclusive ethical dimension and are assessed individually for
each specific situation. If the employee in any way considers that the principle of equal treatment
regulated in the Labour Code as well as the provisions of § 13 par. 3 of the Labour Code have
been violated, they have the right to file under § 13 par. 6 complaint to the employer in the
said case. The employer is obliged to respond immediately to the complaint in question, make
a correction, refrain from such action, and eliminate its consequences.46
Among other things, in the event of a violation of their rights, the employee can also go
to court and demand the protection provided by the Anti-Discrimination Act. The provision of
§ 2a par. 4 of Act no. 365/2004 Coll. on Equal Treatment in Certain Areas and on Protection
against Discrimination and on Amendments to Certain Acts (Anti-Discrimination Act) contains
44
45
46
Zákon č. 460/1992 Z. z. Ústavný zákon. [online]. [2020-04-22]. Available at: <https://www.zakonypreludi.
sk/zz/1992-460>.
Zákon č. 311/2001 Z. z. Zákonník práce. [online]. [2020-04-21]. Available at: <https://www.slov-lex.sk/
pravne-predpisy/SK/ZZ/2001/311/20200617>.
Zákon č. 311/2001 Z. z. Zákonník práce. [online]. [2020-04-21]. Available at: <https://www.slov-lex.sk/
pravne-predpisy/SK/ZZ/2001/311/20200617>.
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a definition of harassment as a potential form of mobbing or bossing. It defines it as „such
behaviour as a result of which an intimidating, hostile, embarrassing, degrading, humiliating,
abusive or offensive environment is or may be created and which intends or may result in
an interference with freedom or human dignity.“47 At the same time § 2a par. 6 contains, for
example, another potential form of bossing, where the superior instructs the subordinate to
discriminate against a third party. Mobbing can also be involved if a worker encourages other
workers to discriminate against a third party. „Incitement to discrimination is the persuasion,
affirmation or incitement of a person to discriminate against a third party“ (§ 2a (7) of the AntiDiscrimination Act).48
As Dvončová49 points out, in the above cases, the employee has the right to go to court
and seek legal protection in accordance with the provisions of the Anti-Discrimination Act. In
doing so, they may claim that the person who has infringed the principle of equal treatment:
1. dismisses their action,
2. if possible, rectify the infringement or provide adequate redress,
3. in the case of non-compliance with the principle of equal treatment due to the reporting of
crime or other anti-social activities, they may also claim the invalidity of a legal act whose
effectiveness has been suspended pursuant to a special regulation.
In serious cases if adequate satisfaction is not sufficient, non-pecuniary damage may also
be claimed. The amount of compensation for non-pecuniary damage in money is determined
by the court, considering the seriousness of the non-pecuniary damage incurred and all the
circumstances under which it occurred.
It is possible to agree with Olšovská50, who states that there are few litigations concerning
mobbing and its forms, therefore in the context of mobbing and the application of the protection
of the law in accordance with the Anti-Discrimination Act, the existing court decisions can also
be mentioned as interesting, such as decisions of the Regional Court of Banská Bystrica in
this area. In it, the Court distinguishes between bullying and discrimination, while the Decision
declares that bullying is not enshrined in the Labour Code and, by analogy, bullying can therefore
be considered a specific type of abuse of law.
At the same time, we consider it important to mention Act no. 18/2018 Coll. on the protection
of personal data and its provisions according to which the dissemination of personal data
without the consent of the employee and for other purposes, for which the consent was given,
is not possible.51
Above, we have listed several options and alternatives for the legal protection against
mobbing and its forms in the offline environment. As the subject of our interest is also mobbing
in cyberspace, we also introduce the possibilities of legal protection against cybermobbing.
We stated that cybermobbing can be defined as one of the forms of cyberbullying. If we
talk about the legislative regulation of cyberbullying – and therefore also cybermobbing – in
the Slovak Republic, we can state that the Slovak legislation does not recognize the term
cyberbullying. At present, there is no law in Slovakia that records the concept of cyberbullying,
47
48
49
50
51
Zákon č. 365/2004 Z. z. o rovnakom zaobchádzaní v niektorých oblastiach a o ochrane pred diskrimináciou
a o zmene a doplnení niektorých zákonov (antidiskriminačný zákon). [online]. [2020-04-21]. Available at:
<https://www.slov-lex.sk/pravne-predpisy/SK/ZZ/2004/365/20160102>.
Ibid.
DVONČOVÁ, M.: Mobbing a bossing – právny rozmer a prostriedky právnej ochrany. [online]. [2020-04-17].
Available at: <https://www.pravnenoviny.sk/mobbing-a-bossing-pravny-rozmer-a-prostriedky-pravnejochrany>.
OLŠOVSKÁ, A.: Mobbing a bossing na pracovisku. Bratislava : Inštitút pre výskum práce a rodiny, 2013,
p. 85.
More details can be found in ŠVEC, M., HORECKÝ, J., MADLEŇÁK, A.: GDPR in Labour relations – with
or without the consent of the employee? In AD ALTA, 2018, Vol. 8, No. 2, p. 281-286.
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sexting or cybergrooming. Our legislation does not define these terms, but this does not mean
that bullying through online technologies, the dissemination of defamatory, false information,
threats or harassment have no legal consequences. If we want to defend ourselves against
cyberbullying at the criminal law level, we can apply several sections of Act no. 300/2005 Coll.
(Criminal Code)52:
• Dangerous persecution, so-called stalking (§ 360a);
• Blackmail (§ 189);
• Pressure (§ 192);
• Sexual abuse (§ 201, § 201a, § 201b);
• Defamation (§ 373);
• Infringement of foreign rights (§ 376).
The international portal focused on cyberbullying, www.cyberhelp.eu, states, in addition
to the above-mentioned contexts, that since 1 September 2011, stalking has been a criminal
offense in our country. A person faces up to one year in prison, and in up to three years in
particularly serious cases. Section 360a of the Criminal Code defines the essence of the criminal
offense of dangerous persecution as follows:
„Whoever persecutes others for a long time in such a way that it may give rise to reasonable
concern for his or her life or health, the life or health of a person close to him or her or substantially
impair his or her quality of life, by:
a) threatens to injure him or her, or otherwise harm him/her or a person close to him/her,
b) seeks out his/her personal closeness or stalks him/her,
c) contact him/her through a third party or electronic communication service, in writing or
otherwise against his/her will,
d) misuse his/her personal data for the purpose of obtaining personal or other contact, or
e) otherwise restricts him/her in his/her usual way of life, shall be punishable by a term
of imprisonment of up to one year.“53
Dangerous persecution via the Internet or mobile phone, i.e. the cyberstalking mentioned
above, has also become a criminal offense.
We also consider happy slapping to be interesting in the legislative context. In the Slovak
Republic, happy slapping is not a crime, but it is not unpunished. For instance, situations
where the aggressor – mobber attacks the victim while they are filmed by an accomplice on a
smartphone, and then places a video together on the Internet, can probably be assessed as
several crimes: e.g. injury (§155 of the Criminal Code) (in case of paralysis and other similar
damage to health), non-prevention of a crime (§ 341 of the Criminal Code) and failure to report
a crime (§ 340 of the Criminal Code) (by an accomplice), subsequently failure to provide
assistance (§ 177 of the Criminal Code). However, it always depends on the specific course of
the proceedings. Therefore, e.g. incitement to hatred against a group of persons or restriction
of their rights and freedoms (§ 424 of the Criminal Code), approval of a criminal offense (§ 338
of the Criminal Code), incitement to a criminal offense (§ 337 of the Criminal Code) and others
is also conceivable. Less serious proceedings are most often related to one of the offenses
against civic cohabitation. Some European countries have happy slapping directly enshrined
in their criminal codes, e.g. in France, happy slapping is seen in the same way as a crime such
as rape and faces up to 5 years in prison.54
52
53
54
Zákon č. 300/2005 Z. z. Trestný zákon. [online]. [2020-04-19]. Available at: <https://www.slov-lex.sk/
pravne-predpisy/SK/ZZ/2005/300/>.
ibid.
Happy Slapping. [online]. [2020-04-19]. Available at: <http://www.eisionline.org/index.php/sk/ss-zlpasblog>.
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In connection with cyberbullying, we can also talk about crimes related to extremist materials
(their production, distribution or storage) or related to defamation of the nation, race and beliefs
or support and promotion of groups aimed at suppressing basic human rights and freedoms,
e.g. in the case of identity theft, when cybermobbers on the Internet act on behalf of the victim.
The above-mentioned crimes are primarily and most often related to cyberspace in the sense
that they can be carried out in public (show affection, support, spread, promote, etc.) – also
via computer networks. In these cases, the following sections of the Criminal Code may be
used to examine the proceedings from a legislative point of view:
• Support and promotion of groups aimed at suppressing fundamental rights and freedoms
(§ 421, § 422);
• Production, dissemination and storage of extremist materials (§ 422a, § 422b, § 422c);
• Denial and approval of the Holocaust and crimes of political regimes (§ 422d);
• Defamation of the nation, race and beliefs (§ 423);
• Incitement to national, racial and ethnic hatred (§ 424);
• Incitement, defamation, and intimidation of persons for their affiliation with any race,
nation, nationality, colour, ethnic group or origin of the family (§ 424a).55
It is gratifying that also a country like Slovakia is constantly striving to strengthen cyber
security. In 2016, a new committee was established within the Security Council of the Slovak
Republic – the Committee for Cyber Security. Its aim is to prepare, and coordinate measures
aimed at maintaining the security of the cyberspace of the Slovak Republic. In 2014, the
Government of the Slovak Republic approved a document entitled Preparing the Slovak Republic
for Cyber Defence Tasks, and a year later adopted a key strategic document – the Slovak
Republic’s Cyber Security Concept for 2015-2020, which in the outline of the institutional
framework proposed the National Security Office as the central institution of cyber security.
Its aim is to draw attention to the importance of cybersecurity and to propose measures and
solutions to eliminate cyberattacks on individuals, systems, and society as a whole.
Other means of legal protection against mobbing
Although the Labour Code, in conjunction with the Anti-Discrimination Act, probably provides
the most effective and comprehensive protection against mobbing, bossing and other forms of
bullying in the workplace, seeking protection of rights through other legal means is not excluded.
Mobbing and its various forms may in a specific case be, for example, disproportionate
to even inadmissible interference with the personal rights of the individual, while the means
of protection of personality are regulated in § 11 et seq. Act no. 40/1964 Coll. Civil Code as
amended (hereinafter also referred to as the „Civil Code“). Directly mentioned § 11 of the Civil
Code determines that an individual has the right to protection of their personality, especially
life and health, civil honour and human dignity, as well as privacy, their name and expressions
of a personal nature.56
Another alternative is to report the offense, which in relation to mobbing or bossing would
probably be an offense against civic cohabitation. In more serious cases, it is also possible to file
a criminal report on suspicion of committing a criminal offense, because bullying proceedings,
to which mobbing undoubtedly belongs, may fulfil the elements of the factual nature of certain
criminal offenses within the meaning of the Criminal Code, e.g. the criminal offense of defamation,
extortion, unauthorized handling of personal data, etc. However, the filing of a criminal report
should not be purposeful otherwise the notifier himself/herself could be prosecuted for the
crime of false accusation.
55
56
Kyberšikanovanie. [online]. [2020-04-21]. Available at: <http://www.zodpovedne.sk/index.php/sk/ohrozenia/
kybersikanovanie>.
Zákon č. 40/1964 Z. z. Občiansky zákonník. [online]. [2020-04-23]. Available at: <https://www.zakonypreludi.
sk/zz/1964-40>.
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In connection with protection against mobbing and its forms, it is possible to turn to several
institutions, e.g. labour inspectorates or the Slovak National Centre for Human Rights. Within
the scope of labour inspectorates, there is, among other things, supervision over compliance
with labour law regulations, i.e. primarily the Labour Code. The employee may turn to the
relevant labour inspectorate with a complaint in accordance with Act no. 125/2006 Coll. on
Labour Inspection and on Amendments to Act No. 82/2005 Coll. on Illegal Work and Illegal
Employment and on amendments to certain acts, as amended, or with a complaint pursuant
to Act No. 9/2010 Coll. on Complaints as amended.
In 2004, the Slovak National Centre for Human Rights became the Slovak antidiscrimination body for assessing compliance with the principle of equal treatment under the
Anti-Discrimination Act. The Centre issues expert opinions on discrimination in the provision
of legal services, represents participants in proceedings in cases of violation of the principle of
equal treatment, provides legal assistance to victims of discrimination and intolerance, has the
right to request courts, prosecutors, other state authorities, local authorities, interest bodies
municipalities and other institutions to provide information on respect for human rights.
Another alternative for protection against bullying in the workplace is the institute of the
Public Defender of Rights – the Ombudsman, who can also help resolve the situation based
on their powers. However, to completely eliminate the realization of psychological terror in the
workplace, these institutions are not enough, comprehensive legislation is needed.
Another possibility is the use of mediation as a way of out-of-court dispute resolution,
where a qualified mediator invites the employer, the aggressor and the victim to resolve the
dispute without legal proceedings in order to conclude a mediation agreement. The mediator is
an impartial and independent party in the process, which creates suitable conditions for equal
communication between the employee and the employer, or between the employees concerned.
Because the process is confidential, the risk of the problem moving outside the business
environment or the spreading of related information in the workplace is minimized. Employees
are interested in a quick and effective solution to the current problem, for the employer, executive
employees are especially important, who cooperate and do not fight among themselves, not
excluding the positive image in the internal environment, where the employer clearly shows
that they care about employees and are interested in a real solution to an employee problem.
In addition to the above, we also consider it important to conclude by mentioning the fact
that all advanced companies and corporations have codes of ethics in their internal regulations.
Most of them also contain certain clauses on the ethical behaviour of all employees. The
application, enforcement, and possible sanctioning of breaches of these clauses can make a
significant contribution to the prevention and elimination of mobbing and cybermobbing in the
context of workplace communication.
Although mobbing and its forms present significant problems in the workplace not only for
the victim but also for the entire organization, its consequences can be mitigated and do not
have to grow to maximum dimensions. However, this is only possible if this phenomenon is
not overlooked but is addressed in a timely manner. The implementation of various preventive
strategies in the context of these adverse events is therefore one of the basic attributes of
their elimination and prevention of occurrence in the workplace. As there is no antimobbing law
in Slovakia, every organization, company, or enterprise, regardless of its focus, should have
developed and prepared a plan for the solution of mobbing in the workplace. The role of the
employer is to inform and instruct managers and other employees about the issue, identification
and especially about the possibilities of its solution.
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At the level of the employer – the organizational level of the company – we present several
preventive solutions:
1. Formulate an internal antimobbing rule that would define exactly what behaviour is mobbing
in the workplace, defining how the groups or individuals concerned can defend themselves
in the event of a threat and violation of their rights.
2. Update corporate codes of ethics with the explicit definition that no manifestations of
mobbing, unethical behaviour, discrimination, or other psychological terror in the workplace
will be tolerated.
3. Include specific clauses in employment contracts in which the connections with the issue
of mobbing will be regulated and defined, e.g. application of sanctions in case of violation
of the set rules.
4. Bring and disseminate information and education on mobbing and its consequences.
We consider education in this context to be one of the most basic measures that can
eliminate the occurrence of mobbing in the workplace. “These educational activities must
be attractive enough and respect the uniqueness and the needs of the individual target
groups.”57 Education can take place through:
- various professional seminars, lectures, trainings, or courses focused on building
quality working relationships and a healthy working climate,
- personalized training programs focused on personal development of employees,
e.g. conflict resolution culture, correct and effective use of assertive communication
and other communication techniques as well as non-verbal communication,
stress management, tolerance and empathy training in interpersonal relationships,
improving social perception, optimizing self-regulation of behaviour, developing and
training work skills and competencies, etc.
5. To be able to identify and detect undesirable behaviour in the form of mobbing – to
implement into the structure of mandatory legislative training on safety and health at work
also the issue of mobbing and its forms, health consequences, quality of life, as well as
the overall work environment and employee performance.
6. Introduce the institution of annual job evaluations of the employee’s performance, within
which the employee has the opportunity to draw attention in the open atmosphere to the
presence of mobbing towards themself as well as towards co-workers; if this institute is
established in organizations, define the communication space also for the issue of mobbing.
7. Ensure framework agreements with institutions focused on occupational psychology, if
necessary, enable the victim to intervene within working hours with a vision of improving
work performance.
8. Appoint a supervisor – a person from the human resources department authorized to
monitor, control, and inform the company’s management about the occurrence of mobbing
and bossing.
9. Increase individual responsibility for bullying and workplace behaviour.
10. Appeal to compliance with netiquette and cybersecurity in the work environment.
11. Create space for informal meetings of employees, e.g. through teambuildings to
strengthen working relationships and a healthy working atmosphere.
It can be stated that a manager is often co-responsible for cases of mobbing, whose role
is, among other things, to participate in the creation of a suitable working environment and
climate. As a rule, the manager performs several functions in the organization: they are a leader,
guide, administrator, organizer, coordinator, decides on goals and procedures, and in connection
with the topic of violence in the workplace may also be in the job of providing assistance
57
PETRANOVÁ, D., VRABEC, N.: Age as a Factor in Evaluation of Media Literacy Levels in Slovakia. In
International Journal of Media and Information Literacy, 2016, Vol. 1, No 1. p. 25.
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to victims of mobbing, a role in prevention, and in dealing with this undesirable phenomenon.
To fulfil this wide range of functions, the manager must have, in addition to professional and
managerial competencies, also moral competencies – the ability to select people and lead
them appropriately, to influence their attitudes and communication skills.
Within the level of management, we propose:
1. To build trust and empathy between subordinates and the whole work team. Trust in
superiors of potential victims will cause greater openness to conversation and thus
contribute to resolving the situation.
2. To train moral competencies, which should guarantee confidence in the fair resolution of
potential conflicts, help for victims of mobbing, overall friendly and pleasant atmosphere
in the workplace for all employees, e.g. through socio-psychological training in practice.
3. Respond flexibly to warning signals, e.g. restlessness in the workplace, tension, sadness,
deterioration of work ethic and atmosphere, and thus a decline in the performance of their
subordinates and, based on the findings, to solve problems.
4. Conduct informal interviews with subordinates (e.g. twice a year) to identify undesirable
manifestations of communication or other suspicions of mobbing.
5. To intervene in an adequate and immediate form in the manifestation of mobbing and its
forms and to deduce responsibility and consequences for aggressors.
6. Implement self-education, e.g. by applying Self-Managed Learning.
7. Be open to the completion of special management training programs to eliminate bossing
aimed at resolving conflicts arising from management positions.
Within the collective level, cooperation and communication of employees is important, it
is necessary not to overlook even small manifestations of mobbing and its forms. Employees
should have the courage to name the situation and possible conflicts, or iniquity to always
communicate. One of the consequences for aggressors is the moral condemnation of other
collaborators.
Within the societal level, we propose the following preventive activities:
1. Promote prevention projects and activities in the context of assistance to victims of mobbing
and cybermobbing, e.g. Internet psychological counselling centre IPčko.sk, which provides
free psychological and social counselling or OZ Práca a vzťahy dedicated to victims of
mobbing and activities to improve the situation in the Slovak Republic.
2. Carry out research in the field of mobbing, disseminate the results and possibilities of the
solution to the professional and lay public.
3. Implement profesiograms and personality tests in job interviews to (among other things)
eliminate pathological personalities and aggressors.
4. Obtain and consolidate the so-called social skills and soft skills, where we include e.g. selfknowledge and self-motivation, perception, communication, conflict resolution, teamwork,
development of empathy, aggression management, assertiveness, and the support of
personal and professional growth.
5. To create educational programs in the context of violence, undesirable behaviour and
strengthening communication in the workplace.
6. Appeal the importance of adhering to netiquette and cybersecurity in the electronic form
of communication.
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5. Conclusion
At present, there is no specific law in the legislation of the Slovak Republic yet, nor has an
official institution or organization been established exclusively focused on mobbing in the
workplace, or its sequel in cyberspace. However, based on our analysis of mobbing, it can
be stated that the Slovak legal system provides victims of mobbing and cybermobbing with
a relatively sufficient number of alternatives to legal protection and various procedures and
options for the defence and elimination of undesirable situations. It can also be appreciated
that in recent decades, several institutions have been established in Slovakia, whose mission
is to protect human rights. Nevertheless, they do not have the competence to deal with or
sanction (e-)mobbing aggressors.
This necessarily requires legislative regulation, specifically and in particular the explicit
definition of the forms and manifestations of mobbing and cybermobbing in the work environment,
the introduction of sanctions for mobbing practitioners, the competence of individual cases,
the method of filing remedies and other legislative contexts. However, in addition to legislation,
it is also necessary to create relevant protection mechanisms and forms of counselling for
victims and employers.
Although the issues of mobbing and cybermobbing are partially discussed, we believe that
employees as well as the public still do not have enough information and knowledge in this area.
Therefore, it is important to provide essential and crucial information and training for employees
(e.g. in the form of courses in the context of communication), as well as professionals who
deal professionally with this issue, as well as the general education of society. Paying attention
to these issues also poses a challenge for personnel management, which should address
psychosocial issues not only in terms of ethics, but also in terms of the overall performance
of the company and employees – only a satisfied and non-frustrated employee can deliver
quality performance.
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Author
PhDr. Vladimíra Hladíková, PhD.
University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava,
Faculty of Mass Media Communication,
Nám. Jozefa Herdu, 2
917 01 Trnava,
SLOVAK REPUBLIC
vladimira.hladikova@ucm.sk
Vladimíra Hladíková is a member of the Faculty of Mass Media Communication at the University of SS. Cyril
and Methodius in Trnava. Within her scientific activities she focuses her interest on the issue of new and digital
media, especially the Internet and its impact on various areas of life, education and human thinking, as well
as cognitive changes and other processes brought about by the medium of the Internet. She also devotes
herself to reflecting on the impact and use of information and communication technologies in education
or the information and education society. The author also examines the various aspects of the Internet, its
benefits and, in particular, the threats it poses and the opportunities for active protection against them. She
is a member of the editorial board of European Journal of Media, Art and Photography and also a member
of several scientific projects in the field of digital communication and media.
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photo: Denisa Valachová
Derya Gül Ünlü, Oya Morva
Whose Information Should Be Shared
With Whom?: Parents’ Awareness
Of Children’s Digital Privacy In Turkey
ABSTRACT
Today, parents make use of social media accounts for many different purposes, such as obtaining
information, giving advice, receiving support, and exchanging ideas with other parents. In parallel
with the use of social media, according to their parenting roles, individuals frequently share
various content related to both their own daily practices and the development processes of
their children. The fact that most of the content shared is about children raises the question of
digital privacy in this context. Based on this focus, this research aims to determine the priorities
attached by the parents when they share content about children on their social media accounts,
and what kind of measures they take in sharing this content to protect the digital privacy of
their children. Therefore, a questionnaire based quantitative field study was carried out within
the scope of this research. As a result of the study, it was found that parents primarily prefer
sharing special occasions with their children, family photographs and photographs of their
children at early ages; if the child is at a later age, they tend to consult him/her before sharing
the content, but they do not tend to pay enough attention to ensuring that the child's identity
is kept confidential and sharing of personal information is avoided.
KEY WORDS
Sharenting. Digital parenting. Digital privacy.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
1. Introduction
As individuals start using digital media in line with their needs regarding their parenting roles,
this process is accompanied by sharing of a large amount of content about themselves and
their children. By benefiting from the possibilities provided by digital media, parents obtain many
opportunities, such as giving suggestions to others regarding their own parenting practices,
avoiding feelings of loneliness, having access to recommendations on daily parenting practices
and evaluating different perspectives on parenting roles.1 Therefore, it can be suggested that
digital media have been integrated into parenting practices and provide many functions to
mothers and fathers. On the other hand, posts shared by individuals on digital media about
their parenting roles also make it possible to reveal a large amount of personal data about
their children. In this regard, although digital technologies provide new opportunities in many
areas of a parent’s daily life, they also pose potential risks resulting from sharing the personal
information of the child.2 Parents are primarily responsible for ensuring the well-being of their
children. This also imposes on parents the duty of protecting personal information about the child
on digital media.3 However, the way in which parents often do not pay enough attention to the
contents of their posts about their children or do not take the necessary protective measures,
causes violations of their children’s privacy on digital media, even if this is unintentional. For
this reason, determining the priorities attached by the parents when they share content about
their children on their social media accounts, and what kind of measures they take in sharing
this content to protect the digital privacy of their children, is considered important.
2. Sharenting
The concept of ‘sharenting’ corresponds to the combination of the words ‘share’ and ‘parenting’;
and refers to parents’ using social media for their motherhood and fatherhood practices, sharing
content about their children, such as news, photographs and videos, and presenting themselves
to other users as a parent.4 In those posts, parents share both many activities they spend with
their children, and also their emotions about their children on social media.5 Parents have various
motivations to share posts about their motherhood/fatherhood practices or their children by
means of social media. For instance, they connect to their families, friends or other parents through
social media, reinforce and expand these relationships, thereby having a strong social capital.6
1
2
3
4
5
6
See: KEITH, B. E., STEINBERG, S.: Parental Sharing on the Internet: Child Privacy in the Age of Social Media
and the Pediatrician’s Role. In JAMA Pediatrics, 2017, Vol. 171, No. 5, p. 413-414. [online]. [2020-04-11].
Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XozRQV.>.
YAMAN, F., DÖNMEZ, O., AKBULUT, Y., KABAKÇI-YURDAKUL, I., ÇOKLAR, A. N., GÜYER, T.: Exploration of
Parents’ Digital Parenting Efficacy through Several Demographic Variables. In Education and Science,
2019, Vol. 44, No. 199, p. 149. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3ehPn6Y.>.
Ibid.
See: BLUM-ROSS, A., LIVINGSTONE, S.: „Sharenting“ Parent Blogging, and the Boundaries of the Digital Self.
In Popular Communication, 2017, Vol. 15, No. 2, p.110-125. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: https://bit.
ly/3b2QoOe>.; FOX, A. K., HOY, M. G.: Smart Devices, Smart Decisions? Implications of Parents’ Sharenting
for Children’s Online Privacy: An Investigation of Mothers. In Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, Vol.
38, No. 4, p. 414-432. [online]. [2020-04-13]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2wyoEC6.>.
MARASLİ, M., SUHENDAN, E., YILMAZTURK, N. H., COK, F.: Parents’ Shares on Networking Sites About
their Children: Sharenting. In Anthropologist, 2016, Vol. 24, No. 2, p. 399. [online]. [2020-06-15]. Available
at: <https://bit.ly/2CaAbdp>.
See also: JANG, J., DWORKIN, J.: Does Social Network Site Use Matter for Mothers?: Implications for
Bonding and Bridging Capital. In Computers in Human Behavior, 2014, Vol. 35, p. 489-495. [online]. [202004-17]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3csAs8e>.; YOUNG, K.: Social Ties, Social Networks and the Facebook
Experience. In International Journal of Emerging Technologies and Society, 2011, Vol. 9, No. 1, p. 20-34.
[online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/34Kb5Mv.>.
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It can also be suggested that they interpret their posts on social media about their children
as better parenting, they have the experience of showing their attention and support towards
their children also in digital media,7 which allows them to construct a parental identity of
themselves.8 On the other hand, it is also observed that there are positive aspects to individuals’
sharing posts about their parenting practices and children on social media accounts, such as
getting social and psychological support through ‘likes’ and comments to these posts, receiving
information from more experienced parents who go through similar situations, and getting rid
of the feeling of loneliness.9 From this point of view, it can be suggested that parents of today
make use of various social media accounts, such as Facebook, Twitter, Instagram with various
motivations, namely, to share content about their children, follow the posts of other parents,
have an exchange of ideas on daily parenting practices, have an access to an environment of
solidarity with regard to various social and psychological problems they encounter, and share
information and developments about their children.10
Possibilities provided by digital media environment to mothers and fathers motivate parents
to prefer their social media accounts more and more every day to share content about their
children. In this context, Brosch11 even argues that the contents parents update about their
children on their accounts through shared photos and videos have “almost become a social
norm”. Similarly, Kumar and Shoenebeck emphasize the fact that today Facebook has become
7
8
9
10
11
See: INAN-KAYA, G., KAYA, U.: Bir Ebeveyn Pratiği Olarak ‘Sharenting’. In AKFIRAT, O. N., STAUB, D. F.,
YAVAŞ, G. (eds.): Current Debates in Education. London, İstanbul : IJOPEC Publication, 2018, Vol. 5, p.
480-549. [online]. [2020-04-22]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3eLg58a.>.
See: BLUM-ROSS, A., LIVINGSTONE, S.: „Sharenting“ Parent Blogging, and the Boundaries of the Digital
Self. In Popular Communication, 2017, Vol. 15, No. 2, p.110-125. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at:
<https://bit.ly/3b2QoOe.>.
See: KEITH, B.E., STEINBERG, S.: Parental Sharing on the Internet: Child Privacy in the Age of Social Media
and the Pediatrician’s Role. In JAMA Pediatrics, 2017, Vol. 171, No. 5, p. 413-414. [online]. [2020-04-11].
Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XozRQV.>.
See also: AMMARI, M., MORRİS, M., SCHOENEBECK, S.: Accessing Social Support and Overcoming
Judgement on Social Media among Parents of Children with Special Needs, In Proceedings of AAAI
International Conference on Weblogs and Social Media, 2014, p. 22-31. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at:
<https://bit.ly/3euTEUG>.; BARTHOLOMEW, M. K., SCHOPPE-SULLIVAN, S. J., GLASSMAN, M., DUSCH, C.
M. K., SULLIVAN, J. M.: New Parents’ Facebook Use at the Transition to Parenthood. In Family Relations,
2012, Vol. 61, No. 3, p. 455-469. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XxXg2f>.; DRENTEA,
P., MOREN-CROSS, J.: Social Capital and Social Support on the Web: The Case of Internet Mother Site. In
Sociology of Health & Illness, 2005, Vol. 27, No. 7, p. 920-943. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://
bit.ly/2XJGkGg>.; DWORKIN, J., CONNELL, J., DOTY, J.: A Literature Review of Parents’ Online Behavior. In
Cyberpsychology: Journal of Pyschosocial Research on Cyberspace, 2013, Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 1-12. [online].
[2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2xGGjYO>.; GIBSON, L., HANSON, V.: Digital Motherhood: How
Does Technology Help New Mothers?. In MACKAY, W. E., BREWSTER, S. (eds.): Proceedings of the SIGCHI
Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems. New York : Association for Computing Machinery,
2010, p. 313-322. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2RLV5EF>.; LUPTON, D.: The Use and
Value of Digital Media for Information about Pregnancy and Early Motherhood: A Focus Group Study.
In BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth, 2016, Vol. 16, p. 171-81. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://
bit.ly/2RMX3Vh>.; LUPTON, D., PEDERSEN, S.: An Australian Survey of Women’s Use of Pregnancy and
Parenting Apps. In Women and Birth, 2016, Vol. 29, No. 4, p. 368-375. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available
at: <https://bit.ly/3epOgCt>.; MADGE, C., O’CONNOR, H.: Parenting Gone Wired: Empowerment of New
Mothers on the Internet. In Social & Cultural Geography, 2006, Vol. 7, No. 2, p. 199-220. [online]. [202004-17]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3cvhGxh>.; MORRIS, M.: Social Networking Site Use by Mothers of
Young Children. In FUSSEL, S., LUTTERS, W. (eds.): Proceedings of the 17th ACM Conference on Computer
Supported Cooperative Work & Social Computing. New York : Association for Computing Machinery,
2014, p.1272-1282. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3ahPpZl>.; WALKER, S., DWORKIN,
J., CONNELL, J.: Variation in Parent Use of Information and Communication Technology: Does Quality
Matter?. In Family & Consumer Sciences Research Vol. 40, p. 106-119. [online]. [2020-04-17]. Available
at: <https://bit.ly/34KvDo7.>.
See: BROSH, A.: When the Child is Born into the Internet: Sharenting as a Growing Trend Among Parents
on Facebook. In The New Educational Review, 2016, Vol. 43, No. 1, p. 225-235. [online]. [2020-04-11].
Available at: <https://bit.ly/3b6hxji.>.
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a “modern day baby book”, due to the contents parents share about their children on Facebook.12
It is even observed that most parents start sharenting posts through the photos of their children,
who are not born yet.13 Hence, it can be suggested that today, among parents who have
children over the age of 4, 56 % of mothers, 34 % of fathers share posts about their children
on their social media accounts within the framework of the parenting role.14 Sharenting not
only involves mothers and fathers who are primary parents, but other family members, such
as grandmothers and grandfathers, close friends also assume the role of parenting. 15 In this
regard, it is of paramount importance for parents who are active social media users to have
an awareness of the potential risks their posts pose on their children as they make use of the
possibilities provided by social media to them by sharing various content about their children.
3. Violation of Child’s Digital Privacy and Possible Risks
The concept of privacy, in the broadest sense of the word, can be defined „as the right to
be left alone, to be able to keep one’s personal information out of the public domain, to be
protected from control by others, to decide what personal information to share with others, to
know what personal information is being collected by others, and to access one’s personal data
held by others.“16 Based on this definition, it would not be wrong to suggest that social media
posts of parents have the potential to violate their children’s privacy, and therefore bring along
various risks with regard to protection of child’s digital identity as digital identities of children
are constructed by their parents before children become social media users.17 A recent study
shows that today 80 % of children have an image of themselves shared on digital media by
their parents before they reach the age of two.18 The fact that a child’s personal information
reaches digital media in a period when they cannot give their personal content, even if this is
done through the posts of their parents, eliminates the child’s freedom to share information
about themselves with persons they prefers and causes the private information, which the child
may prefer keeping confidential, to be circulated without their consent. It becomes difficult for
children, who already have a digital footprint through the posts shared by the parents, to have
a say in the construction of their digital identities in the ensuing years.19
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
See: KUMAR, P., SCHOENEBECK, S.: The Modern Day Baby Book: Enacting Good Mothering and Steawarding
Privacy on Facebook. In Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing (CSCW’15) ACM,
2015. [online]. [11-04-2020]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2V0cg7t.>.
QUVREIN, G., VERSWIJVEL, K.: Sharenting: Public Adoration or Public Humiliation?: A Focus Group Study on
Adolescents’ Experiences with Sharenting against the Background of their own Impression Management.
In Children and Youth Sciences Review, 2019, Vol. 99, p. 320. [online]. [2020-06-15]. Available at: <https://
bit.ly/3hwZSFi.>.
DAVIS, M., CLARK, S. J., SINGER, D. C., HALE, K., MATOS-MORENO, A., KAUFMANN, A. D.: Parents on
Social Media: Likes and Dislikes of Sharenting. In Mott Children’s Hospital National Poll on Children’s
Health, 2015, Vol. 23, No. 2, p.1-2. [online]. [2020-06-15]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2V2rVD1.>.
FOX, A. K., HOY, M. G.: Smart Devices, Smart Decisions? Implications of Parents’ Sharenting for Children’s
Online Privacy: An Investigation of Mothers. In Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 2019, Vol. 38, No. 4,
p. 414. [online]. [2020-04-13]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2wyoEC6.>.
See also: LIVINGSTONE, S.: Children’s Privacy Online: Experimenting with Boundaries within and Beyond
the Family. In KRAUT, R., BRYNIN, M., KIESLER, S. (eds.): Computers, Phones and the Internet: Domesticating
Information Technology. Human Technology Interaction Series. Oxford University Press : New York, 2006,
p.145-167. [online]. [2020-04-16]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3ayx36y.>.
See: BROSH, A.: When the Child is Born into the Internet: Sharenting as a Growing Trend Among Parents
on Facebook. In The New Educational Review, 2016, Vol. 43, No. 1, p. 225-235. [online]. [2020-04-11].
Available at: <https://bit.ly/3b6hxji.>.
See: BESSANT, C.: Too Much Information? More than 80 % of Children Have an Online Presence by the
Age of Two. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2Rwh5U2.>.
INAN-KAYA, G., KAYA, U.: Bir Ebeveyn Pratiği Olarak ‘Sharenting’. In AKFIRAT, O. N., STAUB, D. F., YAVAŞ, G.
(eds.): Current Debates in Education. London, İstanbul : IJOPEC Publication, 2018, Vol. 5, p. 481. [online].
[2020-04-22]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3eLg58a.>.
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As mentioned above, due to its functions, such as keeping people in constant connection
and providing instant access to information, social media provide the possibility to get social
and psychological support by accessing information and recommendations when they have
a problem that they cannot handle, or when they find themselves in a situation of uncertainty.
However, it can be suggested that this encourages individuals to stay connected to digital
media for their parenting roles. Parents’ sharing of information and recommendations about
their children on digital media is accompanied by sharing private content about their children,
and the increase of personal content shared about the children also increases the vulnerability
of the child.20 Within this framework, it becomes necessary to consider who can have access to
the contents shared about the child. The necessity arises from the fact that being able to know
the persons with whom the parents share the information about the child becomes gradually
more difficult due to the increase in the intensity and frequency of shared information, and
because the boundaries between public and private space become more and more blurred.21
In addition to this, yet another subject that must be considered is to what extent the
person sharing the information transfers it to a third user, or to what extent the third user will
have access to the content in question through the account of the sharing person. The reason
behind this consideration is the fact that the users’ friends, who have access to the content
these users share about themselves and their children, can also share these contents with
their other friends on their own accounts22 and the understanding about the privacy level of
the shared content may be interpreted differently according to the context.23 In this regard, it
can be suggested that a case of privacy breach of under the name of „Instagram role playing“
started involving also children. According to this, photographs of children shared by parents
on their Instagram accounts are stolen, a new digital history is written for children in these
photographs and fake parents present the photographs of these children as if they are their
own children.24 Considered within this scope, it can be suggested that not being able to know
who has access to the posts shared by parents with good intentions may make it impossible to
estimate the diffusion of personal contents about the child, such as photograph or video, and
cause such contents to be used for purposes like cyber-harassment or paedophilia.
Parents share important moments, parenting experiences with their social circle through
social media sharing sites, particularly Facebook, Instagram and blogs, in which one can keep
digital diaries and also participate in discussions about the situations they confront in parenting
process and share their opinions on such platforms. Considered from this perspective, it can be
suggested that the posts shared by parents with regard to their parenting practices pose various
risks by possibly violating the privacy of their children’s digital identity. Those risks include:25 (1)
posts shared by parents about their children make it possible for foreign persons, who are not
20
21
22
23
24
25
See: FOX, A. K., HOY, M. G.: Smart Devices, Smart Decisions? Implications of Parents’ Sharenting for
Children’s Online Privacy: An Investigation of Mothers. In Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 2019, Vol.
38, No. 4, p. 414-432. [online]. [2020-04-13]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2wyoEC6.>.
See: LANKTON, N. K., MCKNIGHT, H. D., TRIPP, J. F.: Facebook Privacy Management Strategies: A Cluster
Analysis of User Privacy Behaviours. In Computers in Human Behavior, 2017, Vol. 76, p. 149-163. [online].
[2020-04-16]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/34G9RC4.>.
See: FOX, A. K., HOY, M. G.: Smart Devices, Smart Decisions? Implications of Parents’ Sharenting for
Children’s Online Privacy: An Investigation of Mothers. In Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 2019, Vol.
38, No. 4, p. 414-432. [online]. [2020-04-13]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2wyoEC6.>.
See: NISSENBAUM, H.: A Contextual Approach to Privacy Online. In Daedalus, 2011, Vol. 140, No. 4, p.
32-48. [online]. [2020-04-16]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3alezGN.>.
See also: GROSSMAN, W.: ‘Online Baby-Role-Playing’: Between Casual Fantasy and Real-Life Obsession.
[online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/76296/>.; MİLLER, B.: The Creepiest New Corner
of Instagram: Role-Playing with Baby Photos. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3ehsZdR.>.
MINKUS, T., LIU, K., ROSS, K.W.: Children Seen But Not Heard: When Parents Compromise Children’s
Online Privacy. In GANGEMI, A., LEONARDI, S.: Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World
Wide Web. Italy : International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee, 2015, p. 777. [online].
[2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2VpKwbc.>.
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directly related to the parents or the child, to have access to the personal information about the
child, (2) although social media accounts allow users to take various security measures about
their posts, it is not one hundred per cent possible to know who can see the contents shared
about the child, (3) shared contents allow creating a profile about the child and this profile can
be used by various brands or advertisers for marketing purposes, (4) as child’s likings and
identity information are transferred to online media, parents create a digital footprint for the
children, which is voluntarily presented to the viewing of other observers.
4. Protecting the Digital Privacy of the Child
It is of significant importance for parents to pay attention to certain criteria in order not to violate
the digital privacy of the child, especially when they share content about children who cannot
look out for their own well-being. In this context, the fact that no content, which does not need
to be disclosed to the public, should be shared on social media, can be accepted as the first
and basic criteria.26 Considering the fact that social networks are public spheres, all contents
shared by parents about the child will also be publicly visible and they can be recorded by
other users and used for different purposes afterwards. On the other hand, although parents
do not share contents related to their children with the intention of circulating them publicly,
detailed information is transferred to the media in question (birthday, school of the child, etc.)
and as the shared content increases, it becomes impossible to hide or delete this information.
In this regard, certain measures that can be taken when contents related to the children are
shared in media can be suggested. Regarding this subject, Minkus, Liu and Ross27 emphasize
the following recommendations, which may allow parents to protect the digital privacy of
their children, while using social networks actively at the same time: position before sharing
content about the child and evaluating the potential risks that might be caused by this post,
(4) not sharing contents which contain personal information about the child, (5) encrypting the
contents shared on social networks by means of applications such as Cryptagram,28 thereby
being able to share content related to the child with only preferred users.
On the other hand, it is observed that other studies conducted on parents with children
of older ages29 suggest that parents can make use of the following recommendations, which
will allow them to protect the privacy of their children, while ensuring that they participate in
digital media as independent users at the same time:
• having information about the security of the website, on which contents are shared,
• using applications such as Google Alert for receiving a warning message whenever the
child’s name is searched on the Internet,
• sharing contents by not revealing the identity of the child as far as possible,
26
27
28
29
See: ORTERO, P.: Sharenting… Should Children’s Lives Be Disclosed on Social Media. In Archivos Argentinos
de Pediatria, 2017, Vol. 115, No. 5, p. 412-414. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2ya5N0y.>.
MINKUS, T., LIU, K., ROSS, K.W.: Children Seen But Not Heard: When Parents Compromise Children’s
Online Privacy. In GANGEMI, A., LEONARDI, S.: Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World
Wide Web. Italy : International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee, 2015, p. 783. [online].
[2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2VpKwbc.>.
For more information see: TIERNEY, M., SPIRO, I., BREGLER, C., SUBRAMANIAN, L.: Cyrptagram: Photo
Privacy for Online Social Media. In MUTHUKRISHNAN, M., EL ABBADI, E. (eds.): Proceedings of the First
ACM Conference on Online Social Networks. Boston : Association for Computing Machinery, 2013, p.
75-88. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3a4KfQg.>.
See: MOSER, C., CHEN, T., SCHOENEBECK, S. Y.: Parents’ and Children’s Preferences about Parents
Sharing about Children on Social Media, In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors
in Computing Systems, 2017, p. 5221-5225. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XukTZJ>.;
KEITH, B. E., STEINBERG, S.: Parental Sharing on the Internet: Child Privacy in the Age of Social Media
and the Pediatrician’s Role. In JAMA Pediatrics, 2017, Vol. 171, No. 5, p. 413-414. [online]. [2020-04-11].
Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XozRQV.>.
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•
•
•
•
avoiding referring to the personal information and location of the child in shared content,
iving children of older ages the right to reject their parents’ sharing content about them,
making sure that children are dressed in all photos,
deciding to share a content about the child after considering the child’s reaction to this
post when they grow older,
• taking the preferences of the child into account by means of software that especially
remind getting the approval of children of older ages and allow checking whether the
child is tagged in the post.
Parents must not only share their own posts in a way that the privacy of their children
is protected, but also act as guides for the contents shared by the children. Because the
measures taken by parents regarding the use of digital media also shape the child’s experience
of digital presence in digital media. While digital media pose various threats for individuals of
all ages, it is observed that children are the most vulnerable group among others since their
digital literacy level is low.30 Within this framework, it can be suggested that parents assume
the most important role to ensure that children take place in digital media safely31 and all the
monitoring acts , measures and prohibitions adopted by parents shape the child’s experience
in digital media32. In this regard, parents must be guides not only in terms of regulating child’s
use of digital media, but also to help the child understand the importance of protecting oneself
by taking the right decisions when digital media are used.33
5. Aim and Methodology
The research aims to determine the priorities attached by the parents when they share contents
about children on their social media accounts and what kind of measures they take in these
shared contents to protect the digital privacy of their children. Within this framework, the
research questions of the study are as follows:
RQ1: Which content do parents primarily prefer when they share posts about their children
on their personal social media accounts?
RQ2: Which preferences of their children do parents take into account when they share
posts about their children on their personal social media accounts?
30
31
32
33
See: AKBULUT, Y., ŞAHİN, Y. L., ERİŞTİ, B.: Cyberbullying Victimization among Turkish Online Social Utility
Members. In Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 2010, Vol. 13, No. 4, p. 192-201. [online]. [202004-12]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2yeqecL>.; KAŞIKÇI, D. N., ÇAĞILTAY, K., KARAKUŞ, T., KURŞUN, E.,
OGAN, C.: Türkiye ve Avrupa’daki Çocukların İnternet Alışkanlıkları ve Güvenli İnternet Kullanımı. In Eğitim
ve Bilim, 2014, Vol. 39, p. 230-243. [online]. [2020-04-12]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XBEiYN>.
See also: LIVINGSTONE, S., HELSPER, E.: Balancing Opportunities and Risks in Teenagers’ Use of the
Internet: The Role of Online Skills and Internet Self-Efficacy, In New Media & Society, 2010, Vol. 12, No.
2, p. 309-329. [online]. [13-04-2020]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2K4kbdw>.; ROSEN, L. R., CHEEVER,
N. A., CARRIER, L. M.: The Impact of Parental Attachment Style, Limit Setting and Monitoring on Teen
MySpace Behavior. In Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 2008, Vol. 29, No. 6, p. 459-471.
[online]. [2020-04-13]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2yg5ph2.>.
See: ALVAREZ, M., TORRES, A., RODRIGUEZ, E., PADILLA, S., RODRIGO, M. J.: Attitudes and Parenting
Dimensions in Parents’ Regulation of Internet Use by Primary and Secondary School Children. In Computers
& Education, 2013, Vol. 67, p. 69-73. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/34xb9iN>.; VALCKE,
M., BONTE, S., DE WEVER, B., ROTS, I.: Internet Parenting Styles and the Impact on Internet Use of Primary
School Children. In Computers & Education, 2010, Vol. 55, No. 2, p. 454-464. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available
at: <https://bit.ly/3cgsIX6.>.
See: LIVINGSTONE, S.: Children’s Privacy Online: Experimenting with Boundaries within and Beyond the
Family. In KRAUT, R., BRYNIN, M., KIESLER, S. (eds.): Computers, Phones and the Internet: Domesticating
Information Technology. Human Technology Interaction Series. Oxford University Press : New York, 2006,
p. 145-167. [online]. [2020-04-16]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3ayx36y.>.
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RQ3: Which measures do parents primarily implement for the protection of their children’s
digital privacy when they share posts about their children on their personal social media
accounts?
This study, which aims to present the awareness of parents about the protection of children’s
privacy in digital media, is a field study based on the descriptive method via questionnaire.
Within this scope, the target population of the study was determined as parents who live in
Turkey and use at least one social media account actively. Goal-oriented sampling, which is one
of the non-random sampling methods, was used for the selection of individuals to be included
in the sample group from the target population. Goal-oriented sampling allows determining
and selecting the units that represent the characteristic for which information is required from
the target universe34 and conducting the research based on the units, from which in-depth
information can be obtained through specific criteria and certain common characteristics. To
avoid any error regarding the sample size, attention was paid to ensure that the participants
selected from the determined population represent the population of Turkey. Accordingly, when
the population of Turkey is taken into account,35 the level of representation in the sample of 442
participants has a reliability degree of 95 % with a 4,66 % margin of error.
The questionnaire applied to the participants consists of five sections. In the first section
of the questionnaire, questions intended for determining the demographic features of the
participants were included, while ranking questions intended for determining the usage frequency
of social media accounts of the users were included in the second section. In the next three
sections of the questionnaire, the five-point likert scale (strongly disagree, disagree, I have no
idea, agree, strongly agree) was used. In these likert scale based three sections, statements
for determining the priorities attached by parents when they share content about their children,
statements regarding parents’ tendency to take the preferences of their children into account
in their social posts and statements for determining the digital privacy measures adopted by
children were included respectively. In the process of determining the statements in the likert
scale, various research findings addressing parent’s awareness towards the digital privacy of
children36 were used and the questionnaire took its final form by revising recommendations for
protecting the digital privacy of the child in accordance with the purposes of the study. This
version of the questionnaire was first implemented on 20 participants and necessary revisions
were made based on the findings obtained through 20 participants. Revisions made at this
phase were in the form of adding explanations from example applications to the statements
intended for determining the digital privacy measures adopted by parents as included in the
fifth section of the questionnaire. The final version of the questionnaire with these additions
34
35
36
YAZICIOĞLU, A., EROĞLU, C.: SPSS Uygulamalı Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemleri. Ankara : Detay Yayıncılık,
2014, p. 82.
According to the Turkish Statistical Institute’s (TUIK) data for the year 2018, the population of Turkey is
approximately 83 million. [online]. [2020-04-22]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2W4wBJR.>.
See: BELANGER, F., CROSSLER, R. E., HILLER, J. S., PARK, J. M., HSIAO, M.: Children Online Privacy: Issues
with Parental Awareness and Control, In RAO, H. R., UPADHYAYA, S. (eds.): Handbooks in Information
Systems: Information Assurance Security and Privacy Services. United Kingdom : Emerald Publishing,
2009, p. 311-333. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3c9V9pu>.; MINKUS, T., LIU, K.,
ROSS, K. W.: Children Seen But Not Heard: When Parents Compromise Children’s Online Privacy. In
GANGEMI, A., LEONARDI, S. (eds.): Proceedings of the 24th International Conference on World Wide Web.
Italy : International World Wide Web Conferences Steering Committee Republic and Canton of Geneva
Switzerland, 2015, p. 776-786. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2VpKwbc>.; MOSER, C.,
CHEN, T., SCHOENEBECK, S. Y.: Parents’ and Children’s Preferences about Parents Sharing about Children
on Social Media. In Proceedings of the 2017 CHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems,
2017, p. 5221-5225. [online]. [11-04-2020]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XukTZJ>.; STEINBERG, S. B.:
Sharenting: Children’s Privacy in the Age of Social Media. In Emory Law Journal, 2016, Vol. 66, p. 839-884.
[online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/3c9IDX0>.; KEITH, B. E., STEINBERG, S.: Parental Sharing
on the Internet: Child Privacy in the Age of Social Media and the Pediatrician’s Role. In JAMA Pediatrics,
2017, Vol. 171, No. 5, p. 413-414. [online]. [2020-04-11]. Available at: <https://bit.ly/2XozRQV>.
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was implemented on the participants. As far as the reliability degree of answers given by the
participants to the questionnaire is concerned, it can be suggested that Cronbach’s Alpha
figure has a high level of reliability with 0,813. For the evaluation of the answers given to the
questionnaire, the answers given to the implemented questionnaire were coded, data available
for processing were transferred to the computer environment by using SPSS 22.0 package
software. Descriptive analyses conducted for answering the research questions were also
obtained by means of the same software.
6. Findings
In this study, which aims to measure parents’ protection of their children’s digital identity in
their posts shared on social media, the participants were first asked questions to determine
their demographic features. Accordingly, it was determined that 52% (230 persons) of the
participants are women, 48% (212 persons) of the participants are men; 7,9% (35 persons) of
the participants are between the ages of 25-30, 26,1% (115 persons) of the participants are
between the ages of 31-35, 29,8% (132 persons) of the participants are between the ages of
36-40, 18,5 % (82 persons) of the participants are between the ages of 41-45, 19,3% (50 persons)
of the participants are between the ages of 46-50, 4,9% (21 persons) of the participants are
between the ages of 51-55, 1,5% (7 persons) of the participants are between the ages of 56-60.
24,9% (21 persons) of the participants are primary school graduates, 24,9% (21 persons) of the
participants are high school graduates, 55,7% (246 persons) of the participants are university
graduates, 10% (44 persons) of the participants have a graduate degree, 4,8% (21 persons)
have a doctorate degree; 27,6% (122 persons) of the participants are single and 72,4% (320
persons) of the participants are married. As far as the number of children the parents have
is concerned, it is observed that 54% (239 persons) of the participants have one child, 42%
(186 persons) of the participants have two children, 4% (17 persons) of the participants have
three children. Among the parents who have one child, 47,4% (131 persons) of them have a
daughter, 52,6% (145 persons) have a son; among the parents who have more than one child,
24% (40 persons) of them have only sons, 28,9% (48 persons) of them have only daughters
and 46,9% (78 persons) have both sons and daughters.
In addition to demographic features, the parents were also asked which social media
accounts they use and about the frequency of using them. Accordingly, 94,5% (418 persons)
of the participants are Facebook users, 88,9% (393 persons) of the participants are Twitter
users and 96,1% of the participants are Instagram users. The table, which shows participants’
frequency of using these social media accounts, is given below:
Instagram
Twitter
Facebook
3,8%
Never
11,1%
5,4%
17,9%
Low
59%
11,1%
25,1%
21,5%
Medium
45,7%
53,2%
8,4%
High
37,8%
0
15
30
45
60
TABLE 1: Parents’ frequency of using their personal social media accounts
Source: own processing
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According to the table, among the users, who have a Facebook account, 37,8% (167 persons)
use Facebook intensively, 45,7% use Facebook at a moderate level, 11,1% (49 persons) use
Facebook occasionally; among the users who have a Twitter account, 8,4% (37 persons) use Twitter
intensively, 21,5% (95 persons) use Twitter at a moderate level, 59% use Twitter occasionally;
among users who have an Instagram account, 53,2% (235 persons) use it intensively, 25,11%
(111 persons) use Instagram at a moderate level, and 17,9% use Instagram occasionally.
After the parents were asked questions for determining their frequency of using social media
accounts, the participants were asked to mark the statements on the Likert scale according to
their degree of agreement. Within this scope, statements for determining the priorities attached
by parents when they share content about their children, statements regarding parents’ tendency
to take the preferences of their children into account in their social posts, and statements for
determining the digital privacy measures adopted by children were presented.
The table, which shows the parents’ agreement degree averages to the given statements
for determining their preferences regarding the posts shared about their children, is given below:
Parents’ preferences about sharing content related to their
children
Std.
Mean Deviation
N
When I share posts about my child, I generally prefer special
occasions such as their birthday, school graduation, etc.
3,95
1,002
442
I prefer sharing my child’s infancy photos more.
3,37
1,320
442
I generally prefer sharing photos taken together as a family.
3,93
1,123
442
I prefer sharing posts which show the growth process of my child more.
3,79
1,248
442
I share the photographs and videos of my child in a way that they are
only seen by my family members and close friends.
4,10
1,043
442
I prefer photographs and videos of my child which I consider
entertaining or funny.
3,87
1,221
442
TABLE 2: Parents' preferences about sharing content related to their children
Source: own processing
According to the table, when the parents’ preferences about sharing content related to
their children are evaluated, it is observed that participants generally choose special occasions,
such as birthday, school graduation of their children (mean: 3,95; SD: 1,002), they prefer sharing
the infancy photos of their children more (mean: 3,37; SD: 1,320), they generally share photos
taken together as a family (mean: 3,93; SD: 1,123), they mostly share the contents that show
the growth process of their children (mean: 3,79; SD: 1,248), they mostly share the photos and
videos of their children in a way that they are seen by their family members and close friends
(mean: 4,10; SD: 1,043) and they mostly prefer sharing photos and videos of their children,
which they consider entertaining or funny (mean: 3,87; SD: 1,221).
The table, which shows the parents’ agreement level averages of statements intended for
determining parents’ tendency to take the preferences of their children into account in their
social media posts, is as follows:
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Parents’ tendency to take the preferences of their children
in their social media posts
Std.
Mean Deviation
N
If my child is at an older age, I get my child’s opinion when I share
their photographs.
3,81
1,085
442
I avoid sharing photographs and videos which my child would not be
happy to see.
3,97
1,056
442
If my child is at an older age, I take care of sharing photographs and
videos that my child wants.
3,92
1,084
442
If my child is at an older age, I sometimes share the photographs that
I like, although I think that my child will react negatively.
2,69
1,082
442
If my child is at an older age, I do not get my child’s opinion when I
share their photographs and videos.
2,06
1,005
442
TABLE 3: Parents' tendency to take the preferences of their children in their social media posts
Source: own processing
As far as the parents’ answers to statements regarding their tendency to take the preferences
of their children in their social media posts are concerned, it can be suggested that if the
participants’ children are at an older age, they ask the opinion of their children when they share
their photos (mean: 3,81; SD: 1,085), they avoid sharing photos or videos which they think their
children will not like (mean: 3,97; SD: 1,056) and if their children are at an older age, they pay
attention to sharing content in accordance with the preferences of their children (mean: 3,92;
SD: 1,084). On the other hand, it is observed that the participants avoid sharing content about
their children when they think that their children will react negatively to such posts (mean: 2,69;
SD: 1,082) and they prefer asking for the opinions of their children when they share their photos
or videos (mean: 2,06; SD: 1,005).
Finally, the table which shows the parents’ agreement levels to statements intended for
determining the measures adopted by parents to protect the digital privacy of their children is
as follows:
Measures adopted by parents to protect the digital privacy of
their children
Std.
Mean Deviation
N
I customized the security settings of the site on which I share content
in a way that I can protect the privacy of my child.
4,15
,919
442
I share my posts by keeping my child’s identity confidential.
2,56
1,373
442
I take care not to share my child’s personal information.
2,93
1,383
442
If my child is at an older age, I tag them in my posts for allowing them
to delete the contents that they do not like.
4,13
,915
442
I make sure that my child is dressed in the photos and videos that I share.
4,46
,811
442
Before I share a content about my child, I consider what my child
would think about this content when they grow up.
4,09
1,015
442
If my child is at an older age, I share content by taking their
preferences into account.
4,06
1,019
442
I use various applications to protect the digital privacy of my child in
the posts that I share.
3,95
1,039
442
TABLE 4: Measures adopted by parents to protect the digital privacy of their children
Source: own processing
According to the table, it is observed that the parents customize the security of the site
on which they share posts (mean: 4,15; SD: ,919), tag their children in their posts for allowing
them to delete photos that they do not like (mean: 4,13; SD. ,915), make sure that their children
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are dressed in the contents that they share (mean: 4,46; SD. ,811), when they share content
about their children, they consider what their child would think about the consent in question
when they grow up (mean: 4,09; SD: 1,015), they take the preference of their children when
sharing posts (mean: 4,06; SD. 1,019) and they use various additional applications to protect
the digital privacy of their children (mean: 3,95; SD: 1,039). However, on the other hand, it can
be suggested that parents do not adopt measures such as keeping the identity of the child
confidential (mean: 2,56; SD: 1,373) and making sure that the child’s personal information is
not shared (mean: 2,93; SD: 1,383).
7. Conclusion
The contents shared by parents about their children on their personal social media accounts,
how and with whom they share such contents is of paramount importance for protecting the
privacy of the child in digital media. Based on this focus, the study aims to determine the
priorities attached by the parents when they share contents about children on their social media
accounts, and what kind of measures they take in these shared contents to protect the digital
privacy of their children. When the social media useage frequency of parents included in the
study is evaluated, it is observed that parents use Instagram primarily and more intensely for
sharing content on social media. Instagram is followed by Facebook with a moderate level of
use and Twitter with the least frequent use. As far as parents’ preferences of sharing content
about their children are concerned, it is observed that parents mainly choose special occasions,
such as their children’s birthday, school graduation, etc. when they share content about their
children, they prefer sharing infancy photos of their children, they mostly share photos taken
together as a family, they mostly share posts that show the growth process of their children,
they generally share the photos and videos of their children in the way that these contents are
seen by family members and close friends, and they mainly prefer sharing photos and videos
of their children which they consider entertaining or funny.
On the other hand, it can be suggested that when parents share content about their children,
they ask for the opinion of their children if they are at an older age, and if their child is younger,
they avoid sharing content which they consider their child would not enjoy being shared by
putting themselves in the child’s position.
As far as the measures adopted by parents when they share content about their children
on social media are concerned, it is observed that they make use of settings of the site, tag
their children for allowing them to remove photos that they do not like from their profile pages,
make sure that their children are dressed in the contents they share, and use various additional
applications to ensure the safety of their contents. On the other hand, it can be suggested that
parents do not keep the identity of their children confidential in their posts and are not careful
enough about the measures such as not sharing their personal information. In other words,
although parents take various measures to protect their children’s privacy in digital media, they
do not hide their children’s identity completely in the contents they share. Evaluated within this
framework, it would not be wrong to argue that, while parents take certain measures taking
advantage of the opportunities provided by the digital media, there are various gaps in these
measures. Therefore, it is of paramount importance for parents to extend these measures taken
to protect the child’s digital privacy completely. In this context, as Lokkke argued, the necessity
to find a balance which will allow both attaching importance to privacy and developing useful
digital tools and services must be re-emphasized.
Acknowledgement: This study was conducted with the support of Raoul Wallenberg Institute
Turkey Human Rights Capacity Building Program.
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Authors
Asst. Prof. Derya Gül Ünlü, Ph.D.
Department of Public Relations and Advertisement
Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University
Kaptani Derya Ibrahim Pasa Str.
Beyazit – Istanbul
TURKEY
derya.gul@istanbul.edu.tr
Derya Gül-Ünlü is an Assistant Professor at the Public Relations and Advertisement Department at Istanbul
University, Faculty of Communication, Turkey. She graduated from the Public Relations and Advertisement
Department of Istanbul University in 2011 and was awarded a Double Major in the Journalism Department
of the Faculty of Communication at Istanbul University. She received her MA and Ph.D. degrees in Public
Relations and Advertisement from the same university. Her main research subjects are gender, gender-based
discrimination and gender identity stereotypes in the communication process.
Assoc. Prof. Oya Morva, Ph.D.
Department of Journalism
Faculty of Communication, Istanbul University
Kaptani Derya Ibrahim Pasa Str.
Beyazit – Istanbul
TURKEY
oyamorva@istanbul.edu.tr
Oya Morva is an Associate Professor at the Department of Journalism at the Istanbul University, Faculty
of Communication, Turkey. She received her MA degree in Sociology and Methodology from Mimar Sinan
Fine Art University and her Ph.D. degree in Journalism from Istanbul University. She was awarded a Ph.D.
Research Scholarship by The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey and was an invited
student at the University of Chicago – Department of Sociology. Her main research areas are sociology
of communication and digital culture studies.
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photo: Lenka Janíková
Zora Hudíková, Hana Pravdová
Establishment Of Procedures
In The Creation Of Extended
Multimedia News Reports
ABSTRACT
The authors deal with the issue of transformations and the establishment of news journalism
genres in the online media environment, with a focus on extended multimedia news reports.
They emphasise that the technical and technological platform of online media creates fertile
ground for the modification of genres sourced from conventional media. According to them, the
multi-platform essence of online media and the hybridisation trend in genre-based approaches
are a suitable foundation for the formation of extended multi-platform news. They raise the
question of whether it is possible at the end of the second decade of the new millennium to
formulate a premise under which an extended multimedia news report has specific typological
characteristics and established creative procedures. They reach a clear conclusion based on
qualitative analysis completed on a selection of extended multimedia news reports from the
portals sme.sk and pravda.sk. They state that it is appropriate to talk about a stable structure
as well as established procedures in the creation of extended multimedia news reports.
KEY WORDS
Journalistic genres. News genres. Extended multimedia news report. Circular economy. News
journalism processes. Recycling. Values. Criteria.
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1. Introduction
The developmental phases of classical media and the journalistic genre types within them
confirm a great degree of stability in the processes of depicting objective reality, and of course
also in the choice of linguistic and stylistic means. While news journalism genres are known
for the fact that their compositional structures, language and style are established in clear
stereotypical schemes1, it is impossible to deny their continuous developmental transformations.
These are based on a number of factors, such as the type and typological characteristic of the
media, relevance, and therefore a preference for certain themes from a newsroom or societal
perspective, editorial changes within the editing process, the media’s popularity in a specific
developmental epoch of the media or the mental outlook in the socio-cultural environment. The
mental outlook of society as a whole is very closely related to how journalists approach the
representation of reality within the news, along with their editorial priorities and the degree of
their professionalism.2 The mental outlook of every group of people also speaks to the extent
of their willingness to accept, for example, the tabloidisation of the news, the hybridisation of
news genres, the publication of various hoaxes, conspiracies, manipulated news and the like. 3
Given the broader context in which news journalism genres are formed, it is clear that the
new era of journalistic work is influenced by the rise and establishment of online journalism.4
There is no denying the fact that online news did not appear out of nowhere and instead it
built on the tradition of creating news genres in the classical media.5 Despite the fact that
online journalism followed the procedures of older classical media, it found its own ways
1
2
3
4
5
Stereotypical schemes include preference for established usages when constructing reports and when
selecting linguistic and stylistic means. Within the construct of such stabilised creation of news genres,
Mistrík speaks of a downward progression or downward perspective (see MISTRÍK, J.: Štylistika. Bratislava :
Slovenské pedagogické nakladateľstvo, 1989, p. 469.). However, we note that the above perspectives
are subject to development and to a large extent their selection is underpinned by the peculiarities of
individual genre types as well as the creative abilities and intentions of individual journalists.
Editorial priorities in this sense includes the outlook of the newsroom towards serious societal, political,
economic and cultural matters, which are reflected in the selection of key events, and how and the manner
in which they are processed. The professional prerequisites for a journalist include adequate higher
education in a relevant academic program, knowledge and skills for writing in individual journalistic
genres, and adherence to the generally valid principles of journalistic ethics (compare to HUDÍKOVÁ, Z.:
The convergence of media and journalism. In SGEM 2017: 4th International Multidisciplinary Scientific
Conference on Social Sciences and Arts: Science & Humanities Conference Proceedings. Volume I: Human
Geography, Media and Communications, Information and Library Science, Demography and Women´s
Studies. Sofia : STEF92 Technology, 2017, p. 133-140.; MISTRÍKOVÁ, Z., ŽITNÝ, M.: Úloha médií v boji
proti korupcii, etika v médiách, korupcia v médiách. Bratislava : Róbert Vico, 2001, p. 7-24. [online]. [202007-05]. Available at: <https://www.transparency.sk/wp-content/uploads/2010/01/030807_uloha.pdf>.).
See PRAVDOVÁ, H.: Mediálne a kultúrne rámce multiplatformovej žurnalistiky. In PRAVDOVÁ, H.,
RADOŠINSKÁ, J., VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J.: Koncepty a praktiky multiplatformovej žurnalistiky. Slovensko v sieťach
digitálnych diaľnic. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2017, p. 52-64.
J. Višňovský differentiates between Internet journalism and online news journalism. According to him,
Internet journalism conceptually included the publication of journalistic expressions and other materials in
various forms in the Internet environment (websites, social media, RSS channels, emails, etc.). Online news
journalism is specific in that it enables the presentation of news reports in a non-linear fashion and it is
up to the recipients to decide if they will read them and when (VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J.: Internetová žurnalistika. In
Slovník vybraných pojmov z mediálnych štúdií. Kľúčové termíny v súčasnej mediálnej komunikácii. Trnava :
FMK UCM, 2016, p. 95.).
The term classical media covers periodicals, radio and television. Please note that this term is not rigidly
defined in media studies and the authors typically alternate it with the term traditional media, which
provides the desired level of contrast with so-called new media or media operating on the Internet,
especially with respect to alternative media (see for example FIDLER, R.: Mediamorphosis: Understanding
New Media. Thousand Oaks; London; New Delhi : Pine Forge Press, 1997.; MANOVICH, L.: The Language
of New Media. Cambridge : MIT Press, 2001.; DEUZE, M.: Media life. Prague : Karolinum, 2015.; GÁLIK,
S.: Influence of Cyberspace on Changes in Contemporary Education. In Communication Today, 2017, Vol.
8, No. 1, p. 30-39. ISSN 1338-130X etc.).
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of providing news interpretations of the depicted reality. Based on numerous indicators, online
news journalism may be said to have many positive and comparative advantages compared to
journalism in classical media. According to Bednář, these primarily include interactivity as a new
form of communication with recipients by using information linked together via hypertext6, the
free choice of information on offer and flexibility, with online inputs and overlapping formats.7
Undisputed advantages of journalism in the online environment are the creative opportunities
that may be leveraged within the multi-platform essence of the communicated information.
It is clear that multi-platform journalism8, thanks to its technical, technological and creative
capacities, has elevated the Internet medium to the pedestal of the dominant medium during
a period of more than two decades.9
Journalists modified common news genre templates taken from classical media. They
adapted them to the new technical and technological possibilities of digital communication
and the characteristics of the Internet environment. When creating news texts, they count
on the ability to combine text, photographs, auditory or audiovisual statements. This leads
them to certain schematic procedures, towards conciseness or, vice versa, towards writing
exhaustive texts or towards making a conscious effort to make the texts clearer by using
subtitles, infographics, etc. It is also important to apply a critical distance from the agenda
that the journalist is working with.10 The creation of completely new genres can be observed
in addition to the extant genres taken from the classical media and modified to the conditions
6
7
8
9
10
Hypertext (HTML) means hypertext markup language. The term „hyper“ refers to the extension of the
original version of the text with additional information. The user „clicks“ on complementary, clarifying and
similar texts, enriching his overall knowledge (CHATFIELD, T.: Digitálny vek. 50 myšlienok, ktoré by ste mali
poznať. Bratislava : Slovart, 2013, p. 9). HTML offers quick orientation and navigation in a huge number
of information packages located on Internet networks. It makes it possible to reciprocate information
in textual, auditory or audiovisual form. „Hypertext Transfer Protocol (http) is a protocol for transferring
HTML documents between servers and Web services clients. It enables worldwide interconnection of
hypertext documents and serves as a primary communication tool in the WWW environment.“ (VRABEC,
N.: Komunikácia v ére internetu. In MAGÁL, S., MATÚŠ, J., PETRANOVÁ, D. (eds.): Masmediálne štúdiá
v kocke. Trnava : Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie UCM, 2013, p. 500.).
BEDNÁŘ, V.: Internetová publicistika. Prague : Grada, 2011, p. 29.
Its creative basis is the connection of various components realised through digital technologies, such as
text, photographs, drawings, graphics, animations, auditory or audiovisual elements (compare to HARDCUP,
T.: Oxford Dictionary of Journalism. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2014.; GERSHBERG, Z.: Multiplatform
Journalism. In ALLEN, M. (ed): The Sage Encyclopedia of Communication Research Methods. Thousand
Oaks : Sage Publications, 2017, p. 1037-1040.; VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J., RADOŠINSKÁ, J.: Online Journalism:
Current Trends and Challenges. In PEÑA ACUÑA, B. (ed.): The Evolution of Media Communication. Rijeka :
InTech, 2017, s. 3-22.; RADOŠINSKÁ, J.: Multiplatformové novinárstvo v kontexte mediálnej kultúry. In
PRAVDOVÁ, H., RADOŠINSKÁ, J., VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J.: Koncepty a praktiky multiplatformovej žurnalistiky.
Slovensko v sieťach digitálnych diaľnic. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2017, p. 107-182.; VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J.: Paralely
digitálneho novinárstva a jeho rozmach v kontexte rozvoja informačných a komunikačných technológií
v spoločnosti. In PRAVDOVÁ, H., RADOŠINSKÁ, J., VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J.: Koncepty a praktiky multiplatformovej
žurnalistiky. Slovensko v sieťach digitálnych diaľnic. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2017, p. 183-272.; GARCÍA, F.
S., BRAVO, O. A., MARTIATU, R. Y.: The Cyberjournalism that we Make and the One that we Want –
Cyberjournalistic Praxis: The Case of Mass Media in Matanzas, Cuba. In Media Literacy and Academic
Research, 2020, Vol. 3, No. 1, p. 73-84.; ŠVECOVÁ, M.: Webová žurnalistika. Trnava : FMK UCM, (CD),
2017. etc.).
Two factors function as evidence of the dominance of multi-platform journalism on the media market. The
first is traffic to sites and ad packages that surf the pages of successful online media or web magazines
(compare to Výdavky do internetovej reklamy 2019. [online]. [2020-09-08.] Available at: <https://www.
iabslovakia.sk/vydavky-do-reklamy/vydavky-internetovej-reklamy-2019-sk/>. The second factor points to
the adaptation of classical media to the means of expression in a multi-platform format. As an example,
television news now includes references to the home television station’s website, etc. According to Carr,
this trend can be seen in periodicals as well. It is much more structured, and image material prevails at
the expense of text, and effective visualisation on pages is a priority (CARR, N.: The Shallows. What the
Internet Is Doing to Our Brains. New York : W.W. Norton, 2010, p. 232-234.).
Compare to: SILVERBLATT, A.: Media Literacy and Critical Thinking. In International Journal of Media and
Information Literacy, 2018, Vol. 3, No.2, p. 71, ISSN 2500-106X.
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of the new technical-technological platform. These are mainly blogs on the web or so-called
hybrid genres that are not fixed with respect to their genre templates because they apply different
genre elements and techniques. After more than two decades of online news, its genre fixation
remains an open question. Journalistic content in the online environment is arranged
in hypertext and communication is established through a non-linear combination of
symbols and images.11This study primarily focuses on the modification of classical extended
news and we monitor its degree of stability in terms of preferred journalistic practices in its
creation. We ask the question of whether it is possible at the end of the second decade of the
new millennium to formulate a premise under which an extended multimedia news report has
specific typological characteristics and established creative procedures.
2. Establishment of compositional procedures and
content structures in multi-platform news genres
2.1 Universal applicability of news values, criteria and procedures
The news journalism genre may be identified through a certain model structure of the journalism
department. This means that it follows a template procedure on the basis of which the author
builds the news report. Of course, the extent to which the resulting text, audio or video message
deviates from the basic scheme depends on the situation, the medium and the personality of
the creator. However, it is clear in the case of news creation that genre features remain decisive,
i.e. they determine the choice of title, composition (including linguistic and stylistic means),
the method of verbal interpretation and the manner by which images are captured and edited
in the case of electronic media.12
A specific portion of journalism as a whole may be identified as news based on certain genre
characteristics. Clearly, in both the environment of professional journalists and among the general
public, news has a clear function: to inform. This is the reason why its defining frameworks are
established in the theory of genres. For example, one can agree with Osvaldová and Halada, who
offer a generalised definition of news based on the starting points of several authors. They state
that it is the oldest journalistic field and strictly characterise it as factual, accurate, complete,
timely and emotionally neutral information about an event or phenomenon.13 Similarly, Harcup
in his glossary of basic journalistic terms assigns the role of providing information about current
events to the news. Selection is based on various criteria, such as interest, relevance, topicality,
unusualness, etc. The selection and prioritisation of acceptable information is conditioned in
each newsroom upon preferred reporting values.14 In our opinion, they have two positions:
universal and pragmatic.
In the case of universal values within news, the views of researchers overlap, although
the terminology and their numbers tend to be different. A. Predmerská states that there is a
whole set of defined news values based on an analysis of various author’s starting points.
11
12
13
14
Compare to: GÁLIK, S. Philosophical Reflection of the Influence of Digital Media on Current Education.
In Media Education (Mediaobrazovanie), 2020, Vol. 60, No.1, p. 102, ISSN 1994-4160.
See TUŠER, A.: Ako sa robia noviny. Bratislava : EUROKÓDEX, 2010.; TUŠER, A. a kol.: Praktikum mediálnej
tvorby. Bratislava : PEVŠ, 2010.; VIŠŇOVSKÝ, J.: Aktuálne otázky teórie a praxe žurnalistiky v ére internetu.
Trnava : FMK UCM, 2015.; RUβ-MOHL, S., BAKIČOVÁ, H.: Žurnalistika. Prague : Grada publishing, 2005.;
PRAVDOVÁ, H., KOLTAIOVÁ, A.: Problematika periodickej tlače. Trnava : FMK UCM Trnava, 2007.; RUSNÁK,
J.: Textúry elektronických médií: interpretácia a vývoj. Prešov : Filozofická fakulta Prešovskej univerzity,
2010. And others.
OSVALDOVÁ, B., HALADA, J. a kol.: Praktická encyklopedie žurnalistiky a marketingové komunikace.
Prague : Nakladatelství Libri, 2007, p. 239.
HARCUP, T.: Oxford Dictionary of Journalism. Oxford : Oxford University Press, 2014, p. 197-198.
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The differences are mainly in their naming as different terminology is used to refer to similar
phenomena. Among the most important and most frequently recurring news values are novelty,
proximity, continuity, personalisation, surprise, entertainment, relationship with elite nations,
and relationship with elite people.15 From our own experience and observations16 we know that
pragmatic news values, meaning those which are preferred in practice, are created in editorial
practice based on the typological characteristics of the media themselves, value and ideological
aspects, and editorial tasks in the selection of topics, priority information and their processing.
The creation of news genres requires more than a universal or pragmatic relationship
towards news values from journalists; it also requires knowledge of basic news attributes. News
would be unable to meet its basic genre criteria without them. A. Tušer summarises, clarifies
and justifies them. He includes timeliness and currency, professionalism, objectivity, readiness,
conciseness, and comprehensibility.17 We believe that the six basic news attributes defined by
Tušer determine exactly what a news report should contain to bring the expected benefits to
recipients. Within the context of the very core art of compiling a news report, we emphasise the
criteria of conciseness and comprehensibility, which are very closely related. All unnecessary
information, excursions and diversions should be purged in an ideal news report. These can
confuse the recipient and unnecessarily flood their mind with irrelevant information. Redundancy
in terms speaks more about the author’s lack of professionalism and a high degree of stylistic
colouring. An exception is redundancy in radio or television news. In these formats, supporting
information must be repeated to ensure better retention among the recipients. Conciseness
is related to a preference for efficient, streamlined sentence structure and the use of material
and accurate linguistic means. News values and criteria preordain the selection of a procedure
for constructing a news text. The most widely used is that which follows the inverse pyramid
principle, i.e. the logical approach18. In practical terms, this involves configuring the information
in a sequential manner, from the most important to less important. The construction of a news
report is subject to the rules determining the sequence for working with facts and in drafting
the macro composition of the text. The headline is the first to provide vital information about
what happened. The beginning of the body of the text either repeats this information or expands
upon it using important facts. However, it must be noted that the structure of a logical news
story is based on a template in most classic, serious media. A. Tušer offers her standardised
model. It confirms the rule of an ironclad sequence and is intended to serve as inspiration to
potential journalists. It recommends putting a new event at the very beginning of the report,
then devoting two to three paragraphs to further details on the current situation, followed by
a section potentially covering behind-the-scenes details, and finally additional information
on new developments, background or possible future developments. In such a composition,
15
16
17
18
PREDMERSKÁ KAČINCOVÁ, A.: Spravodajstvo v periodickej tlači: žurnalistické žánre. Trnava : FMK UCM,
2017, p. 44.
We have formulated a premise regarding the application of pragmatic news values based on our own
practical experience in newsrooms and the criteria applied when selecting themes suitable for publication.
TUŠER, A.: Ako sa robia noviny. Bratislava : EUROKÓDEX, 2010, p. 129-130. Objectiveness is considered
a basic journalistic prerequisite and is closely associated with professionalism. It speaks of the manner
in which information is verified and to impartial and non-partisan reporting. However, the degree of the
subject’s involvement is questionable and therefore Vojtek is relatively sceptical with respect to this
criterion, stating that a journalist’s story is simply „a subjective reflection of objective reality“: (VOJTEK,
J.: Žánre anglicky písaného novinárstva: S ukážkami. Trnava : FMK UCM, 2012, p. 7.).
Within professional literature, three basic approaches to the compilation of news reports are found:
chronological, logical and emphatic or dynamic (compare to TUŠER, A.: Ako sa robia noviny. Bratislava :
EUROKÓDEX, 2010.; PREDMERSKÁ KAČINCOVÁ, A.: Spravodajstvo v periodickej tlači: žurnalistické žánre.
Trnava : FMK UCM, 2017.; RUβ-MOHL, S., BAKIČOVÁ, H.: Žurnalistika: Komplexní průvodce praktickou
žurnalistikou. Prague : Grada Publishing, 2005.; HUDÍKOVÁ, Z.: Emotions a key element of news reporting.
In Current issues of science and research in the global world: proceedings of the international conference.
Leiden : CRC Press, 2014, p. 161-169.; PRAVDOVÁ, H., KOLTAIOVÁ, A.: Problematika periodickej tlače.
Trnava : FMK UCM Trnava, 2007. etc.).
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a journalist should look for answers to the basic news questions of who? what? when? where?
how? and why?19 S. Ruβ-Mohl and H. Bakičová in their recommendations to journalists formulate
a number of principles to be followed during the creation of news materials. According to them,
the most important information should be right at the beginning, but it is necessary to ensure
that information about what happened is presented first and not where it happened or the
implications. They also recommend using indirect speech, paraphrasing, avoiding redundancy
of information, paying attention to the mixing of genres, as well as to publishing subjective
opinions, feelings, etc.20 It should be emphasized that these principles, when designing a news
report, also form a characteristic platform of the news journalism genre, and the extended news
report in particular. It is also clear that they refer to the establishment of news values, criteria
and related procedures in the creation of individual outputs in the editorial practice of most
classical media. As of yet, the question as to what extent these values, criteria and logical
procedures are established in the current editorial practices of online media within the creation
of extended multimedia news reports remains unsatisfactorily answered.
2.2 Establishment of procedures and content structure in the creation
of multimedia news reports
The establishment of news values, criteria and procedures in the construction of news stories
in multimedia news appears to be quite clear at first glance. It is necessary to emphasise that
in the case of genres adopted and modified genres by online media, including the extended
news report, their goals and tasks are identical to news genres in traditional media. They provide
answers to basic news questions with the ambition of publishing information that enriches and
illustrates a depicted event or situation. Similarly, criteria should be applied in online media
according to which extended multimedia news reports should meet the same criteria and be
the bearer of specific values, such as novelty, proximity, continuity, personalisation, surprise,
entertainment, relationship with elite nations, relationship with elite people, professionalism,
alertness, conciseness, intelligibility, etc.
The fact remains that certain distinct peculiarities and a diversity of procedures in the
construction of news reports exist within the creation of news in multimedia journalism genres.
These are characterised by greater structuring, the texts are more divided using subtitles and
infographics, and they may be briefer or more extensive21. Another fact must also be taken
into consideration. This is the need to continuously update the event due to the need to inform
the audience immediately22. Something that was published ten minutes ago may no longer be
current as the event continues to evolve and old information loses its informational value23.
This fact significantly influences the manner of working with information and, quite naturally,
the actual construction of a news report. Authors strive to increase the complexity of their story
and use combinations to accomplish this objective. Ultimately, this can lead to a fragmentation
of the usual logical process through the use of hyperlinks, photos, videos, and podcasts.
19
20
21
22
23
TUŠER, A.: Prejav v tlačových médiách. In TUŠER, A. a kol.: Praktikum mediálnej tvorby. Bratislava : PEVŠ,
2010, p. 93-94.
RUβ-MOHL, S., BAKIČOVÁ, H.: Žurnalistika: Komplexní průvodce praktickou žurnalistikou. Prague : Grada
Publishing, 2005, p. 54.
Unlike journalism departments in periodicals or news programs on electronic media, the output of
journalists in online media is not limited by scope or minutes.
The need for immediate information and continuous updating of an event is based on the technical
and technological possibilities offered by online media in the Internet environment, as well as from the
competitive struggle between individual media. The medium able to bring the latest information first
succeeds in this environment.
ONDRÁŠIK, B.: Internetová tvorba (online). In TUŠER, A. a kol.: Praktikum mediálnej tvorby. Bratislava:
Eurokódex, 2010, p. 333.
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On the other hand, it is an excellent method of supplementing or expanding the basic or original
texts in an impressive way.24
The desire for complexity and efforts to provide information to the audience as flexibly
and quickly as possible leads, in our opinion, to simplification of work with text and images.
Hybridisation in the form of interweaving different genre approaches, deliberate mixing of various
statements, hypertext links, etc., and is a natural consequence of this effort among multimedia
journalists. However, we believe that hybridisation is both a significant and a legitimate way
of depicting a real event within the confines of online media. We do not consider this much
greater degree of hybridisation of news genres than in the current classical media to be negative;
rather, it is one of the characteristic methods of constructing an extended multimedia message.
According to Osvaldová and Tejkalová, the genre awareness of the recipients and their
expectations from the published information also oblige journalists in online media to label genre
types, such as news, commentary, interviews, etc.25 The composition of an extended news
report is therefore, despite its hybrid intertwining of genres, expected to combine text, images,
etc., based on the usual logical procedure. At the very least, this involves the publication of the
most important information at the beginning of the news report and the gradual insertion of
additional or testimonial information, such as press conferences, opinions of actors obtained
from social networks, etc. The author can also summarise the most important facts or return
to key information at the beginning of the news report by adding information about possible
developments of the event or its unexpected reversal. This means that an online journalist also
counts on the ability to further supplement, clarify, extend, etc., their statements using hypertext
links. These provide a nearly infinite opportunity to expand upon the basic news report with
additional information, context, details, causes, retrospective, chronology of the development
of the event, etc. The possibility of unlimited space does not bind the journalist but, on the
contrary, allows them to fully develop their text in all its epic breadth, to realise their observations
by describing details, or apply and combine different genre approaches.
This is the reason for the difficulty in answering the question as to what extent these values,
criteria and logical procedures are established in the current editorial practices of online media
within the creation of extended multimedia news reports. Despite this, we believe that on the
basis of an analysis of selected multimedia messages, it is possible to formulate a premise
according to which the current form of an extended multimedia news report has specific
typological characteristics and established creative procedures.
News reports on two relevant topics in Slovakia were selected to test the formulated
premises. We focused on two events, the processing of which met the criteria for extended
multimedia news reporting. One of the decisive elements in making this selection was the social
and political significance of the underlying event. We focused on the application of news values,
the use of methodological procedures (chronological, logical and emphatic), and the fulfilment
of the basic characteristics of an extended news report: answers to the 6 news questions, a
description of the course of events, the use of direct and indirect speech, and language. We
also examined elements used in the online environment: links to related articles, links to relevant
words, and the use of photos and videos. We also observed the graphical arrangement of
the individual elements as well as the subtitles. The following topics were selected as model
examples: dismissal of the director of the Social Insurance Agency (9 September 2020) and
election of the chairman of the Slovak National Party (12 September 2020). One topic was
created by processing reports from news agencies TASR and SITA. The second topic was
processed in-house by both portals.
24
25
PRAVDOVÁ, H.: Manažment, marketing, redigovanie vo vydavateľskej a redakčnej praxi. Periodická tlač,
online médiá. Trnava : Univerzita sv. Cyrila a Metoda, Fakulta masmediálnej komunikácie, 2015, p. 220.
OSVALDOVÁ, B., TEJKALOVÁ, A.: Žurnalistika v informační společnosti. Digitalizace a internetizace
žurnalistiky. Prague : Karolinum, 2010, p. 109.
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2.3 Case studies from the portals sme.sk and pravda.sk
The first event we selected for model analysis was the dismissal of the director of the Social
Insurance Agency in September 2020. This is a domestic political issue that is exacerbating
disputes between the coalition and the opposition. The reason is that the Social Insurance
Agency is an important social institution through which the social insurance system is provided,
and specifically its five separate insurance schemes: health insurance, pension insurance old-age and disability insurance, accident insurance, guarantee insurance and unemployment
insurance. It therefore contains two inherent and sensitive sub-topics. The first is that it is an
interesting financial institution through which large sums are collected and distributed. There is
also a very intimate emotional connection to the perceived satisfaction or dissatisfaction with
the country’s overall social security system. The second significant sub-topic is that the director
of the Social Insurance Agency was a nominee of the Smer-SD party, and the former minister of
transport, against whom the opposition had objected. Therefore, the topic itself has a political
aspect in addition to the economic and professional aspects. As this is a domestic topic, there
was no problem to generate original content as all activities related to the dismissal of the old
and the appointment of a new director took place in Bratislava, where the newsrooms of both
portals are located. Both portals, sme.sk and pravda.sk, decided to use combined information
from the TASR and SITA news agencies to process their in-house news reports.
Case study 1A: Vážneho odvolali z funkcie šéfa Sociálnej poisťovne, obráti sa na Ústavný súd.
(Source: Vážneho odvolali z funkcie šéfa Sociálnej poisťovne, obráti sa na Ústavný súd. [online].
[2020-09-09]. Available at: <https://ekonomika.sme.sk/c/22484528/vlada-odvolala-vazneho-zfunkcie-sefa-socialnej-poistovne.html>.) 9 September 2020 at 10:51 am (updated 9 September
2020 at 5:07 pm) SITA, TASR.
The main topic of the article is the dismissal of the director of the Social Insurance Agency.
The title itself provides factual information and the material consequence of this action taken by
the government (Vážneho odvolali z funkcie šéfa Sociálnej poisťovne, obráti sa na Ústavný súd
--‘Vážny dismissed as head of the Social Insurance Agency, will file suit with the Constitutional
Court’). There is a short, single-sentence lede underthe title which indicates who will be the
outgoing director’s successor (Vážneho nahradí Juraj Káčer -- ‘Juraj Káčer to replace Vážny’). The
first part of the text under the main title provides the date and reason for dismissal of the director
in general and the name of his successor. The second section contains a subtitle (Krajniak
očakáva modernizáciu poisťovne -- ‘Krajniak expects insurance agency modernisation’) where
the name and appointment date of the new director are specified along with the expectations of
his superior, in this case, the Minister of Labour, Social Affairs and Family. In the third section,
once again delineated by a subtitle (Káčer sa vzdá postu viceprimátora Bratislavy -- ‘Káčer
resigns as deputy mayor of Bratislava’), the new candidate, and his background, is presented
briefly. Another two sections, each marked with a separate subtitle (Nadlimitná zákazka pre
Bonul, Chyby v rozpočte -- ‘Above-threshold contract for Bonus, Budget irregularities’) are
devoted to the reasons for which the director was dismissed and the problems facing the Social
Insurance Agency. They are much more extensive that the previous sections. The next part
(Kto je Juraj Káčer -- ‘Who is Juraj Káčer’) provides details about the new director and doubts
as to his ability to cope with this new position due to his preoccupation with other positions.
The final, again extensive part (Vážny sa obráti na Ústavný súd -- ‘Vážny will file suit with the
Constitutional Court’) presents the reaction and additional steps taken by the former director,
and the chair of his political party.
In terms of composition, the text is composed of 5 subtitles, and each sub-topic is introduced
with a separate subtitle except for the first. Every section represents a single paragraph that is
physically separated from the others by a space. A large photograph of the main actor involved
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in this topic is shown under the main title and the single-sentence lede. The article provides a
photo of the new director, and the TASR news agency is identified as being the source of both
photos. The newsroom also used a video, with the entire press conference organised by the
chair of the Smer-SD party and the dismissed director on this specific topic posted with a total
length of approximately 43 minutes. The newsroom placed the video at the end of the article and
the Smer-SD website is shown as the source of the video. The text also contains a hypertext
link to an article about Bonul, a company associated with an above-threshold contract with
the Social Insurance Agency. A logical approach was used in the presentation, with the latest
information provided at the beginning of the report, what happened: the director of the Social
Insurance Agency was replaced, who replaced who, and the reasons were specified, and then
explained in detail subsequently. At the end we learned of the reaction and the steps taken by
the dismissed director. All 6 of the basic news questions were answered: who, what, when, how
and why; in addition, the consequences were mentioned – the intention of the director to file
suit with the Constitutional Court. An answer to the question of where was omitted because it
simply was not pertinent. Formulations were presented in the third person, and direct speech
was used commonly, with a few instances of indirect speech. The notional lexicon was used
in the statements, the sentences were mostly simple, factual, impersonal, often used suffixes
and indefinite ones.
From the point of view of the evaluation of news values, we can state that the report
represents the basic news values characteristic of the news in traditional media. This is a very
important societal event because its activities affect every person in the country. It provides
interesting information about the background of the appeal (alleged mistakes on the part of the
director, his intention to file suit with the Constitutional Court) and about the new successor
(his profile and number of positions, doubts over whether he can handle the time that will
be required in his new position), as well as the minister’s idea of how institutions should
function. This is a current event as it took place on the day the report was published. The report
was prepared objectively: the reasons for the dismissal and the response from the dismissed
director (although in another part of the report) were presented, as well as the reservations of
the opposition representative to fill the post of new director without conducting a search to
identify candidates to fill the position. The text was very often based on direct quotations from
the actors involved in the event. The wording was clear and understandable, the report was
concise and contained all the basic information.
Case study 1B: Odvolali Vážneho z čela Sociálnej poisťovne. Nahradí ho Káčer. (Source:
Odvolali Vážneho z čela Sociálnej poisťovne. Nahradí ho Káčer. [online]. [2020-09-09]. Available
at: <https://spravy.pravda.sk/domace/clanok/562357-kabinet-odvolal-vazneho-z-funkciegeneralneho-riaditela-socialnej-poistovne/>.) TASR, SITA 09/09/2020 at 10:55 am, updated:
2:16 pm.
The pravda.sk portal used information from both Slovak news agencies, TASR and SITA,
but presented them in the reverse order. The structure of the report, which works with the same
sources, is partially different. A large photo of the main actor, the dismissed director, follows
the title, basic information about the sources and the time of publication. The portal is the
author of the photo and not one of the news agencies. This is followed by a 3-sentence lede
that provides the essence of the report: the 3 brief sentences state what happened, why, and
the ambition of the new director. It is interesting that a link to the video of Robert Fico’s and
Smer-SD’s entire press conference (sourced from the Smer-SD party and ~43 minutes long)
immediately follows the lede. This is followed by a quote from the main material regarding the
dismissal of the director of the Social Insurance Agency, similar to that on the sme.sk portal.
The next paragraph provides information on who will replace him and who that person is. After
a subtitle (Krajniak: Očakávam, že zo SP bude proklientská a moderná inštitúcia -- ‘Krajniak:
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I expect the Social Insurance Agency will be a client-oriented and modern institution’) there
is another video, from the press conference held by the Minister of Labour, Social Affairs and
Family regarding the issue at hand and lasting ~ 24 minutes. The reader then learns about the
reasons for the dismissal, arguments made by the government (a past decision issued by the
Constitutional Court) and the Minister’s idea of how the Social Insurance Agency should operate
and its tasks. This section contains a link to an article on the former director’s plan of action
and its options, as well as the reaction of his party’s chairman to this topic (Fico: Odvolanie
Vážneho bude predmetom súdneho skúmania -- ‘Fico: Važny’s dismissal to be reviewed by the
court’). This is followed by another subtitle (Káčer: Budem sa snažiť, aby v krátkom čase bolo
vidno aj výsledky -- „Káčer: I’m going to try and deliver visible results in short order’) and a part
focused on who the new director is and his priorities. The final part, once again introduced by a
subtitle (Pellegrini: Ide o personálne rozhodnutie vlády -- ‘Pellegrini: It’s a governmental personnel
decision’) contains two sub-topics. The first are the responses from two representatives of
the newly created Hlas-SD party. The second mentions the scandal around the dismissal of
the Social Insurance Agency’s director and his complaint to the Constitutional Court and its
decision. This text contains another link at the words „komunálny politik Káčer vzdal funkcie
viceprimátora Bratislavy“ (‘local politician Káčer resigns as Deputy Mayor of Bratislava’), which
is linked to an article about Bratislava’s new Deputy Mayor Zdenka Zaťovičová, who is set to
replace Káčer (9 September 2020 at 1:16 pm, updated: 2:13 pm).
The text is divided into a smaller number of sub-topics, a total of 3, which are introduced with
subtitles. As was evident, all three subtitles are in the form of direct statements, and specifically
opinions. Videos and photos from in-house sources were more widely used. The newsroom used
a logical approach and answered all 6 of the journalistic questions. Similar to the sme.sk portal,
basic information about the change was presented, followed by the reasons and expectations
about the future importance and operation of the institution as a whole, with responses from
representatives of one opposition political party provided at the end. The organisation of the text
on the pravda.sk portal is different, and the topics are concentrated into blocks, or subtopics,
and the topical paragraphs in them are composed of multiple sentences, most of which are
developed and longer (including when citations are used). In the choice of direct and indirect
speech, in addition to factual formulations, we also find emotional expressions (neprichádza s
„krvavými očami“ -- ‘he’s not come to clean house’ (translator’s note: meaning to issue mass
redundancies). Compared to the sme.sk portal, it can be seen that the pravda.sk newsroom
relies more on citations than sme.sk and they are incorporated without abbreviation, which
results in less editorial work. The author’s text is of a notional character and overall, it can be
assessed as factual and impersonal.
Also in this text we find the application of news values: timeliness (the topic is published
on the day of the event), relevance to society (decisions and distribution of benefits depend on
the quality of management at the Social Insurance Agency), professional processing (the reader
learned all the information on the background of the appeal, as well as on the new successor),
conciseness and clarity. We do have one objection with respect to comprehensibility: sometimes
sentences that are too long complicate the understanding of context.
The second topic on which we want to substantiate our claims is the topic of electing the
chairman of the Slovak National Party, abbreviated as SNS. Again, this is a sensitive societal
topic, because one of the candidates, the current chairman, has evoked a variety of reactions
given his past performance as speaker of the Slovak parliament, his statements to the media,
and personal scandals. Again, we looked at how both news portals handled this relevant and
socially sensitive topic. In this case, the editors opted for the author’s elaboration, in one case
in combination with TASR documents.
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Case study 2A: Danko obhájil post šéfa SNS, po vyhlásení výsledku časť členov na protest
odišla. (Source: Danko obhájil post šéfa SNS, po vyhlásení výsledku časť členov na protest
odišla. [online]. [2020-09-12]. Available at: <https://domov.sme.sk/c/22487084/danko-obhajilpost-predsedu-sns.html>.) 12 September 2020 at 2:27 pm (updated 12 September 2020 at
2:52 pm) TASR, Daniela Hajčáková.
The main topic is a meeting of the Slovak National Party, SNS, and the election of a new
chairman. The topic itself is divided into three sections, with two subtitles provided directly
in the article itself. Immediately after the main title, which announces that Danko defended
his position and some of the members left in protest, there is a one-sentence lede that states
Anton Hrnko was interested in the position of chairman. Information then follows as to when
the text was published, updated and source information (TASR and the author of the article).
Below that is a large photograph of the face of the election winner, Mr Danko, sourced from
the SITA news agency’s database (which is interesting, as the agency was not listed as the
source from which it was drawn). The place of the event is then identified. We then learn of the
answers to the basic questions of what happened, where and with what main outcome, who
the challenger was and how the election turned out (who received the most votes). The text
then provided voting details (the answer to the question of how), and therefore who nominated
candidates, when the old-new chairman made his decision, words from the losing candidate
on the outcome and what happened after the outcome was announced (representatives from
Žilina and other locations walked out of the meeting and in brief, what kind of reaction is
expected from them). The first subtitle appears (S politikou chcel skončiť -- ‘He wanted out of
politics’) and opens the section about the victor. In five paragraphs, we learn about what he
said after failure in the general election (taking of political responsibility), as well as the current
similarly low preference ratings. The text continues, writing about an increase in his activity in
advance of the party elections (travel to different regions and statuses on Facebook) as well
as reactions to them (ridicule). This is followed by an illustration of one of his statuses with text
and photos and a link to his profile. Some specific supporters of the old-new chairman were
identified at the end of this section, along with the supporters of his opponent in brief. The
last and most extensive section is focused on statements from his opponent and on reviewing
changes in their relationship. In the introduction after the next subtitle (Obrátil sa proti Dankovi
-- ‘He turned against Danko’) it was recalled that the chairman’s opponent was initially one
of his defenders and only became a critic after the failure in the elections and the emergence
of the Dobytkár (‘Cattleman’) scandal and its ties to SNS. The essentials of the scandal and
how SNS is allegedly connected are explained in the next paragraph. Hrnko distances himself
from these connections. In the final paragraph, he argues about negotiations with Kvietik, but
on a different topic.
The report has a logical structure. Basic information about the key event, the election
of the chairman of the SNS party at its general assembly, the outcomes and background
information are all provided at the beginning. The second part is focused on motives behind
the old-new chairman’s activities. The final part is devoted to his opponent. The paragraphs
are more extensive, alternating between one and two or three-sentences. The sentences are
mostly developed. Direct and indirect speech is used appropriately. The formulations are mostly
factual and impersonal. Only one photograph and one link to a Facebook profile are provided
in the text. There are five direct links to articles about the candidate, chairman, and an indirect
reference to other articles about the SNS chairman under the article itself.
In terms of the application of news values, we can certainly speak of timeliness (on the day
of the election), relevance (an indication of the future and developments in SNS), professionalism,
as well as objectivity (information about the course of the election and the motives of the
candidate and his opponent). The wording is concise, factual and comprehensible.
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Case study 2B: Danko naďalej velí SNS, jeho odporcovia hovoria o fraške. (Source: Danko
naďalej velí SNS, jeho odporcovia hovoria o fraške. [online]. [2020-09-12]. Available at: <https://
spravy.pravda.sk/domace/clanok/562729-danko-opat-veli-sns-jeho-odporcovia-hovoria-ofraske/>.) Eva Štenclová, Pravda 12 September 2020, 9:22 pm.
The manner in which the topic is processed differs from the sme.sk portal. This is indicated
by the title itself (Danko naďalej velí SNS, jeho odporcovia hovoria o fraške -- ‘Danko continues
to lead SNS, his opponents say it’s a farce’), where the author used figurative statements
(velí SNS -- ‘commands SNS’) and relays the opinion of those dissatisfied with the outcome
(odporcovia hovoria o fraške --‘opponents say it’s a farce’). Information about the author of the
article and the date and time of its publication follow after the main title. A photograph of the
winner of the election, about whom the author created the article, is then presented. After the
photo, there is a three-sentence lede expressing the essence of the report, who won the SNS
party elections, who the opponent was and what his supporters did, as well as the location
of the elections and how journalists were not allowed in to the assembly itself. Following the
lede is a two-minute video of a dissatisfied member of the party with a comment regarding
his mental state (an angry R.R.) and a transcription of his primary thoughts. This is followed
by a description of events with elements of commentary in the form of adjectives, figurative
expressions, as well as specific statements (direct speech - two paragraphs) from an SNS
representative from Senec, who was also not let into the building, just like the media („vchodové
dvere mali pod kontrolou“ -- ‘they were watching the entrances’, ‘urastení ochrankári’ -- ‘musclebound bodyguards’, stojí na opačnej strane „barikád“ -- ‘standing on the other side of the
barricades’, fandí Hrnkovi -- ‘supports Hrnko’, and „celý snem je fraška“ -- ‘the entire assembly
is a farce’). We also learn of how many party members attended the assembly. On the right
side, the reader is presented with statements from Mr Hrnko (introductory sentence: Hrnko
po sneme SNS: Skončilo sa to tak, ako som predpokladal -- ‘Hrnko after the SNS assembly:
It ended up as I expected’). A link to the article is on the left side (Danko je opäť predsedom
SNS. Rafaj hovorí o kolektívnej samovražde -- ‘Danko once again SNS chairman. Rafaj says
it’s collective suicide’). This is followed by an approximately minute-long video statement from
the winner, Mr Danko, with a text: Predseda Danko: Budú ma trhať médiá a opozícia nenávidieť
-- ‘Chairman Danko: I’m going to get ripped apart by the media and hate from the opposition’.
There is a subtitle beneath the video (Rafaj: Politická kultúra dostal facku -- ‘Rafaj: This is a
slap in the face to political culture’) and the second, more extensive part of the article is based
on the reactions of those who are dissatisfied. In the introduction to this section, the reader
learns of the voting results, with old-new chairman, his opponent, abstentions, and those who
didn’t vote. The paragraph ends with a description of events occurring after voting (vychádzali
rozhorčené skupiny straníkov -- ‘an outraged group of party members stormed out’). The next
three paragraphs are based on the direct and indirect speech of SNS party member Rafaj. The
quotes and paraphrasing are relatively expressive statements that he uses (som v šoku, mám
pocit, že delegáti schválili kolektívnu samovraždu, normálni ľudia vyvodia zodpovednosť, politická
kultúra dnes dostala veľmi tvrdú facku, konkrétni ľudia, ktorí si nedovidia na špičku svojho nosa,
šéfom parlamentu, aj vlády, je alfasamec, človeku sa chce normálne plakať -- ‘I’m shocked, I feel
that the delegates approved a kind of collective suicide, normal people would take responsibility,
political culture today got a very hard slap, specific people can’t see the tip of their noses; the
head of parliament, even the government, is an alpha-male, it’s enough to bring someone to
tears’). One paragraph is devoted to a comparison of Danko and former chairman Slota, and
indictment of the representatives who elected him chairman. This passage is followed a more
than two-and-a-half-minute video of the unaccepted representative from Senec with the following
sentence: Ján Rohák považuje snem za frašku -- ‘Ján Rohák considers the assembly a farce’.
Room is then provided for another dissatisfied representative in the three paragraphs below
the video. In them, he accuses the president of non-patriotism, a bad election result, promises
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of a different way of electing representatives to the assembly (originally other conditions that
were supposed to bring higher numbers of representatives), and trips to the regions before
the assembly. The last part of the article starts again with a video. The video covers the failed
opponent for the chairmanship. The video is shown with text: Anton Hrnko: Výsledok som
predpokladal -- ‘Anton Hrnko: I expected this outcome’. He says that he expected the outcome
based on what he saw going on and described his decision on the form of his activities in the
party. Over the last two paragraphs, the chairman thanks his opponent and responds to the
process („Som hrdý na to, že tento snem bol pripravený tak, že ani jeden z delegátov nevzniesol
žiadnu výhradu“ -- ‘I am proud of the fact that this assembly was so well prepared that none of
the delegates raised any objections’) and describes his expectations and plans („„Od pondelka
ma čaká trhanie médií a nenávisť opozície“, „...bola SNS alternatívou pre voličov – vzoprela
vláde Matoviča, Sulíka a Kollára. Urobím všetko pre to, aby som ich zastavil,...“ -- ‘I’m going
to get ripped apart by the media and hate from the opposition beginning on Monday’, ‘...SNS
was an alternative for voters – it was in defiance of the Matovič, Sulík and Kollár government.
I’m going to do everything in my power to stop them ...’).
In this case, the author used an emphatic approach. The main line of the report is based
on the statements of dissatisfied critics of the newly elected chairman and the interesting
things they said. Not once in the article is a representative who elected the old-new chairman
addressed. On the other hand, we also learn about the feelings and ideas of the winner of the
election and factual information about the election. All six news questions were answered: what
happened, where, when – the SNS assembly in Liptovský Mikuláš on Saturday, how – what
happened there – including statements from those dissatisfied with the outcome, an explanation
of why it turned out so (the old-new president bypassed the regions) and what consequences
it will have (potential secession of the opponent’s supporters). The sentences are formulated
clearly and are mostly developed. The author uses a lot of direct speech from the dissatisfied.
The emotional atmosphere in the assembly is amplified by using videos with expressions of
dissatisfied representatives and the opponent himself. A video of the chairman is presented
for balance. A photo is only used at the beginning, along with a link to his Facebook profile.
In terms of news values, the report applies timeliness (the article was published on the
day of the election), comprehensiveness (all available moments of the election are mapped),
and clarity (the recipient has both direct speech and videos). Objectivity is questionable, as no
supporter of the old-new president is addressed and the report is tabloid rather than factual.
From the point of view of the professionalism of processing, we can also state that direct speech
is overused, which sometimes degrades comprehensibility.
3. Conclusion
We can state that there are established processes for the construction of news reports and
they have a stable structure based on long-term observations, analysis and studies of news
reports on online news portals. These are based on classic journalistic formats and exploit
the advantages of the Internet environment. The most commonly used is a short or extended
news report, which also provides a deeper insight into the issues being processed. A „minuteby-minute“ chronological format is used if there is a need to provide a more detailed overview
of developments in the current situation over time. An extended report takes the form of an
inverted pyramid, and typically begins with the most important information (a logical approach).
Subsequently, more detailed circumstances of the event are presented (how and why it took
place) and broader contexts (statements of others, consequences, reminders of similar events
or relevant moments of the topic) are presented after. The text is typically divided into 3 to 5
subtopics. Each of the subtopics is labelled with a subtitle, which provides the reader with a
basic overview of the events. The text is structured into topical paragraphs (2 to 3 sentences,
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and occasionally an individual sentence), divided by spaces, which facilitates quick reading
when scrolling. Sentences are mostly developed, but are not long sentences, and simple and
developed sentences alternate in longer paragraphs. Newsrooms very often work with citations,
but in some they leave them very long, which retards the perception of information. Textual
information is always provided with an expressive photograph of the most important actor or
situation. To increase persuasiveness, videos are also used (more often in some periodicals),
which are presented in full form, often without post-production editing. Links to relevant related
pages (approx. 2) are listed on the margins of the basic text, after the first third. The texts
mostly use the news values of timeliness, objectivity, professionalism and comprehensibility.
Acknowledgement: This contribution is a partial result of the project VEGA 1/0078/18 „Aspects
of marketing communication in the management processes of the circular economy.“
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Authors
Assoc. Prof. PhDr. Zora Hudíková, PhD.aculty
of Mass Media Communication,
University of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava,
Nám. J. Herdu 2,
917 01 Trnava,
SLOVAKIA
zorahudikova@gmail.com
Assoc. prof. PhDr. Zora Hudíková, PhD. specialises in media psychology and mediology. She works as
an associate university professor and pedagogical researcher in the field of media studies. Her research
and teaching activities include psychology of the media, personality of the creator and recipient, cognitive
processing and the effects of media content, creativity, management of creative teams, radio journalism,
socio-cultural aspects of the market environment, and media performance. She also works as head of the
Department of Artistic Communication.
Prof. PhDr. Hana Pravdová, PhD.
Faculty of Mass Media Communication,
University of SS. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava,
Nám. J. Herdu 2,
917 01 Trnava,
SLOVAKIA
hp.kaplna@gmail.com
Prof. PhDr. Hana Pravdová, PhD. specialises in mediology and culturology. She works as a university professor
and pedagogical researcher in the field of media studies. Her research and teaching activities focus on the
areas of media culture, games and gaming principles in cultural history, the media and cultural industries,
globalisation and media localisation, journalistic genres, cross-platform journalism and editorial systems in
the media. She also works as head of the Department of Language Communication.
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photo: Soňa Hlavatá
Tahreem Noor Khan
The Usage Of Social Media Tools
By Islamic Banks In Pakistan
And The UAE
ABSTRACT
Realizing the fact that social media has become the mainstream of corporate marketing, this
research aims to investigate the use of social media tools by Islamic banks: Facebook and
YouTube. To identify and evaluate the social media activities, this research analyses four fullyfledged Islamic banks in Pakistan and seven fully-fledged Islamic banks in the UAE. Since
there is a lack of research on the topic of social media marketing by Islamic banks, therefore
eight effective features of utilising Facebook in corporate marketing have been extracted
from the existing literature. Subsequently, in order to evaluate the eight factors descriptive
observation analysis and coding methods were used. The findings deduce that Islamic banks
require influential ways to distinguish their social media activities. This research believes that
by channelizing such active social mediums aptly, consumer’s concerns about Islamic banking
can be addressed. Islamic banks need to realize that these social mediums enable them to
offer differentiated services according to the target segment and audience, which will result
in greater satisfaction and customer loyalty. Monitoring social media activities of local and
global Islamic banks can assist in devising a unique corporate marketing approach for using
Facebook and YouTube. There are few existing articles available on social media and Islamic
banking topics, therefore this research makes an attempt to fill that gap and brings attention
to conduct further study about social media as a corporate marketing communication tool.
KEY WORDS
Social Media. Islamic Banks. Marketing.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
1. Introduction
Social media is the use of web and mobile technologies to turn communication into interactive
dialogue, open participation and community connectedness.1 The social platforms engagement
assists brands to initiate their communication, intensify their interaction and re-shape their
relationship with customers.2 Such platforms also encourage new variations for the organizations
that are promoting customer interaction and foster engaging relationships.3
Some of the influential social media platforms are Facebook, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram,
Snapchat, and LinkedIn. Among these platforms, Facebook is the third most visited site after
Google and YouTube (Statista and Alexa.com).4 Facebook was created in 2004, for collaborative
study amongst college students however, today it has evolved to be the world’s premier platform
with over 250 million users globally.
Due to its large user base, companies have great opportunities to reach the target audience
and market their services or products through official Facebook pages. The companies learn
about consumer’s attitude towards brand impression, promotional offers, and their interaction
in posts through the number of comments, shares, views and likes. 5 The ‘Like’ button is a
powerful tool to access new audiences as on average users on Facebook have 120 friends, and
liking a Facebook page by one influences other friends to join the page and follow the brand.6
Realizing the importance of social media in fostering engagement and increasing followers,
businesses should consider social media as a formal corporate marketing tool that requires a
considerable strategy. However, a finding of concern was indicated by the literature that ‘most
Fortune 50 companies’ are not using Facebook to its full potential; to share company or product
related information with the public.7
While analysing the social media initiatives of global financial institutions, another study
found that the lack of strategies implementing effective corporate dialogue with customers
was a factor of worry.8 The research further insisted on identifying the factors of reluctance to
using social mediums.
Compared to other social media platforms that focus on pictures and text, YouTube is
considered the best media-centric platform for online marketing, branding, and promotion.9
YouTube is the second most visited video sharing social platform; where users can upload,
view and share videos.10 Businesses can draw consumers’ attention by video advertisements
through YouTube and encourage the viewers to subscribe to their official channels, whereas
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
BHANOT, S.: Use of social media by companies to reach their customers. In SIES Journal of Management,
2012, Vol. 8, No. 1, p. 4.
SASHI, C. M.: Customer engagement, buyer-seller relationships, and social media. In Management Decision,
2012, Vol. 50, No.2, p. 253-272.
MITIC, M., KAPOULAS, A.: Understanding the Role of Social Media in Bank Marketing. In Marketing
Intelligence & Planning, 2012, Vol. 30, No. 7, p. 668-686.
Alexa Internet Inc. The top 500 sites on the web. [online]. [2020-01-01]. Available at: <http://www.alexa.
com/topsites>.
HANSSON, L. et al.: Optimal Ways for Companies to Use Facebook as a Marketing Channel. In Journal
of Information, Communication, and Ethics in Society, 2013, Vol. 11, No. 2, p. 112-126.
BUSHELOW, E.: Facebook Pages and Benefits to Brands. In Elon Journal of Undergraduate Research in
Communications, 2013, Vol. 3, No. 2, p. 6-17.
MCCORKINDALE, T.: Can you see the writing on my wall? A content analysis of the Fortune 50’s Facebook
social networking sites. In Public Relations Journal, 2010, Vol. 4, No. 3, p. 1-13.
BONSON, E., FLORES, F.: Social media and corporate dialogue: the response of global financial institutions.
In Online Information Review, 2011, Vol. 35, No. 1, p. 34-49.
WATERS, R. D., JONES, P. M.: Using Video to Build an Organization’s Identity and Brand: A Content Analysis
of Nonprofit Organizations’ YouTube Videos. In Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing, 2011, Vol.
23, No. 3, p. 248-268.
EDOSOMWAN, S. et al.: The History of Social Media and its Impact on Business. Journal of Applied
Management and Entrepreneurship, 2011, Vol. 16, No. 3, p. 79-91.
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customers receive regular updates through notifications. In addition, the number of subscribers
and video views results in monetary benefit.11
For integration and alignment of social media strategies’, a study12 concluded that four
key themes need to be explored by bank leaders: (1) social media knowledge management,
(2) social media marketing strategy implementation, (3) social media data challenges and
communication, and (4) social media competitive gain and future enhancements.
More specifically, banks can realign and readjust their social media strategies by answering
the following questions: What role does social media play in their overall marketing position
and ambitions? What are the factors to differentiate social media marketing from traditional
marketing channels? What could be the potential benefit or loss of social media presence?
By addressing these questions, banks can identify the missing elements in their corporate
marketing communication and utilize their capabilities to eliminate the gap.13
According to the existing literature, the effectiveness of social media channels is evaluated by
the quality and relevance of message content.14 Furthermore, the following eight characteristics
are essential for corporate marketing through Facebook:
1. Product Marketing15 advertisement and promotions 16
2. Financial education and advice17
3. Online security information and support18
4. Customer review and bank representativeness19;20;21;22
5. Customer engagement23;24
6. Career Advice / Online recruitment through social media25; 26
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
WIGGINS, B. A.: The Culture Industry, New Media, and the Shift from Creation to Curation; or, Enlightenment
as a Kick in the Nuts. In Television & New Media, 2013, Vol. 15, No. 5, p. 395-412.
WRIGHT, M.: Social Media Data Strategies Bankers Use to increase Customer Market Share. [Dissertation
Thesis]. USA : Walden University, 2019, p. 28.
COSTIN, D.: Banking Business and Social Media - A Strategic Partnership. In Theoretical & Applied
Economics, 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 121-132.
SMITH, T.: The social media revolution. In International Journal of Market Research, 2009, Vol. 51, No. 4,
p. 559-561.
QUESENBERRY, K.: Social Media Strategy: Marketing and Advertising in the Consumer Revolution. Lanham,
Maryland, USA : Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p. 164.
BOHLIN, E. et al.: Social Network Banking: A Case Study of 100 Leading Global Banks. In International
Journal of E-Business, 2012, Vol. 14, No. 2, p. 3-10.
EFRAIM, T. et al.: Information Technology for Management: On-Demand Strategies for performance, growth,
sustainability. Hoboken, New Jersey, USA : John Wiley & Sons, 2018.
SMITH, T.: The social media revolution. In International Journal of Market Research, 2009, Vol. 51, No. 4,
p. 559-561.
KAPLAN, A. M., HAENLEIN, M.: Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social
media. In Business Horizons, 2010, Vol. 53, No. 1, p. 59-68.
CHAMPOUX, V. et al.: Corporate Facebook Pages: When Fans Attack. In Journal of Business Strategy,
2012, Vol. 33, No. 2, p. 22-30.
YASA, E., MUCAN, B.: Paper presented at 12th International Marketing Trends Conference with subtitle
Turkish Companies Value Creation through Social Media Tools: Analysing Fortune 100 Turkey. Paris,
presented on 12th Jan 2013.
ARLI, D., DIETRICH, T.: Can Social Media Campaigns Backfire? Exploring Consumers Attitudes and Wordof-Mouth toward Four Social Media Campaigns and Its Implications on Consumer-Campaign Identification.
In Journal of Promotion Management, 2017, Vol. 23, No. 6, p. 834–850.
COSTIN, D.: Banking Business and Social Media - A Strategic Partnership. In Theoretical & Applied
Economics, 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 121-132.
DEKAY, S.: Are business-oriented social networking Web sites useful resources for locating passive
jobseekers? Results of a recent study. In Business Communication Quarterly, 2009, Vol. 72, No. 1, p. 101-105.
ARLI, D., DIETRICH, T.: Can Social Media Campaigns Backfire? Exploring Consumers Attitudes and Wordof-Mouth toward Four Social Media Campaigns and Its Implications on Consumer-Campaign Identification.
In Journal of Promotion Management, 2017, Vol. 23, No. 6, p. 834–850.
MARCIA, D., DENISE, S.: Ethical Practice of Social Media in Public Relations. London : Routledge, 2014,
p. 38.
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7. Survey and polling27; 28
8. Other posts (Bank news updates, sharing achievements, and greetings)29;30
Despite the powerful impact of social media on consumers, limited data is available about
the usage of social media for marketing purposes in banking services.31 Realizing the existence
of the gap in the literature, this research suggests a need to conduct more qualitative studies
to explore key practices and barriers in using social media for financial corporate marketing
specifically in the context of Islamic banks. This research attempts to fill the gap, by observing
key social media practices of Islamic banks in Pakistan and the UAE.
2. Research Method
Islamic banking emerged rapidly to meet the financial needs of consumers, by using different
viable modes of financing to avoid interest/usury, risk-free returns and high uncertainty. However,
literature indicates that Islamic banks face negative criticism because their marketing strategies
focus on rewards and incentives, rather than the moral and ethical perspective of Islamic
product values.32,33 The limited and insufficient information on the characteristics of Islamic
financial products evoke authenticity concerns amongst consumers. The literature34 insists, in
order to gain the trust of customers, Islamic banks must provide correct, sufficient and clear
information on the principles of Islamic financial accounts.
Although the article confirms that Islamic bank marketing through social media will surely
accelerate customer connectivity and engagement; there is still a lack of research in the
context of evaluating Islamic banking social media marketing efforts.35 In reference to Islamic
banking and social media, few news articles36; 37 and a report38 found, that emphasize the need
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
YASA, E., MUCAN, B.: Paper presented at 12th International Marketing Trends Conference with subtitle
Turkish Companies Value Creation through Social Media Tools: Analysing Fortune 100 Turkey. Paris,
presented on 12th Jan 2013.
QUESENBERRY, K.: Social Media Strategy: Marketing and Advertising in the Consumer Revolution. Lanham,
Maryland, USA : Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p. 164.
DEKAY, S.: Are business-oriented social networking Web sites useful resources for locating passive
jobseekers? Results of a recent study. In Business Communication Quarterly, 2009, Vol. 72, No. 1, p. 101-105.
SMITH, T.: The social media revolution. In International Journal of Market Research, 2009, Vol. 51, No. 4,
p. 559-561.
ALVES, H. et al.: Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review and Implications. In Psychology & Marketing,
2016, Vol. 33, No. 12, p. 1029-1038.
KAHF, M.: Strategic Trend in the Islamic Banking Finance Movement. Paper presented at Harvard Forum
on Islamic Finance and Banking on 6th April 2002, Harvard University, Cambridge, Boston.
HENRY, C., WILSON, R.: The Politics of Islamic Finance. Edinburgh University Press, 2004 [online] [201208-22]. Available at: <www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.ctt1r27cw>.
KAHF, M.: Strategic Trend in the Islamic Banking Finance Movement. Paper presented at Harvard Forum on
Islamic Finance and Banking on 6th April 2002, Harvard University, Cambridge, Boston.; HENRY, C., WILSON,
R.: The Politics of Islamic Finance. [online]. [2012-08-22]. Available at: <www.jstor.org/stable/10.3366/j.
ctt1r27cw>.
ALVES, H. et al.: Social Media Marketing: A Literature Review and Implications. In Psychology & Marketing,
2016, Vol. 33, No. 12, p. 1029-1038.; KAHF, M.: Strategic Trend in the Islamic Banking Finance Movement.
Paper presented at Harvard Forum on Islamic Finance and Banking on 6th April 2002, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Boston.; HENRY, C., WILSON, R.: The Politics of Islamic Finance. [online]. [2012-08-20]. Available
at: <www.futureislam.com/20050501/insight/Rodney_Wilson/The_Politics_of_Islamic_Finance.asp53k>.
Khaleej Times: Why Gulf’s lenders need to bank on social media. [online]. [2016-05-20]. Available at: <https://
www.khaleejtimes.com/business/banking-finance/why-gulfs-lenders-need-to-bank-on-social-media>.
Gulf News: UAE bank introduces banking via Twitter. [online]. [2016-04-25]. Available at: <https://gulfnews.
com/business/banking/emirates-nbd-introduces-banking-via-twitter-1.1585093>.
MIFC – Malaysia’s Islamic finance Centre. Social Media an Opportunity for Islamic Finance. Bank
Negara Malaysia Report. [online]. [2016-04-25]. Available at: <https http://www.mifc.com/index.
php?ch=28&pg=72&ac=126&bb=uploadpdf>.
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for social media for customers interaction and engagement, however there is a lack of academic
research conducted in this area. Realizing the gap in the academic literature, this research
attempts to investigate and explore the existence of eight effective features of the Facebook
pages and YouTube channels of Islamic banks in Pakistan and the UAE.
At a national level, Islamic banks’ market share of Pakistan (10% assets) and UAE (22%
assets) have been impressive; as a result both countries are making noticeable presence at
the regional level. Recognizing the emerging growth of Islamic financial products in Pakistan,
the UAE established a subsidiary of the largest bank (Dubai Islamic Bank) in Pakistan in 2005.
Due to the sturdy growth of the Islamic banking industry in both countries, it will be interesting
to identify the social media marketing practices of Islamic banks in Pakistan and the UAE.
According to the ranking sites,39 YouTube is the second most visited website, while Facebook
ranks fourth in Pakistan and the UAE. Therefore, it was interesting to explore how Islamic banks
utilize these social mediums to connect with their customers. Considering the usage of social
media (Facebook, Twitter and YouTube) in the UAE, a study40 determined that social media
has gained recognition recently and UAE firms utilized social media for three main reasons:
awareness, advertising, and feedback. Though, overall the “picking up” pace of social media
is still slow in the UAE.
In this research, we explore social media activities of four fully-fledged Islamic banks in
Pakistan and seven fully-fledged Islamic banks in the UAE. A list of Islamic banks was obtained
from the Central Bank of Pakistan and the UAE (Table 1). The information was derived using
the qualitative research method of observing social media activities, we visited the homepage
of said Islamic banks from January 2020 - February 2020.
Name of Islamic Banks in Pakistan
Name of Islamic Banks in UAE
AlBaraka Islamic Bank
(AIB)
Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank
(ADIB)
BankIslami
(BI)
Al Hilal Bank
(HB)
Dubai Islamic Bank
(DIB-PK) Ajman Bank
(AB)
Meezan Bank
(MB)
Dubai Islamic Bank
(DIB)
Emirates Islamic Bank
(EIB)
Noor Bank
(NB)
Sharjah Islamic Bank
(SIB)
TABLE 1: Full-fledged Islamic banks in Pakistan and UAE
Source: List of Islamic banks Pakistan and UAE from Central bank
During the observation, the placement of Facebook and YouTube icons on Islamic bank web
homepages were noted (ease of icon accessibility?). Upon accessing their official social media
pages and channels, the number of Facebook followers, YouTube subscribers and activities
were observed and recorded. We filtered out YouTube activities, by identifying the most popular
videos (views count). The descriptive information is summed up in table 2 of the finding section.
Additionally, the effectiveness of Islamic banks’ Facebook pages is presented in Table 3
of the findings section, corresponding to the eight key features and characteristics extracted
from the literature.
39
40
Alexa. [online]. [2017-02-05]. Available at: <http://www.alexa.com>.
TENAIJI, A. A., CADER, Y.: Social media marketing in the UAE. In European, Mediterranean and Middle Eastern
Conference on Information Systems: Global Information Systems Challenges in Management. Abu Dhabi,
UAE: ISEING, 2010. p. 1-14. [online]. [2017-02-05]. Available at: <https://www.academia.edu/1180767/
SOCIAL_MEDIA_MARKETING_IN_THE_UAE>.
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1. Product marketing: The identification of most common products marketed through social
media, the products demonstrated a higher level of customer interest and received the
most likes and shares on Facebook pages.
2. Financial education: The use of social media to educate consumers about the importance
of financial savings or the structural elements of Islamic products.
3. Online security information and support: The online safety and security of information
and its concern through the use of social media platforms.
4. Customer reviews and presence of bank customer service representatives: The customer
reviews and comments on the Facebook page and presence of Islamic bank representatives
and their efficiency in handling customer enquiries and responses to comments. Observations
about the common comments shared by customers on Facebook walls.
5. Customer engagement activities: The customer engagement activities posted on their
Facebook page such as icebreaking questions, open ended questions, games, competitions
and the customers’ responses to interactive posts.
6. Career Advice / Online recruitment through social media: The use of official Facebook
pages to post job openings, recruit potential candidates or provide career advice to
graduates.
7. Survey and polling: Facebook posts related to surveys or polls about the product
development and services for customers.
8. Other posts: posts related to bank updates, achievements and greetings were found on
the Facebook page.
To explore the effectiveness of Islamic banks using Facebook among the eight elements
discussed in the literature, a descriptive analysis and coding method was used. For example
a pattern of customer comments on Islamic bank Facebook pages was observed for a month
(January 2020 - February 2020) and coded accordingly. Coding was measured by considering
the textual content of negative expressions focused on bank service (worst, pathetic, awful,
horrible, unprofessional, disappointed, delay, bad experience), product-related concern
(application process and charges on car/home/credit card charges), call centre bad service
(late, delay, not answering, query not dealt through the call center).
The same negative expression stated twice, by the same individual, was considered as
one. Sometimes the issue of product / call centre or bank service mentioned in one post, in
that case, was considered as 1 point for each category. Messages in Arabic or Urdu were
translated and the text context was categorized accordingly. Considering the bank’s image and
reputation, the name of the bank was not mentioned in the negative comments. Furthermore,
this research suggests ways to enhance marketing activities and develop effective relationships
with customers using social media tools effectively.
3. Findings
Due to frequency, usability, and immediacy factors, as research suggested the implementation
of social tools initiates a powerful connection with customers.41 On a similar note, developing
connections using interactive communications channels assist businesses in understanding
and satisfying customers’ needs.42 Even though the buzz about social media is optimistic
and positive, it has its style, protocols, and etiquette that require learning for survival and these
criteria have to be meticulously maintained.
41
42
CROWE, A.: The Social Media Manifesto: A Comprehensive Review Of The İmpact Of Social Media On Emergency
Management. In Journal of Business Continuity & Emergency Planning, 2010, Vol. 5, No. l, p. 19-42.
MORGAN, N. et al.: Social Media. The Complete Guide to Social Media, from the Social Media Guys. [online]. [201702-05]. Available at: <https://rucreativebloggingfa13.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/completeguidetosocialmedia.pdf>.
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Tables 2 and 3 provide an overview of the Facebook and YouTube activities of four fullyfledged Islamic banks in Pakistan and seven fully-fledged Islamic banks in the UAE. The research
findings suggest that there is a need for Islamic banks to improve the style and fine-tune the
flair of social media activities with sophistication. Islamic banks should not use social media
merely for the purpose of broadcasting messages, rather leverage it as two-way communication.
Social media must be utilized as an effective tool to listen to the consumers and gain insights,
moreover, provide customized financial solutions, and to address concerns about the Islamic
aspect of financial products.
3.1 Ease of accessibility - Social media icons on Islamic bank’s
homepage
The observation, as per Table 2, shows that YouTube channel icons were not seen on the three
UAE and one Pakistani Islamic banks’ homepages. Most Islamic banks (around 7) placed social
media icons at the ‘bottom right’ of the main webpage (Table 2) whereas, few banks placed
social media icons twice (on a sidebar and at the bottom) on their main webpages. Instead of
scrolling to the bottom of the webpage to look for the icons, this research suggests that the
placement of icons should be visible on the ‘upper right side’ as the goal of social media icons
are to encourage the consumers to click, visit and share.
To assess usability of web information, visual, and consumer response effectively, literature
believes that eye-tracking technology can be applied.43 Islamic banks can take advantage of
neuro-imaging, eye-gazing and psychological assessment techniques to provide accurate
evaluation, which cannot be measured by conventional testing methods.
3.2 Product marketing approach through YouTube videos
The YouTube icon was not found on three UAE Islamic bank’s home page, as seen in Table
2. The videos of two UAE Islamic banks’ (NB and SIB) with the highest number of views are
considered old and were posted in 2017.
Meezan Bank (Pakistan) and Emirate Islamic Bank (UAE) have higher numbers of YouTube
subscribers. Overall, Home finance (UAE) and lecture series on Islamic banks (Pakistan) were
popular videos posted on YouTube (Table 2). In addition, it has been noticed that a bank in
Pakistan, utilized a celebrity marketing approach in which famous cricket players endorse
Islamic bank products. Interestingly, the marketing technique coupled with fan following was
considered attractive amongst consumers and rated as the highest viewed YouTube video on
the bank’s channel (Table 2).
It was noted that YouTube videos marketing of the Islamic banks channels (Pakistan and
UAE) missed showcasing the various stages of real-life segments to foster human connections.
The US bank (Ally Bank) featured real-life retirees in a video, their decisive financial turning
and current retirement lifestyle. It has the highest number of views on YouTube (viewed more
than 75,000) and highest engagement rate using Facebook (60,000 people liked, commented
on or shared). Islamic banks should portray realistic life issues of local customers and offer the
appropriate banking solutions through social marketing messages.
On a cautionary note, this research suggests that a logical balance is needed in social
media marketing campaigns as too much emotional content will cause havoc on reasoning
and excessive theoretical information can be overlooked.
43 QIN, L., ZHONG, N., SHENGFU, L. V.: Interaction effects of web content appeal strategies with user tasks
and their influence on eye-movement patterns. In Journal of Guangxi Normal University: Natural Science
Edition, 2012, Vol. 30, No. 4, p. 30-35.
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1-Facebook icon easy to
locate on webpage
2-Facebook
followers
1-AIB
Facebook icon was not on the
main webpage, it was found on
clicking the contact us page.
At the bottom right, it was found,
only Facebook and Likedln social
media icon was found
59 661
Youtube Icon was not found on
the main bank webpage (only
Facebook and LinkedIn)
–
2-BI
Facebook and YouTube icons
were found twice: at the bottom
of the webpage as well as the
right sidebar
940 245
The highest viewed ad was 535
110 posted on Feb 8, 2020.
The ad feature a former cricketer
explaining about transaction
possible with thumb impresion
3,69k
366 570
Most viewed YouTube video was
about a lecture by late Junaid
Jamshed (singer turn to more
religious) last lecture at Dubai
Islamic Bank-views 161k posted
three year ago
7,79k
10,7k
PK
PK
Facebook and YouTube icon
found at the left bottom of
3-DIB-PK was
the webpage
PK
PK
4-MB
UAE
1-ADIB
UAE
2-HB
UAE
3-AB
UAE
4-DIB
UAE
5-EIB
UAE
6-NB
UAE
7-SIB
3-YouTube most popular
video views
4-YouTube
Subscribers
Facebook and YouTube icons at
the bottom right of the webpage
2 000 519
Most viewed video about: the best
bank in Pakistan-bank product and
services (1,1m) posted a year ago
Found Facebook icons twice
at the bottom right and another
one as a sidebar but it is asking
to like the Facebook page and
not accessible futher
1 164 858
no YouTube
no YouTube icon on bank website -icon
on website
Facebook and YouTube icons
were at the bottom left of the
webpage
59 670
no YouTube
no YouTube icon on bank website -icon
on website
Facebook and YouTube icons
were found twice top ledt and
right sidebar
8 494
no YouTube
no YouTube icon on bank website -icon
on website
Facebook and YouTube icons
were at the bottom right of the
webpage
225 979
The most popular home finance
video 323 posted a year ago
2,59k
Facebook and YouTube icons
were found at the bottom right
of the webpage
585 950
Time change value remain the
same posted a year ago 317k
2,06k
Facebook and YouTube icons
were found at the bottom right
of the webpage
79 919
Legacies Are Forever: Taking
traditions, leaving marks and
sharing legacy posted 37k views
posted 3 years ago
734k
Facebook icons were found left
top sidebar
9 663
Video was abput apartments and
facilities at Burj Asas real estate.
3,7k 3 years ago
231k
TABLE 2: Social media Islamic banks activities-Pakistan and UAE in 2020
Source: Author collected from Facebook page and YouTube of Islamic banks Pakistan and UAE
3.3 Product Marketing through Facebook
Estimating and measuring the success of social strategies in terms of return on investment is
time-consuming and quite difficult.44 Therefore, as an alternative, the effectiveness of product
marketing on Facebook can be measured by the number of views (seen by people), followers
(people’s interest to receive updates), engagement (response to the messages), and results
(achievement of campaign goals). Islamic banks should also consider effective marketing
strategies to attract and increase the number of new visitors to their corporate Facebook
page, as each user is seen as a potential brand ambassador to invite and introduce the bank’s
44
COSTIN, D.: Banking Business and Social Media – A Strategic Partnership. In Theoretical & Applied
Economics, 2015, Vol. 22, No. 4, p. 121-132.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
page to hundreds of their friends and followers. As per Table 2, Meezan Bank (Pakistan) and
Abu Dhabi Islamic Bank (UAE) have the higher numbers of Facebook followers, therefore, the
said banks can interact with their followers to outreach to the larger audience and maximize
marketing impact.
Tables 3 and 4 depicts that the highest number of customer ‘comments’ are found for the
Islamic bank ‘products’ and the higher number of ‘Likes’ are for ‘other posts’ (such as bank
updates and achievement). It has been further noted, from the table below, that more comments
with simultaneously more likes for a single post is a rare combination. The table below shows
that two posts (recruitment branch trainees and word/pic of UAE leaders) were attractive to
the customer and received more ‘Comments’ as well as higher number of ‘Likes’ (Table 4).
Moreover, it has been observed that the most frequently common post on the Facebook
pages of Pakistan Islamic banks was ATM/debit or student card deals (Table 3), whereas the UAE
Islamic banks repeatedly posted messages about the saving plans/accounts and credit/debit
accounts that offer appealing features (winning air miles and reward incentives) for their customers.
Highest comments, share & likes Products/Services
on Facebook page - Pakistan
Comments
Share
Likes
1)
Easy money instalment for phone
402
299
–
2)
Cash ATM withdrawal limit increase 50,000 RS
402
187
–
3)
Recruitment for branch trainee
37
42
121
4)
Protect your iman (faith) by banking with us
0
57
–
Comments
Share
Likes
Skyward mile competition
127
37
–
Highest comments, share & likes Products/Services
on Facebook page - UAE
1)
2)
Words of UAE leaders
1200
1100
1100
3)
Saving plans
73
4
–
4)
Mobile App
79
75
–
TABLE 3, 4: Highest comments, share/like on Pakistan and UAE Facebook page
Source: Author collected from Facebook page of Islamic banks Pakistan and UAE
3.4 Financial literacy, education and advice on Facebook Pages
of Islamic banks
Table 3 reflects that through a Facebook page, a bank in UAE chose to take up an interactive
financial literacy approach by correlating the habits of saving with different personality traits.
To induce customer interest the bank announced 10,000 AED for taking personality tests,
and also encouraged the customers to post results on the corporate Facebook page and tag
friends to qualify for the prize.
This research suggests that Islamic banks can design proper strategies for financial literacy
and marketing through YouTube and Facebook to connect with confused consumers seeking
personalized financial solutions. Such as the U.S. based subsidiary of Canada’s (TD Bank)
created a social space for financial literacy (managing credit, investment, and retirement) through
open consumer interactions with financial experts and peers.45 It helps to address the specific
needs of customers across distinct segments. Similarly, Islamic financial experts and scholars
can be incorporated into the literacy session for greater impact.
45
Deloitte: Who says banks can’t be social? [online]. [2017-02-05]. Available at: <https://www2.deloitte.com/
lk/en/pages/financial-services/articles/banks-can-be-social.html>.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
3.5 Online security information on Islamic banks’ Facebook pages
All four of Pakistan’s Islamic banks displayed an elevated concern toward online security
information and data protection initiatives. However, only two out of seven UAE Islamic banks
posted about online safety precautions on the corporate Facebook page (Table 3).
3.6 Customer reviews and comments on Islamic banks’ Facebook
pages
On the corporate Facebook pages of Pakistani Islamic banks, query-based questions regarding
banking branches or ATM service, remittance, deals, and discounts on cards were commonly
found. Among customer complaints, most common comments were related to branch service,
internet, ATM, and App (Figure 1). Two Islamic banks representatives in Pakistan were efficient
and prompt in replying to the customers’ comments about bank products and services. A few
negative comments by the users of Islamic banks in Pakistan are shared below:
• „This card has become useless as it can’t be used internationally anymore due to the
reason it’s no more a VISA card.“
• „Worst banking experience with this bank from the last 2 months, unable to use any
facilities due to link down, no transfer, no Western Union, and no compliance to any
complaint. Hopeless banking.“
• „Indeed they have the best service but in some areas they have very bad heads in some
North region branches. Very abusive to their juniors. Which is very sad and disappointing.
Must remove such managers immediately. It will damage the image of the bank.“
It has been noticed that on UAE Islamic banks’ Facebook pages, the higher number of
positive comments were for the pictures of UAE leaders. Furthermore, it is revealed through
observation that UAE corporate Facebook pages had limited communication between customers
and the bank’s representatives (Table 2).
The UAE consumers express their lack of satisfaction with banking service as amongst
the total of 115 negative comments, 35 posted comments were about the worst /poor banking
service experience. 22 consumer comments indicated the unfriendly and rude behaviour of
bank staff. 10 negative comments referred to the slow customer service, 5 negative comments
pointed out that their e-mail was not answered (Figure 1). Some UAE Islamic bank customers’
Facebook comments are shared below:
• „…… Islamic Bank your customer service is very poor and unprofessional, And your
supervisor they don’t know how to make the customer satisfied and They disrespectfully
treat customers. I will share my bad experience in the social media and e-commerce and
I will send an email to your COO and I will raise a complaint in the central bank to have
my money back.“
• „Don’t even think about this bank guys -They will add any charges they like even it’s not
applicable and they just try to convince you it’s your mistake, if u didn’t convince so it’s
your mistake and they will charge it anyways.“
• „For God sake how can someone raise a complaint on your worst customer service ever!!!
Nothing in your list when I try calling your 600 number!!!“
page 150
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Pakistan
115
120
90
UAE
74
60
28
30
4
26
3
0
Bank service (poor/worst,
bad experience, not satisfied,
dissapointed, delay)
Product related comments
(application process and
charges)
Call centre (query not
resolved/not picking
phone
FIGURE 1: Analysis of negative comments on Islamic banks’ Facebook pages-Pakistan and UAE
Source: Author collected from Facebook page of Islamic banks Pakistan and UAE
3.7 Customer Engagement activities on Islamic banks’ Facebook
pages
The Islamic banks’ social media posts are not only to increase the number of clicks and views,
but to create awareness, engagement, and goodwill for generating in-depth customer relations.
During the observation process, it was noticed that customer engagement posts were found
on the Facebook page of the UAE Islamic bank, however no such posts were seen on any
Islamic bank in Pakistan (Table 3).
Islamic banks can encourage customers’ engagement for product feedback, suggestions
or service testing through social media platforms. For instance, in 2012, Barclaycard launched
a feedback experiment for credit card holders on Facebook, where users were opinionated
and were welcomed to suggest and vote on new product features.46 Likewise, Barclays used
social media to conduct a product test of their first mobile application through social media
to save time (usually takes 18 months) and made necessary changes on application based on
customers’ feedback.47 Similarly, an icebreaker-style question can be posted on the Facebook
page of Islamic banks to increase customer engagement and interaction, for example TD Bank
(U.S. based subsidiary of Canadian bank) posted „If you’re looking to unwind this summer,
what’s the one thing you have to have?“ , this post resulted in more than 35,000 likes, shares,
and comments, and promoted the use of the bank’s debit card for summer time purchases.
3.8 Recruitment method or Career advice through Facebook page
of Islamic banks
Facebook has proven to be one of the most effective ways of promoting banks’ events within
the community as well as to attract talent.48 Royal Bank of Scotland and HSBC UK used
Facebook and other social media platforms to advertise jobs openings and career opportunities.49
46
47
48
49
MORGAN, N. et al.: Social Media. The Complete Guide to Social Media, from the Social Media Guys.
[online]. [2017-02-05]. Available at: <https://rucreativebloggingfa13.files.wordpress.com/2013/09/
completeguidetosocialmedia.pdf>.
QUESENBERRY, K.: Social Media Strategy: Marketing and Advertising in the Consumer Revolution. Lanham,
Maryland, USA : Rowman & Littlefield, 2015, p. 213.
MARCIA, D., DENISE, S.: Ethical Practice of Social Media in Public Relations. London : Routledge, 2014, p. 43.
Innovalue Management Advisors. [online]. [2015-04.02]. Available at: <https://www.innovalue.de/
publikationen/INNOVALUE_LockeLord_SocialMediainFinancialServices2015.pdf>.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Our findings indicate that three Pakistani banks and three UAE Islamic banks used Facebook
to post job fairs and recruit graduates (Table 3). A bank in Pakistan has the highest comments
and shares for the post, which was related to vacancies for the position of Branch trainees
(Table 4). However, none of Islamic banks utilized an innovative approach in hiring the suitable
candidate or talent through their Facebook page (separate career content page, getting referral,
simple application process, 60-seconds video pitch).
3.9 Survey and Polling on Islamic banks’ Facebook pages
Surveys and polls were not conducted through the Facebook page except for one Islamic
bank from Pakistan; the polling question was ‘who will win the cricket game’? (Table 3). For
more customer input, all bank managers (relationship managers, sales managers, product
development managers, and senior managers) should hear the publicly expressed customer
voice through comments, feedback and surveys.50 By asking questions or conducting polls,
banks can expect customers to initiate discussions on the post (likes, tags and shares), thereby
increasing followers, traffic and engagement.
3.10 Other posts (Islamic bank activities, achievements and greetings)
In the category of other posts related to bank activities and achievements, the result showed
that the claim ‘Best bank’ was posted by one Islamic bank in Pakistan and one Islamic bank in
the UAE. Two banks in Pakistan posted about their financial performance using the term (after
tax profit/excellent profit result) and three banks in UAE posted about ‘net profit’ and ‘financial
result’. Quranic verses, hadith references and Islamic quotations were posted by two Islamic
banks in Pakistan. Along with that, the presence of cricket players endorsing Islamic products
was observed in Islamic banks in Pakistan. In the case of the UAE Islamic bank, photographs
of their leader and their quotes were frequently posted. Two Islamic banks in the UAE posted
about employee health and fitness activity and trips to local site-seeing places. We further note
that Islamic banks use the Facebook platform to update and communicate their corporate social
responsibilities. According to Table 3, the four Islamic banks in Pakistan posted appeals for
donation, support for education in rural areas, cancer support and awareness. One Pakistani
bank posted about winning an award on CSR environment and health (receive higher number
of ‘likes’). In addition to that, two banks in the UAE posted about CSR specific activities
(donation appeal for the Red Crescent, blood donation by bank employees, social initiative
partnership, donations to Medicine University and rehabilitation activities). For CSR, engaging
opportunities can be used, such as UBS encouraged customers’ participation in community
service and social welfare projects through Facebook.51
50
51
QIN, L., ZHONG, N., SHENGFU, L. V.: Interaction effects of web content appeal strategies with user tasks
and their influence on eye-movement patterns. In Journal of Guangxi Normal University: Natural Science
Edition, 2012, Vol. 30, No. 4, p. 30-35.
Innovalue Management Advisors. [online]. [2015-04.02]. Available at: <https://www.innovalue.de/
publikationen/INNOVALUE_LockeLord_SocialMediainFinancialServices2015.pdf>
page 152
Studies
1-Product
Marketing
(advertisement,
offers, and
promotions)
2-Islamic
Financial
education and
advice
AIB
PK
BI
22 posts
Remittance/7) Union
cart deal on foods,
travel shopping(6)-Debit
card(3)-opening current
account easy/-Balance
plus account/-no
restrict on deposit and
withdrawal/covenient
travel service/connected
through ocial media
platforms/Protect your
uman by banks with us
(highes share 57)
18 posts
Thumb banking(8)
(highest comments
92 and 273 shares)
ATM card(3) money
transfer(2) Connected
through social media/
accidental takaful/home
remittance/high-profit
return
–
–
PK
DIB-PK
12 post
Debit card deal on
food(9 posts)/Car
finance(2) House
finance
–
3-Online
security
information
and support
4 posts
Vigiliant about secured
transaction: fraud call,
password change
frequently
1 post
Customer security
important related about,
not sharing a password,
fraud calls, any links
1 post
Fake SMS alert
4-Customer
reviewand
bank
representativness
No negative comments
and no bankg
representative
Bank representative
presence was found
along with negatiove
comment
No bank epresentative
justification found on
Facebook overall
Studies
5-Customer
engagement
post
–
6-Online
recruitment
–
7-Survey and
polling
–
–
1 post
Job fair
2 posts
Best Islamic financial
institution award 2019
page 153
8-Other
services (such
as bank news,
updates,
sharing)
Placed stall on child
cancer event (75 likes)
–
2 posts
Recruitment for Branch/
recruitment for Branch
trainee (highest
comments 37 and 42
share) (121 likes)
Recruitment for Branch
manager
PK
MB
UAE
ADIB
30 posts-Visa/Debit card offer
deal on airline, food, clothing(13)
Remittence(29k likes) (4)/
Umrah andhajj application(3)Income Certificatefor senior,
dollar, Mudaraba(3)-Free
banking services(2)-Cash ATM
withdrawal limit increase 50 000
RS (highest 402 comments and
187 shares)/24/7 helpline for
queries/bike on ijara/connected
through digital media/free
takaful/-interbank transfer/home
finance/-Easy money installment
for phone(highest 40 comments
and 299 shares)
26 posts-Video money
saving(4 posts)/Saving
account grand draw
(4post)/winner list
(4posts)/win total of
10 000AED if take a
personality test on saving
money and tog (2post)/
guest visa card/win bonus
salary-Home finance
(1,1k likes) Guest miles
5% cashback/Easy
installment through card/
Mobile app-Thumb banking
(highest comments 79
and 75 shares)
2 news articles by the head of
shariah compliance Dr. Ahmed
Ali Siddiqui on inclusion and
home financing/Animated
graphic video about Mudaraba
Islamic saving account
–
4 úpsts
Not respond to
unknown request,
no click on any link,
update email and phone
for security reasons,
check wifi
4 post
ATM security/web security/
scam/no sharing password
Negative comments found
about service and Bank
representative found
–
1 post
Recruitment link for general
career job post
Customer queries and
bank epresentative
active reply found
Answer the question:
What are your worst
credit/covered card
mistake?
What did you learn
from them?
Chance to win a total
od AED 3 000 worth of
shopping voucher
13 comments 3 shares
and 87 likes
2 posts
About employment
2020 exhibition and
career fair
I poll who will win the
battle cricket game?
–
–
–
10 posts-(Zameen home
expo and videos(4)/
renowned cricketer
opening an account in a
bank(3)/new MOU sign/
conference strategic
partnership with
Peshawar/CSR award
for enviroment and
Health (2k likes)
10 posts
After-tax profit/Quranic
verses(3)/Mufti Menk
quotation(3)/Appeal
to donate/Kashmir
solidarity/Agreement FX
hedging
27 postst-Quranic verses and
hadith quote(13)-Awareness
session (trade, customer,
students(3))/Cancer support
and awareness related(2)Excellent profit result/-Kasmir
solidarity(2)-Zameen housing
expo/agreements for online
and automated service(2)/
support education in rural area/
leading in Greenerer project/
innovation bank award/visit of
Kuwait company
12 posts
Football future
champion(8 posts)/
donate blood from bank
emploees(2)
Donation appeal Red
Crescent/Heritage
festival/CSR activity
UAE
HB
2 posts
Apple pay/Bank
updated profile picturetheir bank name recent
post otherwise all 2019
UAE
AB
PK
DIB
1 post
Bank image recent post
otherwise all 2019
12 posts
2 saving plans (highest
73 comments and
4 share)
Personal/car/writing
cheque/home financing/
phone banking/easy
open account/monthly
salary/paperless/
currency exchange/
money transfer
–
–
–
–
–
–
UAE
EIB
9 posts
VIsa/Credit/guest card/
car finance/Islamic gold
certificate/chat banking/
cardless withdrawal/
easy installments
1 Facebook live
session Islamic on gold
certificate
UAE
NB
3 posts
Saving plam/Takafu/
Skyward mile
competition (highest
127 comment and 37
shares)
UAE
SIB
1 post
Transfer money
–
–
–
–
1 post
Security online and
mobile
Limited shares and
comments-bank
epresentative attempted
to reply on negative
commets
Negative comments
was found related to
bank services/no bank
epresentative
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
–
Customer queries and
bank epresentative
active reply found
Bank epresentative
attempt to made
contact with customer
Negative comment was
found related to bank
epresentative
1 post
Crossword puzzle bank
products
11 post
9 posts about guessing
mosque or fort
2 posts number puzzle
guess
Quiz Question related to
word bank
1post
Name the four
currencies hidden in
the pic
2 posts
Related to career
fair and employee
leadership training
135 likes on a contest
picture tag a picture at
global village
Limited shares and
comments
–
1 post
Related to career fair
–
–
–
–
–
–
8posts
Employee hiking and
fitness activities(3posts)
Word of UAE leader/
Acquisition of Noor
bank/mortgage talk (919
likes) past pic 1980/
financial result
14posts-Words of UAE
leaders(6posts)-highest
share, 1,1k and
comments 1,2k on
posts late Sheikh Zayed
bin Sultan al-Nahyan
28 000 likes/Winners
of saving accounts
(3 posts) Donation to
Medicine University
and rehab (2 posts),
Emiratization/Net profit
4 posts
Innovation day camp/
Art gallery/UAE national
logo/greeting season
11 posts-Net profit/
Free gas field/Strategic
HR partners/Employee
trip/Best bank/40
likes on Sheikh Salem
sponsorship to build a
partnership between
public and private
sector/Alumni American
university/Win horse
race/New branch/social
initiatives partners/
Charity
Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
FIGURE 1: Evaluating eight elements of Social media Pakistan & UAE Islamic banks
Source: Author collected from Facebook page of Islamic banks Pakistan and UAE
PK
Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
4. Discussion: Harness the power of social media
to enhance Islamic financial brand
Based on the findings of observation and coding, this research asserts that Islamic banks have
to define the purpose of using social media – is it only used for routine marketing or utilization
of the social media accounts to seek consumer inputs, educate and guide customers through
their financial decision-making journey? The analysis of this research established that the
interaction and communication of Islamic banks on the Facebook platform is limited/restricted,
the reasons have to be identified (Table 2 and Table 3).The literature pointed out that the main
reason for Islamic banks to refrain from use of social media could be the customers’ reduced
preferences for bank interaction through Facebook; due to safety concerns about sharing
sensitive information; and the lack of alignment with current marketing strategies.52
The research findings reflect that Islamic banks are required to fine-tune their social media
marketing pitches according to the requirements of existing audiences concurrently addressing
the needs of personalized financial solutions for new customers. Observations conducted
through the Facebook pages, show that banks of both countries use Facebook posts to share
information about their products and discount deals (Table 3). Islamic banks should consider
that excessive self-promotional posts will detour users. Banks can share opportunities to
enrich their social media content by financial literacy/education/advice, online recruitment and
online security support in the form of success stories, Thank you videos for customer loyalty,
articles, tips, tools, and infographics.
To overcome negative customer concerns, Islamic banks can evaluate the efforts and
effectiveness of existing social media by measuring complaint resolution. Negative customer
attitudes can cause harm to the corporate image, marketing, advertising, and ethical activities
of the firm.53;54 Since social media provides an exposed platform for customer’s interaction,
Islamic financial institutions should be concerned about the lack of control over negative
comments posted on their social media page.55 Anyone can connect and log-in to social media
pages, and can share bad comments or negative experiences about products or customer
service.56 False or negative information spreads rapidly, causing confusion and disruption.
In the case of a Facebook wall attack, research57 suggested to enact immediate action and
rehabilitate the company’s online reputation. Facebook-based customer service should be
developed specifically for the UAE Islamic banks to pay more attention to negative views
that may pose a potential threat to the brand. Expatriates living in the UAE (88,5% of the
country’s total population)58 might have a different set of financial product or service issues, their
concerns should be heard and resolved through proactive Facebook customer service. ICICI
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
MITIC, M., KAPOULAS, A.: Understanding the Role of Social Media in Bank Marketing. In Marketing
Intelligence & Planning, 2012, Vol. 30, No. 7, p. 668-686.
KAPLAN, A. M., HAENLEIN, M.: Users of the world, unite! The challenges and opportunities of social
media. In Business Horizons, 2010, Vol. 53, No. 1, p. 59-68.
ARLI, D., DIETRICH, T.: Can Social Media Campaigns Backfire? Exploring Consumers Attitudes and Wordof-Mouth toward Four Social Media Campaigns and Its Implications on Consumer-Campaign Identification.
In Journal of Promotion Management, 2017, Vol. 23, No. 6, p. 834-850.
MIFC – Malaysia’s Islamic finance Centre. Social Media an Opportunity for Islamic Finance. Bank
Negara Malaysia Report. [online]. [2016-04-25]. Available at: <https http://www.mifc.com/index.
php?ch=28&pg=72&ac=126&bb=uploadpdf>.
YASA, E., MUCAN, B.: Paper presented at 12th International Marketing Trends Conference with subtitle
Turkish Companies Value Creation through Social Media Tools: Analysing Fortune 100 Turkey. Paris,
presented on 12th Jan 2013.
CHAMPOUX, V. et al.: Corporate Facebook Pages: When Fans Attack. Journal of Business Strategy, 2012,
Vol. 33, No. 2, p. 22-30.
Global Media Insights. United Arab Population Statistic 2020. [online]. [2020-01-05]. Available at: <https://
www.globalmediainsight.com>.
page 154
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Bank successfully launched a Facebook-based customer service approach that transformed
its reputation from negative to a net positive bank’s service image in 15 months.59
Along with above considerations, Islamic banks may require social media leaders, Islamic
e-scholars, and marketing technologists, (1) to formulate social media strategies (governance
and policy) for protection of brand image, (2) to test and manage the various content for higher
traffic and more followers, (3) to assess and evaluate social media strategies from different
platforms and monitor target audience responses and their sentiments, (4) to track and measure
performance against benchmarks and key indicators to excel among the local, regional, and
national banks, (5) to design innovative service by integrating information technology with creative
marketing to enhance customer experience, (6) to expand brand outreach collaboration with
Islamic social media influencers for brand awareness and to attract new audiences (7) to revise
and consistently modify social media strategies in line with evolving trends for greater impact,
(8) to mend the damaged relationship, train conversational strategies to bank representatives
for amicable customers service (9) to clarify the Islamic aspect, inclusive presence of Islamic
e-scholars for establishing credibility with potential or confused customers.
For optimizing the effectiveness of social media activities, this research suggests that
Islamic banks can use web analytics and ranking tools (such as Social Bakers, Unmetric, Quintly,
Cyfe, Simply Measured, Like Analyzer, Rival IQ), to get data analytics of financial brands that
market on Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn, YouTube, and Instagram.60 Some online digital marketing
analytic platforms and ranking tools are free, while some charge fees for providing detailed
analysis reports. These consulting and analytical tools can create a list of best performers, such
as how ‘The Financial Brand’ listed and ranked the top 100 banks based on an engagement
rate on their YouTube (video views and subscribers) and Facebook page (likes, shares, and
comments). Interestingly, the table below indicates that for Facebook engagement, only one
Islamic bank (Meezan Bank - Pakistan) ranked 19th among the top 100 international banks
(Table 5). Information from these sources can assist Islamic banks to set benchmarks against
competitors, and to track key performance indicators of social media for improving their social
media marketing success and performance. Monitoring the social media activities of local Islamic
banks, regional and international Islamic banks as well as conventional banks can definitely
assist to design unique and differentiated social media marketing strategies.
Facebook Ranks-Banks Q4 2019
YouTube Ranks-Banks Q4 2019
Area
Facebook
Likes
YouTube
Views
New Views
in Q4 2019
1 State Bank of India
IN
18 153 662
68 907
1 State Bank of India
2 YES
IN
7 168 746
-41 452
2 ICICI
IN
311 068 260
23 672 721
IN
241 914 981
3 GT Bank
NIG
6 309 464
-73 512
1 746 829
3 Kotak Mahindra
IN
209 332 098
67 352 475
4 Zenith Bank
NIG
5 890 666
221 494
5 BBVA Compass
USA
5 563 630
30 293
4 Axis
IN
201 767 738
34 231 049
5 TD Bank (Canada)
CAN
136 078 164
6 ICICI
IN
5 460 888
15 602 170
-17 046
6 CIMB
MAL
133 078 164
5 764 039
7 Capital One
USA
8 Chase
USA
4 207 625
-10 692
7 RBC
CAN
122 125 378
11 799 599
4 004 023
-10 699
8 HDFC
IN
115 961 424
9 Axis
16 454 808
IN
3 690 817
-3 841
9 Wells Fargo
USA
106 851 273
20 656 466
10 BDO
PHI
3 526 149
USA
105 517 344
12 956 041
11 BofA
USA
2 845 819
PHI
84 461 026
2 913 971
Bank
New Likes
in Q4 2019
Bank
8 348 10 Goldman Sachs
-7 596 11 BDO
Area
TABLE 5: The Financial brand website listed Top 100 banks on Facebook & YouTube
Source: The financial brand 2019
59
60
Innovalue Management Advisors. [online]. [2015-04.02]. Available at: <https://www.innovalue.de/
publikationen/INNOVALUE_LockeLord_SocialMediainFinancialServices2015.pdf>.
ICHA, O., AGWU, M. E.: Effectiveness of Social Media Networks as a Strategic Tool for Organizational
Marketing Management. In Journal Internet Bank Commerce, 2015, Vol. 2, No. 6, p. 4.
Studies
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
5. Conclusion
In conclusion, Islamic banks in Pakistan and the UAE have to realize the benefits of social media
for improvements in business authenticity and impact of their corporate image. Islamic banks
must consider that the social media platforms enable them to offer a wider range of privileges
than to simply market their products or services.
Thus, the key is not to ignore the significance and prevalent nature of this medium; there is
a dire need to channelize active social platforms aptly. Islamic banks need to review the purpose
of social media, the ease of locating media icons on the bank webpage, monitor activities on
social media pages and identify customer sentiments and reactions to the post. In order to
handle negative customer comments on social media and to safeguard brand reputation, Islamic
banks managers and leaders should actively monitor, react and govern social media strategies.
For establishing strong presence and impact, Islamic banks require consistent revision of social
media initiatives based on emerging trends. Moreover, they can offer enhanced user social
media engagement opportunities such as online surveys, job openings, and provide realistic
human connection features in video marketing.
This research calls for further study on the usage of social media as a corporate marketing
communication tool in Islamic banking. Furthermore, customers’ perspectives can be investigated
according to cultural and socio-economic differences to enhance exclusive users’ engagement
and participation on the Islamic banks’ social media platforms.
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Author
Tahreem Noor Khan, PhD.
University of Ha'il, Saudi Arabia,
College of Business Administration – Management,
AJA Hail campus, 33464
SAUDI ARABIA
tahrimnoor@hotmail.com
Tahreem Noor Khan completed her PhD. at the University of Aberdeen Scotland- UK. Teaching Business
Management Courses in the University of Ha’il, Saudi Arabia. Her research interest is Islamic Bank Marketing,
Organization Behaviour and Human Resources.
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photo: Adrián Juríček
Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah
The Imperative Of Television
In Nigerian Politics
ABSTRACT
This paper is a historical discourse on the development and the political framework of television
broadcasting in Nigeria. It also explores the influence of politics in the emergence of the medium
of television, and its imperative in Nigerian politics. It argues that the political gimmick, culture
and counterculture characteristic of the Nigerian polity was germane to the establishment of
television stations in Nigeria. I utilise the literary and descriptive methodological investigative
approaches to investigate the imperative of television in the Nigerian political landscape. Among
other findings, the study reveals that the birth of television in Nigeria is rooted in the Nigerian
political situation of the First Republic, and that television is imperative in the growth and positive
change and development of Nigeria. This research concludes that television and politics in
Nigeria intersect. In Nigeria, this medium of communication is a force to reckoned with. Hence,
the study recommends that positive reforms and modifications should be made by the National
Broadcasting Commission in the operation of television broadcasting. Furthermore, these reforms
should be adhered to, so that the aim and objectives of the positive transformation in television
broadcasting in Nigeria can be achieved.
KEY WORDS
Television. Nigerian Politics. Imperative. Political cum Broadcasting.
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1. Introduction
Of all the media of mass communication, television is one of the most highly utilised. In fact, in
2013, 79% of the world’s households owned a television set. Besides the urban areas where
television has taken a strong foothold, most families in rural areas can also claim ownership
of the medium. Its capacity to construct, deconstruct and reconstruct culture cannot be
overemphasised. As a medium of communication, it is functional in disseminating information,
providing entertainment and education. In the light of this functionality, Newton Okoh in A
handbook of radio and television presentation, submits that „the content of the medium could
also serve as a tool for stimulation.“1 Okoh’s submission is an extension of the multi-functionality
of the medium. The wide ownership and popularity of the small screen-television is not farfetched
from the fact that its consumers are dispersed in the comfort of their homes, not only to be
handed what the cinema supplied, but to be acquainted with the latest events in society.
Furthermore, television has also affected and influenced the trends of world politics.
In postcolonial Africa, television played a major role in the political revolutions. Paradigms
of such are the political uprising in Egypt, the Libyan war which led to the death of President
Muammar Gaddafi and many others, surmised as the „Arab Spring.“ Furthermore, modern and
postmodern Nigeria has also engaged in the utility of the medium in political engagement. This
has created spaces for various dimensions in the electoral process. Against the backdrop of
the above, this study engages in a historical discourse on the development and the political
framework of television broadcasting in Nigeria. It also explores the influence of politics in the
emergence of the medium of television, and its imperative in Nigerian politics.
It argues that the political gimmicks, culture and counterculture characteristic of the Nigerian
polity was germane to the establishment of television stations in Nigeria.
2. A Retrospect of Television Broadcasting in Nigeria
„In our age when all languages are confused as in the tower of Babel, when all aesthetical genres
intermingle, death threatens the theatre as film and television encroach upon its domain…“
Jerzy Grotowski
The first electronic medium of mass communication in Nigeria was the sound box-radio.
The British colonial government wanted a concrete link between its colonies and mother Britain,
hence the establishment of a radio station in 1932 in Lagos. It was a wired broadcasting service
called the Radio Distribution Service. Most programmes broadcast at this time were products
of the British Broadcasting Service (BBC). In other words, the move for the Nigerianisation of
the content of radio was still out of place.2 Radio broadcasting was controlled by the post and
telegraph service department. Though the Second World War disrupted the development of
broadcasting, it was revived after the war. At the end of the war, the British capitalised on the
positive Communication impact made by radio broadcasting in the western world, and extended
the tentacles of the RDS to Kano, Abeokuta, Ijebu-Ode, Port Harcourt, Enugu and Zaria in 1944.3
The establishment of other RDS stations was extended to the above places. To realise a total
growth of the medium, more had to be done as Akinwale makes us understand that Nigeria was
the first to adhere to the Tyron-Byron report. The Tyron-Byron report was a pragmatic research
exercise aimed at advancing the utility of radio in the country. With the execution of the final
1
2
3
OKOH, N.: A handbook of radio and television presentation. Warri : Jolo Publishers, 2009, p. 1.
MACKAY, I.: Broadcasting in nigeria. Ibadan : University press, 1964, p. 200.
AKINWALE, A.: The Nigerian broadcaster: a professional or a civil servant In AKINFELEYE, R. (ed.): Issues
on Broadcasting in Nigeria. Lagos : Spectrum books, 1990, p. 26.
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research made by two BBC workers, Tom Chalmers and Murray, the Nigerian Broadcasting
Service was established in 1951, but started transmission the following year after numerous
difficulties. Chalmers became the first Director-General of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service.
Radio broadcasting went through many revolutionary changes as numerous investigations
were carried out by BBC personnel such as Mr. Chalmers, where radio stations should be
located and how it can be proliferated. The Radio Distribution Service was modified into the
Nigerian Broadcasting Service in 1952. Due to the upsurge in the number of political parties
and political consciousness, the NBS was labelled a tool, used by the colonial government.
Daniel Omatsola in Televisual film production in Nigeria: A critical source book, notes that „the
NBS was criticised for its monopoly by the colonial government.“4
The Macpherson constitution of 1951, paved the way for the emergence of regional
broadcasting stations which included radio stations located in Eastern, Northern and Western
Nigeria. According to Elo Ibagere, it is now that the political life, social life and social development
of the Regions (of Nigeria) will mean that regional broadcasting will play an even more important
part than was originally anticipated.5 The critique of the monopoly of radio stations in Nigeria,
and its politicisation, watered the ground for the evolution of the television medium in Nigeria.
It was not until 1953, when the political terrain was in a rigorous tempo that the major event
which led to the call for a revolutionary change in the broadcast world in Nigeria, occurred.
The call for independence spurred these issues. Citing Elo Ibagere, Moses Oghenevizie in
Reality television and African aesthetics: a study of big brother Africa, reveals that in 1953,
Chief Anthony Enahoro, an Honourable Member of the Action Group from the Western Region,
moved a motion calling on the House of Representatives to accept the attainment of selfgovernance in 1956.6 The representatives of the North in the house rejected this decision and
Chief Obafemi Awolowo led Action Group (AG) to walk out of the house. The British Governor
General that same evening, along with the Nigerian Broadcasting Service, severely criticised
the action carried out by some people in respect to governance. Though he did not mention
names, the message was already decoded. He was referring to the action of the Action Group.
Chief Obafemi Awolowo, leader of the Action Group went to the Nigerian Broadcasting Service
to demand equal opportunity to go on air and refute the position of the Governor, but was
denied. It became obvious that that the federal government was exercising a stronghold on
the operations of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service.7
When Obafemi Awolowo requested time to reply to the claim of the Governor General,
he was refused air time and the die was cast. This event led to increased campaigning for
converting the Nigerian Broadcasting Service. This crusade for change, made the colonial
government give the issue consideration. Although the above event, along with the need for a
wider coverage, led to the establishment of the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation which was
to be modelled on the British Broadcasting Corporation in Mother Britain and would serve to
nigerianise its content, the Western Nigerian Government did not stop in its quest to set up its
own radio broadcasting station. It went ahead in 1959 to establish the first television station in
Nigeria. It was not only the first in Nigeria, but it was the first in Africa. This was the birth of the
Western Nigerian Broadcasting Service (WNBS) and Western Nigerian Television (WNTV) which
was the brainchild of a collaboration with an overseas company. Citing Obaro Ikime, Oghenevizie
states further that: The Western Region, which was most articulate in their resentment against
4
5
6
7
OMATSOLA, D.: Televisual film production in Nigeria: a critical source book. Warri : Abotu Research
Publishers, 1997, p. 13.
IBAGERE, E.: Social Development, Television and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan : Kraft Books, 2009, p. 101.
OGHENEVIZIE, M.: Reality television and African aesthetics: a study of big brother Africa. [An unpublished
Masters Thesis]. Department of Theatre Arts, Delta State University, Abraka : Delta State University,
Abraka, 2012, p. 13.
IBAGERE, E.: Social Development, Television and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan : Kraft Books, 2009, p. 101.
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the NBC, became the first region to establish its independent broadcasting station, but rather
than radio, it opted for television. Thus the first television station to be established in Nigeria
and the African continent was owned by the Western Region. It was called Western Nigeria
Television (WNTV) with its slogan, „First in Africa.“8
The WNBS station which started its operation in October 31st 1959 ended the monopoly
of the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation. More broadcasting stations emerged in the other
regions much later. Chief Obafemi Awolowo, the then Premier of the Western region, who
established the station, said that broadcast media will serve as teacher and entertainer and as
a stimulus to us all to transform Nigeria into a modern and prosperous nation. The Northern
Nigerian regional government did not bother to establish a broadcasting station unlike the
Eastern Nigerian regional government that established its own the following year. Thus, Eastern
Nigerian Television (ENTV) as it was called, adopted the slogan, „second to none.“ It is pertinent
to note that Western Nigerian Television had previously coined the slogan, „First in Africa“,
hence, Eastern Nigerian Television claimed they were second to none. The Northern regional
government established its own in March 1962 with the name Radio Kaduna Television (RKTV).
The Nigerian Television Service followed a year after, but initially its service was confined only to
Lagos. The threat from WNTV and later, the other regional television stations perhaps energised
the quest of the federal government to establish a television station. Herein lies the political
dimension of broadcasting in Nigeria.
Television broadcasting stations became counter-tools. They became tools with which
the Action Group criticised and countered policies made by the central, colonial government.
The broadcasting stations continued with their service till there emerged another phase in the
development of broadcasting in Nigeria. This phase was also influenced by the change in the
political terrain of Nigeria: The military regime which culminated in the creation of twelve states
by General Yakubu Gowon. The military government and subsequent military governments
coveted the regional television stations for their own use. Thus, these television stations became
federal government controlled.
The proliferation of the Nigerian polity in 1967 facilitated an increase in television
broadcasting stations. Precursory to this time, when the Mid-Western region was created, a
radio and a television station was established. Mid-West Television, Benin, was created in 1978,
with a radio station as well. Benue-Plateau State had its own in 1974. The station established
by the then Benue-Plateau state government had begun transmitting in colour. It is therefore
a fact that BPTV, Jos was the first television station in Nigeria to transmit in colour. Rivers and
Kano also followed suit. There is the presupposition that the multiplicity of the Nigerian society
also led to that of television broadcasting stations because every state craved for one so as
to serve as a mouth piece as well as to succinctly and easily disseminate their policies to the
populace. By this time, there had been an influx in the number of televisions, especially in urban
areas in Nigeria where the upper and middle classes lived in. One factor that also led to the
popularity of the medium was the introduction of drama programmes such as Wole Soyinka’s
My Father’s Burden which was the first drama series on Nigerian television, as Segun Olusola in
The Advent of Television Drama argues that: A remarkable feature of the 1960 affair, one which
differentiates it from the 1980 incident which I referred to above in my introduction was that the
play, My Father’s Burden, a very incisive criticism of the emerging Nigerian bourgeoisie bribing
and corrupting its way through was televised… Wole Soyinka never wrote for television again.9
8
9
OGHENEVIZIE, M.: Reality television and African aesthetics: a study of big brother Africa. [An unpublished
Masters Thesis]. Department of Theatre Arts, Delta State University, Abraka : Delta State University,
Abraka, 2012, p. 14.
OLUSOLA, S.: The advent of television drama. In OGUNBIYI, Y. (ed.): Drama and theatre in Nigeria: A critical
source book. Lagos : Nigeria Magazine. 1981, p. 372.
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The village headmaster, Masquerade, Song of a Goat, Winds against my Soul, For Better
For Worse, Case File, as well as Hotel De Jordan followed. „Other dramas that came up later
were Peter Igho’s Cockcrow at dawn, Lola Fani-Kayode’s Mirror in the Sun, Zeb Ejiro’s Ripples,
Ken Saro-Wiwa’s Basi and Company…“10, among others. The popularity of these dramas
culminated in the purchase of television sets which determined social status and prestige
especially in rural areas at that time. The second republic saw an upsurge in the propagation
of more television stations since the ruling political parties used the available ones for their
personal interests, for propaganda and for dissemination of policies. These stations became
engrossed in political issues, that they soon lost focus on the purpose of their formation and
establishment as Elo Ibagere avers that: As it was a prophecy of doom, after the NPN won
the 1979 election, pressures were mounted on the NBC by the party to the detriment of other
parties. Consequently, the programmes of the other parties were blacked out of NBC’s daily
broadcast. Even, radio station in states controlled by opposition parties, began to broadcast
in favour of the NPN controlled federal government, and to the detriment of the opposition
parties controlling those states.11
In other words, the Second Republic saw the emergence of Alhaji Shehu Shagari taking
the mantle of leadership in his defeat of political stalwarts such as Mallam Aminu Kano, Chief
Obafemi Awolowo and Dr. Nnamdi Azikiwe. At this time, the ruling party, which was the NPN,
completely politicised the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation. It could be remembered that the
military governments had taken charge of all broadcasting stations and therefore by the time
Alhaji Shehu Shagari became President, the television and radio broadcasting sector was already
under the control of the federal government. Without doubt, the aim of the NPN in monopolising
the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation was to boost their chances in winning subsequent
elections. This was the birth of propaganda broadcasting in Nigeria. The broadcasting personnel,
who refused to succumb to this despotic act, were either demoted, or sacked to act as a
deterrent to others.
Based on the fact that Lagos state was been controlled by the UPN, a major opposition
party, it was decided to set up a state owned television station. The federal government refused
to allow the station to operate. This case was contested in court. The Lagos state government
lost at the lower court, but won at the Appeal Court so they were given the permission to
operate. Hence, Lagos Television emerged.
Like the old Western Nigerian regional government that broke the jinx of the monopoly of
the British colonial government thereby establishing the first television station, a state situated in
west-Lagos had again established a state owned television station. The audacious action of the
Lagos state government spurred other states into action. The stations set up by the opposition
parties were organised to challenge the unfriendly policies of the federal government. In fact
the Owerri based Nigerian Statesman quoted Governor Sam Mbakwe of Imo state as saying
that the Imo Broadcast Station was established to inform citizens of the state of the activities of
the government and to counter the many mischievous propaganda of the federal government
against the state by the federal government owned broadcast stations.12
With the proliferation of more broadcasting stations, the state owned television stations
began to preach their policies as well. The political parties in charge of the states therefore
coveted the newly established television stations for their own use. With this, television became
a pencil in the hands of the government. In 1977 the Nigerian Broadcasting Service became
the Nigerian Television Authority (NTA).
10
11
12
AYAKOROMA, B.: Trends in the Development of Contemporary Nigerian Video Film Industry. In ONI, D.,
AHMED, Y. (eds.): Trends in the Theory and Practice of Theatre in Nigeria. Ibadan : JFR Publishers, 2008,
p. 76.
IBAGERE, E.: Social Development, Television and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan : Kraft Books, 2009, p.106.
Ibid., p.107.
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3. Towards the Deregulation of Television and its
Imperative in Nigerian Politics
For several years, the government did not consent to giving the go ahead for the ownership
of broadcasting stations by private individuals. There are many reasons for this. It could be
recalled that the first media of mass communication to encroach on Nigerian society was
the print media. This was when Rev. Henry Townsend began the publication of a newspaper
called „Iwe Irohin Fun Awon Egba ati Yoruba which started publication in 1859.“13 Subsequent
newspapers such as The Lagos Weekly Record, which was a militant newspaper, made it very
popular. Payne Jackson succeeded in laying a solid foundation for the Nigerian press. He also
set the pace for Nigerian nationalists who eventually used the press as a strong instrument to
fight colonialism. The Weekly Record became an organ of reference for budding journalists.14
Other radical newspapers such as the West African Pilot were established by Dr. Nnamdi
Azikiwe and they also served in the struggle against Colonial rule. Some radical editors at that
time were Ernest Ikoli and Peter Pan, among others. Upon the attainment of independence,
the print media was duly used to check the excesses of the government but it was too late
for the government to curb what they called a menace. Thus, the government could not risk
liberalising the broadcasting sector. Putting television broadcasting in private hands would
cause more threat than the print media had done because the government was aware that as
a potent force for mass mobilisation and stimulation, it would be tragic to let private individuals
join the broadcasting train. However, in 1992, the military government of Ibrahim Babangida
finally deregulated the broadcasting sector, through the creation of the National Broadcasting
Commission Decree. A new era for private broadcasting had begun. Ibagere articulates that
the actual deregulation of television broadcasting commenced in 1992 via the promulgation of
Decree 38 on August 24, 1992. This decree established the National Broadcasting Commission
(NBC). It was the Babangida administration that succumbed to the demand for the deregulation
of broadcasting.15
Consequently, the door became open for individual investors to become television station
owners. For a television station to be established, it had to be registered with the National
Broadcasting Commission, the body responsible for regulating broadcasting stations and their
content. The new privately owned television stations included African Independent Television
(AIT) Lagos, owned by a Marine Engineer, Chief Raymond Dokpesi, Galaxy Television, Channels
Television, and a host of others. This was what Bisi Adanri in Fundamentals, ethics and effects
of television referred to as the democratisation of the electronic media.16 The new private
broadcasting stations, being competitors in the mass media market, made the government
owned stations buckle up as the competition in the media space became stiff due to the
proliferation of television stations.
The Nigerian political space had been greatly influenced by television. There have been
cases where the Nigerian Broadcasting Corporation shut down state and privately owned
television stations on the grounds that they acted contrary to the rules and regulations guiding
the nation’s broadcasting code. In fact, in a larger framework, television had played a vital role
in world politics. In the United States of America for example, it served as a medium for debate
among presidential candidates. With the television medium, the young John F. Kennedy was
able to defeat his opponent, Richard Nixon, in series of debates. He eventually won the general
elections. One would not categorically forget the role it played in the 2016 American election.
13
14
15
16
ADANRI, B.: Fundamentals, ethics and effects of television. Akure : Linda bee publishers, 2005, p. 70.
Ibid., p. 32.
IBAGERE, E.: Social Development, Television and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan: Kraft Books, 2009, p. 110.
ADANRI, B.: Fundamentals, ethics and effects of television. Akure: Linda bee publishers, 2005, p. 18.
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The two contestants, namely, Donald Trump of the Republican party, and Hillary Clinton of the
Democratic party, made their manifestoes well known through the Cable News Network (CNN),
the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), and other television broadcast stations, in a series
of debates. However, the British Broadcasting Corporation and the Cable News Network were
critical of Donald Trump, but sympathetic towards Hillary Clinton. Hence, these two global
television stations were politicised in the process.
The influence of television on voters cannot be overemphasised since a number of media
effects studies have shown that apolitical individuals are susceptible to attitudinal or behavioural
change as a result of television-media exposure. This is what is called the „media propaganda
model“ which portrays television as a medium for propaganda. Like its film counterpart, television
influences the thought patterns of a people, facilitates cultural integration and promotes change
in the traditions of a people. Television therefore, promotes ideologies. Isaw in Revolutionary
Democracy Vs. Liberal Democracy: A belated reply to Yosyas Kifleyesus’s, states that civilly done,
debates of various kinds benefit a country such as ours by creating well-informed citizenry.
Well informed citizenry in turn facilitates a knowledge-based vote to adjudicate a democratic
contest between acutely differing political parties.17
In Nigeria, the place of television in politicking is sacrosanct. For instance, the origin of
the medium cannot be separated from politics. Unlike the radio broadcasting medium which
was introduced into Nigerian by the Colonial masters, television broadcasting started as a
conception of Nigerian nationalists and a product of regional politics. After having the right to
reply to the federal government on the castigation made by Sir John Macpherson on him and
the Action Group, turned down by the Nigerian Broadcasting Service, Chief Obafemi Awolowo
decided to establish the Western Nigerian Broadcasting Service (WNBS) in 1959. The above
named station was the first regionally owned broadcasting station in Nigeria. Chief Awolowo
did not stop there, perhaps, in an attempt to send the message of his superiority to the federal
government, he decided to establish Western Nigerian Television in Ibadan, on 31st October,
1959. This was the first television station in Africa. In so far, the Action Group, which is the
dominant party in the Western region, saw it as a viable tool to preach its party manifestoes,
its agenda and democracy.
The above scenario provided the impetus for the establishment of regionally owned television
stations, in Nigeria. In the same vein, the quest for political relevance also led to the influx of
more state owned television stations as championed by Lagos state in the second republic.
Thus, underneath the entertainment, information, education and communication functionalities
of the medium, one major function of the medium in the framework of its formation by various
governments, was-political statements and ideologies. The medium had also determined the
political atmosphere of Nigerian society for some time now, especially during elections. For
example, the 2015 elections would attest to the above statement. The populace expected
the two major contestants, invariably the presidential candidates of the People Democratic
Party (PDP), President Goodluck Jonathan and the All Progressives Congress (APC), General
Muhammadu Buhari to indulge in a presidential debate on one of the major television stations,
such as the Nigerian Television Authority, the African Independent Television and/or Channels
Television, but the APC candidate refused.
By all indications Muhammadu Buhari refused to participate in it for two reasons, the first
was that the debate would be organised and tilted to favouring his opponent and that his
opponent was a better out spoken person. He knew the power of television in influencing the
opinion of the populace. In another state such as Delta state, the People’s Democratic Party
gubernatorial candidate had a debate with the candidates of the Labour Party and the All
17
ISAW, A.: Revolutionary Democracy vs. Liberal Democracy: A belated reply to Yosyas Kifleyesus’s. [online].
[2020-0-25]. Available at: <www.aigaforum.com/articles/Refuting_liberalism.htm>.
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Progressives Congress. The purpose of such debates was to speak directly to their supporters
and the masses in general, captivate them, and also, to project their manifestoes. In course
of the discussions, phone calls are received. This is a process where viewers of the debate
are allowed to ask questions, about issues being discussed, to facilitate clarification, with
the view to finding solutions to societal and political problems. These questions focused on
developmental issues. Text messages are also sent in by viewers. These text messages are
question based or statement based. Statement based messages, focus on issues which the
populace want the party candidates and eventual winners to tackle, which questions based
messages make the party candidate engage in series of oral answers to the problems and
challenges typical in the country.
This systemic politicking creates room for the populace to properly decide which political
candidates to vote for. In this process, socialisation is also effected. Of all the media of
communication and entertainment, television probably has the greatest potential for socialisation,
integration and networking. Precursory to the 2015 general elections, a suit was levelled against
African Independent Television (AIT), one of the leading television stations in Nigeria by Asiwaju
Bola Tinubu for an attempted libel of him and some of his top party (APC) members. Perhaps,
he saw the capability of the television to negatively affect his political career therefore it became
imperative for him to take legal action. Television also projects politics of hate as Ibagere states
that: It is impossible to find the face of any opposition leader on television screens. Even some
stations reject adverts from opposition party leaders. The case of the Alliance for Democracy
(AD) in Delta State is pertinent here. A candidate was adopted by the party to contest on its
platform for the gubernatorial seat in the elections in 2003. Despite paying the broadcast fee
of thirty five thousand naira, the news was not carried by the state owned Delta Broadcasting
Service (DBS). This compelled the party to threaten dragging the station before the NBC for
the commission’s regulation.18
With the digitisation of the television medium, there has been a paradigm shift in the
trend of politics in Nigeria. Other transnational, transcultural and transcontinental media of
communication, such as social networking sites (which include Instagram, Facebook, Twitter,
Youtube, Injoo, Linkdin, Badoo, Eskimi), have changed the direction and enhanced political
culture in television. The proliferation of private television stations in Nigeria, such as TVC,
Galaxy Television, Silverbird Television among others continue to have an influence on the
thought pattern(s) of the electorate towards the electoral candidates of their choice.
4. Conclusion
Television and politics are two inseparable entities. In Nigeria, the medium is a force to reckoned
with. Although television and its operation in Nigeria is still being politicised, it is imperative in
the growth and positive change and development in the Nigerian political terrain. This study
concludes that television and politics are two inseparable entities and in Nigeria, the medium
is a force to reckoned with. To this end, this research recommends that positive reforms and
modifications should be made by the National Broadcasting Commission in the operations of
television broadcasting. Furthermore, these reforms should be adhered to, so that the aim and
objectives of the positive transformation in television broadcasting in Nigeria can be achieved.
18 IBAGERE, E.: Social Development, Television and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan : Kraft Books, 2009, p. 142.
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Bibliography and sources
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AKINWALE, A.: The Nigerian broadcaster: a professional or a civil servant. In AKINFELEYE, R.
(ed.): Issues on Broadcasting in Nigeria. Lagos : Spectrum books, 1990, p. 25-40.
AYAKOROMA, B.: Trends in the Development of Contemporary Nigerian Video Film Industry.
In ONI, D., AHMED, Y. (eds.): Trends in the Theory and Practice of Theatre in Nigeria. Ibadan :
JFR Publishers, 2008, p. 73-80.
IBAGERE, E.: Social Development, Television and Politics in Nigeria. Ibadan : Kraft Books,
2009, p.101.
ISAW, A.: Revolutionary Democracy vs. Liberal Democracy: A belated reply to Yosyas Kifleyesus’s.
[online]. [2020-0-25]. Available at: <www.aigaforum.com/articles/Refuting_liberalism.htm>.
MACKAY, I.: Broadcasting in nigeria. Ibadan : University press, 1964.
OMATSOLA, D.: Televisual film production in Nigeria: a critical source book. Warri : Abotu
Research Publishers, 1997.
OGHENEVIZIE, M.: Reality television and African aesthetics: a study of big brother Africa. [An
unpublished Masters Thesis]. Department of Theatre Arts, Delta State University, Abraka : Delta
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Nigeria: A critical source book. Lagos : Nigeria Magazine. 1981, p. 370-381.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research | Vol. 3, No. 2, December 2020
Author
B.A, M.A, Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah, Ph.D.
Department of the Performing Arts,
University of Ilorin, Nigeria,
P.M.B. 1515,
Ilorin 240003
NIGERIA
okpadahstephen@gmail.com
Stephen Ogheneruro Okpadah is of the department of the Performing Arts, the University of Ilorin, Ilorin,
Nigeria. He holds a B.A (Hons) Degree in Theatre Arts from Delta State University Abraka, Nigeria, and
a Master Degree in Performing Arts from the University of Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria. He has published
numerous articles in local and international journals. Okpadah is coeditor of Committed Theatre in Nigeria:
Perspectives on Teaching and Practice (Lexington Books, 2020), Locating Transnational Spaces: Culture,
Theatre and Cinema (IATC and University College of the North, Canada, 2020) and Animal Discourse and
Environmental Gaze in Literature and Cinema (YKings Press, 2020). He is a Ph.D. Candidate in the Department
of the Performing Arts, the University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria, and a senior research fellow, Theatre Emissary.
page 168
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Media Literacy and Academic Research
GUIDELINES FOR AUTHORS
Media Literacy and Academic Research’s Editorial Board offers a possibility of publishing original theoretical
or research studies, reviews of monographs or text books and other articles related to the focus of the
journal, which have not been publicly published yet. Media Literacy and Academic Research journal
consists of the following sections:
• Studies: Theoretical articles in the extent of 21,600-54,000 signs (12-30 author pages)
• News: News related to media communication and academic research (profiles of scientific events,
projects, profiles of scholars, etc.) in the extent of 3,600 signs (1-2 author pages)
• Reviews: Reviews of monographs and textbooks from the fields of media studies which are not older
than one year, in the extent of 5,400-9,000 signs (3-5 author pages)
• Interview
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• all manuscripts must be written in English language
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CONTENT ARRANGEMENT OF THE MANUSCRIPT
•
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Title of the text in English (16 pt, bold, align centre)
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Abstract in English – from 150 to 200 words (10 pt)
Key words in English (10 pt)
Titles of individual chapters (14 pt, bold)
References (in form – KELLNER, D.: Media Spectacle. New York, London : Routledge, 2003.) The
citation rules are available at www.mlar.sk/citationrules.
• Contact data: name and surname of the author(s) with full academic degrees, full address of the
institution, e-mail, short bio and portrait photo of the author(s).
WE RECOMMEND TO ALL AUTHORS TO APPLY THE
FOLLOWING STRUCTURE OF THE MANUSCRIPT:
• Introduction
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Each received study will undergo a double-blind peer review process and the editorial board will decide
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Board may accept the text conditionally and require correction of the text by author(s) according to the
remarks or suggestions of the reviewers.
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Media Literacy and Academic Research
EDITORIAL POLICY
Media Literacy and Academic Research is a scientific journal focused on the academic reflection
of media and information literacy issues, media education, critical thinking, digital media and
new trends in related areas of media and communication studies. The journal is devoted
to addressing contemporary issues and future developments related to the interdisciplinary
academic discussion, the results of empirical research and the mutual interaction of expertise
in media and information studies, media education as well as their sociological, psychological,
political, linguistic and technological aspects.
Media Literacy and Academic Research is a double-blind peer-reviewed journal published
twice a year by the Faculty of Mass Media Communication at the University of SS. Cyril and
Methodius in Trnava (FMK UCM). The journal is international and interdisciplinary, inviting
contributions from across the globe and from various academic disciplines of social sciences.
It focuses on theoretical and empirical studies, research results, as well as papers related to
the new trends, practices and other academic a research areas. Also encouraged are literature
reviews, innovative initiatives, best practices in online teaching, institutional policies, standards
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The authors and co-authors publishing their work in Media Literacy and Academic Research
are, as a general rule, academics, scholars, researchers and media professionals. The author(s)
of the texts – yet unpublished but already approved and prepared for publication in Media
Literacy and Academic Research – have the right to present their findings or other related
research outcomes by attending domestic, foreign and international scientific conferences
and workshops as well as within their pedagogical or artistic activities. The editorial board
expects authors to submit the final to-be-published texts with regard to the set formal criteria,
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If a published text (or manuscript intended for publication) violates the ethical principles or,
eventually, if the entire texts or their parts are proven to be plagiarisms or consist of texts
already published in the past or simultaneously in several other specialised publications, the
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Any fundamental changes to authorship of already submitted final texts (e.g. amendment of
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the following e-mail address: mlar.editor@fmk.sk.
The complete version of Media Literacy and Academic Research’s Editorial Policy is available
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Media Literacy and Academic Research
SCIENTIFIC JOURNALS
Communication Today
Scientific journal of the Faculty of Mass Media Communication at the University SS.
Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, Slovakia
Communication Today is a scientific journal from the mass media and marketing
communication field. The journal contains professional scientific reflections on the media,
media competencies; it also offers academic discourses on the limits of reality, media
thinking, new media, marketing and media relations, new trends in marketing including
their types and specifics, psychology and sociology of marketing communication, as
well as new knowledge about the structure of media contents, marketing strategies and
communication sciences. The professional public is offered an interdisciplinary, focused,
targeted discussion in these pages. Communication Today is a double-blind peer reviewed
journal published twice a year. It focuses on theoretical studies, theoretical and empirical
studies, research results and their implementation into practice, as well as professional
publication reviews. The members of the journal’s editorial board are members of the
European Communication Research and Education Association (ECREA). Communication
Today is indexed in these databases: Cabell’s Directories, CEJSH, EBSCO, CEEOL, ProQuest, Ulrich’s Periodicals Directory,
Index Copernicus, ERIH PLUS, SCOPUS and (ESCI) – Web of Science Core Collection.
Lege Artis Language yesterday, today, tomorrow
Journal „Lege artis. Language yesterday, today, tomorrow” is a scholarly journal issued
periodically by De Gruyter Open twice a year, in June and December. Contributors are
invited to the mainstream linguistic studies and secondary subfields of linguistics included:
Cognitive linguistics, Cognitive poetics, Comparative-historical linguistics, Culture studies,
Discourse analysis, Folklore studies, Grammar History of the language, Historical phonology
and morphology, Historical semantics, Lexicology, Phonetics/Phonology, Psycholinguistics,
Stylistics, Text linguistics and Cognitive semiotics. „Lege artis. Language yesterday, today,
tomorrow” is indexed in these databases: Web of Science, EBSCO, Clarivate Analytics
– Emerging Sources Citation Index – Web of Science Core Collection, Ulrich’s Periodicals
Directory/ulrichsweb.
European Journal of Media, Art & Photography
European Journal of Media, Art & Photography (EJMAP) is an academic journal
published biannually by the Faculty of Mass Media Communication at the University
of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava (FMK UCM). The journal is dedicated to publishing
photographic collections, works of art and scholarly texts which deal with professional
scientific reflection on media, culture, journalism photography, philosophy, literature
and theatrical art. European Journal of Media, Art & Photography is indexed in CEEOL
and Web of Sciences ESCI.
Acta Ludologica
Acta Ludologica is a scientific journal in the field of digital games. The journal contains
professional scientific reflections on digital games; it also offers academic discourses
on games, especially media and digital competencies, creation, design, marketing,
research, development, psychology, sociology, history and the future of digital games.
Acta Ludologica is a double-blind peer reviewed journal published twice a year. It focuses
on theoretical studies, theoretical and empirical studies, research results and their
implementation into practice, as well as professional publication reviews. The members
of the journal´s editorial board are members of the Faculty of Mass Media Communication
of the University of Ss. Cyril and Methodius in Trnava, the only faculty in Central Europe
which has registered three scientific journals in Clarivate Analytics (formerly Thomson
Reuters) Web of Science.
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