An Essay Document Presented on: IMPACTS OF THE PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF CURRICULUM IN DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION By OKPARAUGO OBINNA JOSEPH DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION FOUNDATION FACULTY OF EDUCATION FEDERAL UNIVERSITY, DUTSIN-MA KATSINA STATE FEBRUARY, 2021 Abstract This is a concept paper in education specifically about curriculum theory. Curriculum theory is a sub-theory of educational theory. Theories provide views about the world. Curriculum practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches or theories in planning, implementing and evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material producers have different curricular theories and principles. in terms of theories of curriculum, it examines the major theories that have been involved in curriculum development and followed by a brief description for the curriculum's different theoretical features including its history, programmed structure, subject matter content, and its proponents. The process of education in general and the field of curriculum in particular are embedded in theory. Teachers and other educators rely on theory in research about the school curriculum. Curriculum theory gives direction and guidance in the process of curriculum planning, development, implementation, supervision, evaluation among others. This concept paper delves on curriculum theory: Its definition, development, functions and characteristics. The paper also explains categories of curriculum theories and theorists, curriculum development, it’s roles and impact in consonance with scholastic views. The issues discussed in this paper can trigger research in theory development and inform educationists and teachers in theory development and research in curriculum.  INTRODUCTION Theories provide views about the world. They explain reality. The process of education in general, and the field of curriculum in particular are embedded in theory. Teachers and other educators rely on theory in research about the school curriculum. Curriculum theory gives direction and guidance in the process of curriculum planning, development, implementation, supervision, and evaluation. This concept paper delves on curriculum theory: its definition, development, functions and characteristics. The paper also explains categories of curriculum theories and theorists, principles and their impacts in curriculum development and implementation. Curriculum is connected to learning. Learning is planned and guided, therefore there is a great need to identify in advance what one is seeking in order to accomplish and know how to go about it. Aside from that, the definitions of curriculum refer to schooling, therefore, it is vital to distinguish that the recent approval of curriculum approaches and theories as far as practise materialized in connection with schooling ideas, including subject and lesson. The subject matter of curriculum theory may be the events associated with decisions about a curriculum, the use of a curriculum, the development of a curriculum, curriculum design, curriculum evaluation, and so forth, such events are only part of the task of identifying curriculum theory components. "Within each of any identified series of events, there are technical terms that define the subject matter of the theoretical field. These have to be defined, or the boundaries of the theorist's work cannot be determined. Definitions also serve a functional purpose when they can be translated into operational constructs in research. Curriculum development and implementation are central to teaching and learning in the classroom. However, it is important for all teachers to be knowledgeable about the theory, principles, development and implementation of curriculum. This write-up provides teachers with information about the basic elements, factors and elements involved in the curriculum development and implementation. Curriculum is derived from the Latin word “currere” which means “to run”. It is a runway (one who runs to reach the goal). Curriculum is all planned learning for which the school is responsible. Curriculum is all the experiences learners have under the guidance of the school. Delnay (1959) Principles and Theories for Curriculum Development Simply put, Curriculum is that which is taught at school. Curriculum is a set of subjects. Curriculum is content. Curriculum is a sequence of courses. A curriculum will answer What outcomes do we want? What content is therefore needed? How can that best be taught/learned? How do we best assess that? How do we evaluate our process? A curriculum is a “plan or program of all experiences which the learner encounters under the direction of a school” (Tanner and Tanner, 1995: 158). According to Gatawa (1990: 8), it is “the totality of the experiences of children for which schools are responsible”. All this is in agreement with Sergiovanni and Starrat (1983), who argue that curriculum is “that which a student is supposed to encounter, study, practice and master Theory The term theory is derived from a Greek word “theoria” meaning “wakefulness of mind”. Merriam Webster’s Learners Dictionary defines a theory as an idea or set of ideas that is intended to explain facts or events. The Oxford Dictionary defines a theory as a set of principles in which the practice of an activity is based. Hunkins (1998: 173) opine that a “a theory is the device for interpreting, criticizing, unifying, established laws, modifying them to fit data unanticipated in their formation and guiding the enterprise of discovering new and more powerful generalizations”. In summary, a theory is defined as a set of statements that explains or describes phenomena. Curriculum Theory Hewitt (2006: 133) opines that a curriculum theory is a set of propositions, observations, facts, beliefs, policies and procedures proposed or followed as a basis for curriculum action. If a theory is a set of related statements that are arranged so as to give functional meaning to a set or a series of events, a curriculum theory is a set of related statements that gives meaning to a school’s curriculum by pointing up to the relationships among its elements and by directing its development, its use: and its evaluation. Curriculum theory is defined as a sub-theory in education that explains and describes curriculum phenomena. In this case, curriculum phenomena encompass the elements of curriculum such as the objectives, content, learning experiences and methods of evaluation. Curriculum implementation is the process of putting into practice an idea, programme or set of activities new to the people attempting or expected to change. CONCEPT OF CURRICULUM The concept of a curriculum system implies a governing cluster of relationships. Most of them have to do with the human engineering required in the process of curriculum development and curriculum implementation. The fundamental tasks of a curriculum system set the framework for needed relationship ties, the tasks inherent in a curriculum system, are: (I) the choice of arena for curriculum decision-making, (2) the selection and involvement of persons in curriculum planning, (3) organization for and techniques used m curriculum planning, (4) actual writing of a curriculum, (5) implementing the curriculum, (6) evaluating the curriculum, and (7) providing for feedback and modification of the curriculum. When statements of relationship among these elements arc articulated, the phenomena of curriculum development, curriculum implementation, and curriculum evaluation will have been described. The primary concern here is one of explaining the structure and functions of a curriculum system. A very important and substantive part of the content of any theory is the accumulation of statements describing relationship among the components of the theory. To these need to be added the structural relationships between the theory being developed and it sub-theories. If we employ the three uses of curriculum as a framework, relationship among the components of curriculum theory may be more readily identified. Within the concept of curriculum, there are many key relationships to be described. The primary ones have to do with such matters as the relationships between goals and culture content, between school organization and scope and sequence or between culture content and overall design. Secondary or peripheral relationships have to do with influences that impinge on curriculum decisions but which are not a part of a curriculum. The purpose of curriculum as a field of study is to advance knowledge about curriculums and curriculum systems. Whatever is included in the field of study must be defended on the basis of that purpose. CURRICULUM THEORY-BUILDING ACTIVITIES The curriculum theorist, is subject to the same rules of behavior as any theorist in the behavioral sciences; consequently, he is obligated to engage in the most commonly accepted work practices of all. They are: (1) establishment of descriptive and prescriptive definitions for technical terms. (2) classification of existing and new knowledge, (3) inferential and predictive research. (4) sub-theory development, and development and use of models. Although some classification of curriculum knowledge has taken place in subordinate aspects of curriculum, a systematic classification is still lacking. This condition is strange because classification is a theory-building activity that is very possible in the field of curriculum. Limited attempts have been made by those who have raised questions that curriculum theory should answer, such as those about what content, what organization, what teaching, for what pupils, for what purposes. Progress beyond that has been inhibited by the lack of acceptance of a conceptual framework for curriculum classification. A curriculum itself is an expression of prediction, Curriculum planners predict that teachers will use a curriculum as a point of departure for their teaching; otherwise there would be little point in doing all that work. Curriculum planners may predict that certain learning outcomes will occur. Rarely have these predictions been tested out in research, but they must be to develop generalizations about the phenomena for purposes of building curriculum theory. EXEMPLARS IN CURRICULUM THINKING The history of curriculum thought has been reviewed from time to time. Two examples will be cited here. Seguel reviewed the formative years of the curriculum field which she stipulated to be between 1890 and 1940. Seguel chose to illustrate periodic developments in curriculum by describing the work of representative scholars. Charles and McMurry (1909) were selected as representatives of the Herbartian movement. Dewey was included because of his pervasive influence upon the curriculum thinking of all others. Bobbitt (1918) and Charters (1923) were chosen to represent the movement in curriculum known as activity analysis. Rugg (1936) represented a group attempting to synthesize ideas about curriculum up to that point in time. And Caswell (1952) was selected to represent the new specialist in curriculum making. Phillips analyzed meanings associated with the concept "curriculum" from its early use to the year 1962. EARLY CURRICULUM SPECIALISTS Although persons developed concern for curriculum problems as early as 1890, as pointed out by Seguel (1996) and Phillips (1965) the definitive work on general curriculum was published by Bobbitt in 1918. Bobbitt really was the first in a long line of people who became curriculum specialists in the sense that they developed a curriculum posture and were leaders in the practical affairs of curriculum development. Bobbitt (1919) is identified as a proponent of activity analysis as a means of making curriculum decisions. He was among the first to use the methods of science to identify the activities and predispositions of adults for purposes of creating a school curriculum that would prepare children for that kind of adult life. Charters (1935) was much in agreement with Babbitt (1919) in proposing job analysis of adult occupations as a technique for formulating bases for curriculum decisions. In this respect. Charters (1923) was more cornered with vocational education. Both reached similar conclusions about curriculum content. Two things stand out about the theoretical postures of Bobbitt and Charters. First, they were committed to the use of the techniques of science in the solution of curriculum problems. In this respect, they were influenced by the scientific movement in education led by persons such as Thorndike (1949), Charles (1946), and their followers, Second. Bobbitt and Charters held, as a basis for their theories, the assumption that it was the function of the school to prepare the young for adult life. The way to find out about adult life was to analyze it, and the way to make a curriculum was to decide what skills, knowledge, values, and attitudes would prepare the school leavers to participate in that life. The whole approach was a vigorous way of determining curriculum content and objectives and for organizing the curriculum content in a systematic manner. Under the leadership of the Progressives, the child-centered movement was causal in a shift in the whole character of curriculum thinking beginning early in the 1920's. Attention was shifted from the organization of subject matters aimed at preparation for adult life to the psychologies! behavior of the learner in the present. The important criteria for curriculum content became the interests and needs of children in school. Since the interests and needs of children emerged from their daily experience, a pre-planned curriculum without the involvement of the children ill the planning became an anathema to the development of a good educational program. The conflict between the society-centered and the child-centered groups was brought into sharp focus in the Twenty-sixth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. The society's committee was composed of persons of various persuasions, and Harold Rugg was chairman. In spite of differences in theoretical orientation, the committee was able to formulate a statement of working principles for curriculum making. That statement of principles came as close to being a Statement of curriculum theory as anything set forth up to that. LATER DEVELOPMENTS About mid-twentieth century, discussions of curriculum theory quo theory began to appear in the literature. The first large-scale discussion of curriculum theory took place at the University of Chicago in 1947. The papers presented at that conference were published in a monograph in 1950 8 Each author of a paper was given virtually complete freedom to treat his topic individually, inasmuch as the composite papers made no pretense at covering the field of curriculum theory comprehensively. What has come to be called the Tyler rationale (1976) was published in 1950. The rationale revolves around four central questions; 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can he provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3, How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?" This formulation has been the one most persistently used with reference to curriculum theory since its publication. PROFESSIONAL VALUE OF CURRICULUM THEORY Curriculum theorizing is a process that engages us in imagining the why and how of curriculum phenomena. It challenges us to analyze why we think a curriculum should be developed in a particular way for particular students and focused on certain content (Syomwene, 2017). Curriculum theory is important in the following ways: First, curriculum theory provides a framework with which to design the curriculum. Curriculum planners rely on curriculum theories and models when stating the curriculum objectives, selecting and organizing the content and learning experiences as well as the methods of evaluation. Tyler (1949) and Taba (1962) models of curriculum development are very useful in the process of curriculum design. Second, curriculum theory empowers teachers for quality outcomes in curriculum implementation process. Quality curriculum implementation activities are invaluable in effective schools (Syomwene, 2018). Curriculum implementers draw on theories in their pursuit of effective implementation activities such as planning for instruction, actual teaching, motivation of learners, and assessment. Third, teachers rely on theory in research about the school curriculum. Forth, educational supervisors and leaders rely on theory in their curriculum supervisory duties. Fifth, curriculum theory is essential in the development and implementation of curriculum changes and innovations. THE ROLE OF CURRICULUM Curriculum is a crucial factor in the teaching-learning process. It means a written plan (a degree program, a syllabus, a textbook, a learning package, a lesson) which is prescriptive definition. Based on Dewey (1916) view “as all the experiences of the learner inside and outside the school under the guidance of the teacher, that is all encompassing.” A written plan that is specific and prescriptive indicates the objectives, defines the scope and sequence of the content, identifies the strategies and activities or learning, selects materials and describes the role of the learner and the teacher. Comprehensive plan includes all learning experiences that may or may not be specifically written but supervised by the school. Learning Experiences constitute the: Curricular (classroom lessons) Co-Curricular (experiences directly related to classroom lessons such as debates and science contests) Extra-Curricular (experiences not directly related to classroom lessons but with educative value such as athletics and leadership training). The purpose of plan (prescriptive or comprehensive) is to enable students to learn knowledge, skills, attitudes, values and habits so that they can become competent and productive members of society. Cost Effectiveness; A need to maximize scare resources allocated to the educational system for obvious reasons. PHASES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Curriculum Development- refers to process that produces a written plan. Phases: 1. The curriculum design or structure 2. The implementation scheme 3. The evaluation procedure Curriculum Designs – are overall frameworks which describe the interaction and congruence of the four basic elements of aims: objectives, content, organization, and evaluation. These frameworks become the bases for the development of textbooks, syllabi, and lesson plan. Curriculum Development is a Process that involves Decision making, Areas of Concerns in the Development Knowledge of Learner, application of Teaching- Learning Theories, Implementation and Evaluation. Curriculum Development Plan Design (objectives, content, organization, evaluation) Implementation (roles, materials, schedule) Evaluation (effectiveness, efficiency, impact) AREAS OF CONCERN IN CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT Cultural Values of group of people in any given society may be defined by its culture which is manifested by both visible and non-visible dimensions. Visible dimension- rules, food, dress, language, music, dance, means of livelihood, political behavior, as well as family, community, and institutional norms and practices. Non-visible- such as philosophy, beliefs and value system which have far greater influence and impact on the way of life of the people. Aims and Objectives Every curriculum is aimed at developing in the learner’s certain competencies or abilities. The curriculum process must therefore clearly identify the aims that the curriculum is intended to achieve. Aims and Objectives Curriculum aims range from the very broad to the more specific. In fact, that is why we use the terms aims, goals and objectives to refer to them. Aims are broad statements which cover all of the experiences provided in the curriculum; goals are tied to specific subjects or group of contents within the curriculum; while objectives describe the more specific outcomes that can be attained as a result of lessons or instruction delivered at the classroom. CURRICULUM DESIGN Curriculum design One of the most important tools in ensuring consistency and quality in a ‘curriculum system’. Definition of a curriculum framework A document (or set of documents) that sets standards for curriculum and provides the context (available resources, capabilities of teachers and system support) in which subject specialists develop syllabuses. A curriculum framework is usually a single document which is supplemented by other materials to guide the implementation of specific parts of the framework. These may give more detailed specification or guidance by individual year, subject or learning area, addressing the requirements of the school system, individual schools and the classroom. The documents may include syllabuses, programs of study, year plans and lesson plans. They may be developed centrally, locally or by individual teachers, and may have the status of support material or official documents which must be used. Common Elements of a Curriculum Design 1. Introduction: Current Context describes the social and economic environment in which educational policy is made and in which teaching and learning occur. 2. Educational Policy Statements describes the Government’s goals for education, such as universal literacy and numeracy, the development of skills needed for economic prosperity and the creation of a stable and tolerant society. 3. Statement of Broad Learning Objectives and Outcomes / standards for each level / cycle describes what students should know and be able to do when they complete their school education. Outcomes should be expressed in a range of domains, including knowledge, understanding, skills and competencies, values and attitudes Principles and Theories for Curriculum Development. 4. Structure of the Education System describes the school system within which the curriculum framework is to be applied. It should specify: • Number of years of schooling, including compulsory schooling • Stages (or cycles) of schooling and their durations • Number of weeks in the school years, hours / teaching periods in the school week. 5. Structure of curriculum content, learning areas and subjects. describes the organization of content within the framework and the extent to which schools and students can make choices. It might describe: • The pattern of Subjects or Learning Areas to be studied in each stage or cycle (such as core, elective and optional subjects) • The number of hours to be assigned to each subject or Learning Area in each stage or cycle. 6. Standards of resources required for implementation describes standards as they apply to: • Teachers – qualifications, teaching load (number of classes per week) • Students – number per class in each subject • Materials – textbooks, computers, other equipment; facilities – classrooms, furniture, fittings. 7. Teaching methodology describes the range of teaching approaches that might be employed in the implementation of the framework. 8. Assessing and reporting student achievement describes the importance of assessing the extent to which students achieve the outcomes of each subject, and recommends or prescribes (suggest) types of assessment strategies (such as written, oral, performance and practical skills demonstration. Factors That Influence Curriculum Design Political Factors: Education is regarded as a political activity because its core values are founded on the National ideology and philosophy which in turn have a tremendous influence on the education system because: Politics determine and define the goals, content, learning experiences and evaluation strategies in education. Curricular materials and their interpretation are usually heavily influenced by political considerations. Political considerations may play a part in the hiring of personnel. Funding of education is greatly influenced by politics. Entry into educational institutions and the examination systems are heavily influenced by politics. Social Factors: Society has its own expectations about the aims and objectives that should be considered when designing the curriculum. It also has a perception of what the product of the school system should look like. It is therefore necessary for curriculum designers to take into account these societal considerations. If this does not happen, the curriculum becomes irrelevant. As you know, a number of religions co-exist in countries in the. Your own community may include Christians, Muslims, Hindus and adherents of other religions. Their views must be considered when designing a curriculum. The design of curricular materials and their presentation should accommodate the culture of the society that the curriculum is seeking to serve. One should, however, be sensitive to the fact that the curriculum can be used to perpetuate inequities. You may have a curriculum that is gender biased against female children because it includes instructional materials that portray negative attitudes towards women and girls. It is therefore possible for culture to have both positive and negative influences on the curriculum. Economic Factors: One of the reasons why education is financed by governments is to improve the country’s economy. Therefore, the national curriculum should concern itself with the requirements of the economy. Perhaps you are wondering how the economy of the country affects the curriculum. The children to be taught will need to be employed. The skills needed by industry should be translated into the content and learning experiences of these children. The skills, knowledge base and attitudes required by industry should be developed in the classroom. Employers have basic requirements. Educational institutions find themselves working to meet these basic requirements academically and professionally. This would enhance your upward social mobility. The market forces dictate what should be included in the national curriculum. It also subtly determines the quantity of learners at different levels. As a teacher, you require classroom supplies such as: • textbooks • charts • equipment, and • chemicals for science experiments. These materials are products of industry. Without these materials, learning is compromised. It is therefore crucial that serious consideration be given to economic demands when designing the curriculum. Technological Factors: The computer is the latest technological innovation that will have a significant impact on education and society. This one major reason why computer studies have been incorporated in both teaching and learning situation. The intention is to equip the learners with the requisite computer skills and knowledge. In addition to computers, other forms of electronic media are being used in teaching. These have provided a variety of learning experiences and have facilitated individualised learning. Curriculum designers cannot afford to ignore technology and its influence on the curriculum. Environmental Factors: Over time, people have become insensitive to their surroundings and natural resources. This has affected the sky, the land and the sea. The end result is that humanity is being adversely affected by these in-considerations. Industrial wastes have polluted the world. For example, the ozone layer in the atmosphere, which protects us from harmful radiation from the sun, is being depleted. People want this redressed. It is through education that remediation can be effected. Consideration for the environment must of necessity influence curriculum design to ensure the survival of future generations. Influence of Child Psychology: Apart from the factors detailed above, curriculum design is also influenced by child psychology. Theories of learning and child development have to be considered when designing the content of the curriculum and how it is delivered. Learning can be maximised by ensuring that activities and experiences are introduced at the most ‘teachable’ moment. THE ROLE OF CURRICULUM A curriculum allows administrators to provide a dynamic educational program for current and prospective students. Schools, colleges and universities attract students with a variety of quality, competitive and flexible program curricula. Curriculum offers teachers the ideas and strategies for assessing student progress. A student must meet certain academic requirements in order to go to the next level. Without the guidance of a curriculum, teachers cannot be certain that they have supplied the necessary knowledge or the opportunity for student success at the next level, whether that level involves a high school, college or career. Curriculum gives students an understanding of what must be accomplished in order to obtain a degree. Without such knowledge, students would be lost in a maze (confusion) of academic courses that seemingly leads nowhere. They would have no assurance that they are taking the proper subjects toward a diploma or a degree. A curriculum promotes a sense of order and structure in the pursuit of academic success Considerations A curriculum is more than putting together a set of academically required subjects. Several things must be considered, such as the learning needs of students; the consensus (agreement) of teachers and administrators; the expectations of the community; and current breakthroughs (innovations) in academic fields. Overall Significance Designing a curriculum involves the interaction of several participants, reaching beyond the academic wall to impact the entire community. Without an effective curriculum, students would not be able to understand or meet the challenges of society. A curriculum prepares an individual with the knowledge to be successful, confident and responsible citizens. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION Curriculum implementation entails putting into practice the officially prescribed courses of study, syllabuses and subjects. The process involves helping the learner acquire knowledge or experience. It is important to note that curriculum implementation cannot take place without the learner. The learner is therefore the central figure in the curriculum implementation process. Implementation takes place as the learner acquires the planned or intended experiences, knowledge, skills, ideas and attitudes that are aimed at enabling the same learner to function effectively in a society (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 8). Viewed from this perspective, curriculum implementation also refers to the stage when the curriculum itself, as an educational programme, is put into effect. Putting the curriculum into operation requires an implementing agent. Stenhouse (1979: 4) identifies the teacher as the agent in the curriculum implementation process. She argues that implementation is the manner in which the teacher selects and mixes the various aspects of knowledge contained in a curriculum document or syllabus. Implementation takes place when the teacher-constructed syllabus, the teacher’s personality, the teaching materials and the teaching environment interact with the learner (University of Zimbabwe, 1995: 9). Curriculum implementation therefore refers to how the planned or officially designed course of study is translated by the teacher into syllabuses, schemes of work and lessons to be delivered to students. Sub-processes to be considered here include scheduling of implementation; the in-servicing and orientation of teachers and other educational personnel; provision of other support services; provision of the necessary facilities; introduction of any necessary organizational changes within the school’s system; introduction of the process of informing the general public about the new curriculum and its implementation. CONCLUSION This write-up, gives an overview of the literature on curriculum approaches and theories. Concisely, the best approach or theory to curriculum design is to combine the best of both according to student’s need, teacher’s experience and organizational structure and resources. For example, it is useful to design the overall shape of the course, the main aims and learning objectives, broad content areas and time allocation centrally but then devolve out the detailed planning and design to those teachers who will be delivering the course so that they have ownership of their programme or course.  REFERENCES Anne Syomwene (2020). Curriculum Theory: Characteristics Theory and Function. European Journal of European Journal of Education Studies – Volume 7 Barone, T. (2010). Rugg, Harold. In C. Kridel (Ed.), Encyclopedia of curriculum studies. (pp. 752-754). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412958806.n397 Bobbitt, F. (1918). The Curriculum: a summary of the development concerning the theory of the curriculum. Houghton Mifflin Buswell, G. T. (1947). "Charles Hubbard Judd: 1873-1946". American Journal of Psychology. 60 (1): 135–137. JSTOR 1417336 Caswell H. L. (1952). The Great Reappraisal of Public Education, of Columbia university, Steinmetz Memorial Lecture, IEEE Charles A and Frank M. (1909). The Method of recitation. The Macmilliam Company, New York Charters, W. W. 1923. Curriculum Construction. New York: Macmillan. New York Charters, W. W. 1935. Motion Pictures and Youth: A Summary. New York: Macmillan. Eisner, Elliot W, (ed,) (1971) Confirming Curriculum Reform, Boston: Little Brown and Company. Eisner, Elliot W, (1967). Franklin Bobbitt and the ‘Science of Curriculum Making, The School Review, 75:29-49, Spring. Fogarty, J. (1976). The Tyler Rationale: Support and Criticism. Educational Technology, 16(3), 28-32. Retrieved February 28, 2021, from http://www.jstor.org/stable/44418103 Gatawa, B. S. M (1990). The Politics of the School Curriculum: An Introduction Harare: Jongwe Presss; Theory and Practice Worthington, OH: CA. Jones. Herrick, Virgil E. and Ralph W. Tyler. (1950) Toward Improved Curriculum Theory. Supplementary Educational Monographs. No. 71 Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Hewitt, T. W. (2006). Understanding and shaping curriculum: What we teach and why. London: Sage. John, D (1907). The Bearings of Pragmatism Upon Education. Progressive Journal of Education. originally three papers, 1(Dec. 1908): 1–3; 1(Jan. 1909): 5–8; 1–(Feb. 1909): 6–7. Reprinted in MW4: 178–191 John Delnay (2000.) Principles and Theories for Curriculum Development. The Commonwealth of Learning 1285 West Broadway, Suite 600 Vancouver, BC V6H 3X8 Canada Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. (1988). Curriculum: Foundations, Principle and Issues. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. (1998). Curriculum: Foundations, Principle and Issues. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Ornstein, A. and Hunkins, F. (2004). Curriculum: Foundations, Principle and Theory (4th ed). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Richard C. Phillips (1965), The Historical Development of the Term, Experience Curriculum History of Education. Quarterly Vol. 5, No. 2 (pp. 121-130 (10 pages). Published By: Cambridge University Press https://doi.org/10.2307/367160 https://www.jstor.org/stable/367160 Rugg, Harold, Chairman (1927). The Fuundations and Technique of Curriculum Construction. Twenty-sixth Yeaarbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Parts I and II. Bloomington. IIL: Public School Publishing Company. Syomwene, A. (June, 2018). Effective school indicators for quality curriculum implementation process. Vol 4, No. 3. (pp. 150-159) Seguel, Mary Louise. (1996). The Curriculum Field: Its Formative Years. New York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University. Stenhouse, L (1975). An introduction to curriculum research and development. London: Heinemann. Syomwene, A. & Nabwire, V., & Musamas, J., (2015). Theoretical bases influencing curriculum decision making in Early Childhood Education. Journal of Educational Policy and Entrepreneurial Research. Vol. 2, No. 12; pp 23-31. Taba, H. B. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice. New York: Harcourt Brace and World Inc. Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (1995). Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Tyler, Ralph W. (1950). Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, Syllabus for Education 305. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Tyler, R. W. (1949). Basic principles of curriculum and instruction. Chicago: University of Chicago press.