"There’s no place like Petty Harbour": Negation in a post-insular community

eN ISSN 0079·9335 RLS REGIONAL LANGUAGE STUDIES. . . NEWFOUNDLAND Number 22 1 March 2011 Memorial University of Newfoundland Department of English Language and'Literature St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada Editor: William J. Kirwin English Language Research Centre Management Committee Sandra Clarke Philip Hiscock Robert Hollett Gerard Van Heck Jeff Webb Faith Balisch <ex officio) One purpose of the English Language Research Centre when it was created in 1986 was to encourage and facilitate the continued investigation of the English language and cognate topics in Newfoundland. Part of the strategy was to undertake "publications based upon the data assembled in the Centre" and upon other research activities. 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Addresses: Regional Language Studies Department of English Language and Literature Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland St. John's, Newfoundland Canada A[C 557 English Language Research Centre Arts and Administmtion Building A 30[9 Memorial Univ. of Newfoundland Elizabeth A venue St. John's, Newfoundland Hours: 10:00-12:30 2:30-5:00 Submissions to Regional Language Studies Please submit a typescript along with a disk (to be returned). Footnoting is not necessary. Identify your quotations and sources in parentheses following the material cited, and add References at the end of your essay. Pronunciations may be indicated in IPA transcriptions. Following your article or note, include information about your discipline: for example, Faculty of Education, Memorial University of Newfoundland, fomth-year student. The editor will consult with you if stylistic changes seem in order. eN ISSN 0079·9335 RLS REGIONAL LANGUAGE STUDIES... NEWFOUNDLAND Number 21 1March 2011 Memorial University of Newfoundland Department of English Language and Literature St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada Regional Language Studies No. 22 1 March 2011 CONTENTS "Date of this Entry"; Queries raised by the "1805 Conception Bay Plantations Book" Robert H. Cuff 1 ''There's no place like Petty Harbour": Negation io a Post·insular Community· Jennifer Thorburn 8 The Genesis ofJames Cook's Australian Place·names William J. Kirwin 18 MISCELLANY William J. Kirwio Barachois io Newfoundland and Labrador 25 Bibliography Student Assistants 29 32 Regional'Language Studies, No. 22, I March 20 II 0079-9335 "DATE OF THIS ENTRY" QUERIES RAISED BY THE "1805 CONCEPTION BAY PLANTATIONS BOOK" Robert H. Cuff ACADEMICS AND GENEALOGISTS WOULD AGREE that the document which is often referred to as the "Conception Bay Plantations Book" is invaluable. A register and description of hundreds of fishing rooms in the region in the early nineteenth century, the Plantations Book can tell us a great deal about private property, settlement patterns, and family history (Handcock, Soe lange as there comes 106I 13;Andrews9-1 1,29-33).Ihaverecently had occasion to investigate the origins of this document and conclude that it was primarily gathered and compiled by a district surrogate judge in 1805 and 1806. On 21 August 1804 Governor Erasmus Gower ordered that surrogates compile a register offishing rooms in each district (Gower 359-61). It may be that there was a complete survey, as ordered. There survive similar registers for Bonavista Bay «(Bland]), and Twillingate ([Pearce]), and a map ofSt. John's rooms based on Governor Gower's order may have been destroyed in the 1892 Great Fire (Howley 17). There aretwo "original" versions of the Conception Bay book. I. In 1970 the Provincial Archive obtained an original from the Registry of Deeds and Companies. This version, as compiled by the surrogate judge, I will refer to as the ＢｹＺｊｴｳｩｧ･ｲＧｾ version. Governor Gower had directed that a copy should be sent to the Governor and originals held in the various districts to assist in the settlement of disputes. 2. A holograph version, on microfilm "Return ofPossessions Held in Conception Bay," is available at the Centre for Newfoundland Studies (CO 199.18, mf #570), Maritime History Archive, and Provincial Archives [the "CO 199" version]. Academics (such as Drs. E.R. Scary and Gordon Handcock) have most often employed this version, which is the 'Governor's copy' referenced above. 3. In 1937 Harry Maddick, Newfoundland's Registrar of Deeds and Companies, arranged for a transcription ''typed and compared from the original under my supervision" of the registry version. This is now held in the Registry as Miscellaneous Volume 13 [the ''typescript'' version]. 4. The Newfoundland and Labrador Genweb site includes a version which was transcribed by genealogists from the typescript [the "web version"].' IThe web version <ht1p:/lwww rOQtsweb.com/""'Cannf/cbbrig p rl 805intro.htm> incorporates correspondence pasted into the typescript at the suggestion of Nimshi Crewe. The Crewe papers at the Provincial Archive of Newfoundland and Labrador (MG 281) also contain files which refer to the "Return," which was given the name "the Plantations Book" by lawyer John G. Higgins. Nimshi Crewe (1901-1971) was employed in the Auditor General's office 1934-1950, and was research officer at the Archives 1960-68. The Genweb transcribers Regional Language SJ"dfu, No. 22. I March 2011 0079-933S 2 I had some familiarity with the CO 199 version, but the availability ofthe web version facilitated quick comparison and ultimately an entire read-through. This exercise suggested that the data contained therein, important in its detail to both academics and genealogists, may not be fully appreciated. Consider the description of a fisbing room owned by Charles Garland of Harbour Grace (registry, typescript and web versions, #951) from column #2 [Name and Description of the Room or Other Erections, with Its Exact Boundaries]: "(Grove) [name ofthe r09m] Chas. Garland Esq. 150 yds. from N.E. to S.W. by the sea side, 296 yds. from I-I.W.M. to the No. bounded on the N. by the woods. 2 Stages, 3 Flakes, 4 Houses, 3 Gardens, I Meadow." The nature of Garland's claim: "Part purchased from Nicholas Fiott of Jersey Mercht. and part cut and cleared agreeable to Act.Wm.3 Chap. 25 Sec.1." "Date of this Entry" (column #8) is 1111. These versions contain a further notation in column #2: "- Purchased by me under the 1st Nov. 1821, 1. Goup. [for J. Toop?] Nicolas Surrogate." Charles Garland (1130-1810), was a third-generation Newfoundlander and probably the most prominent resident of Harbour Grace in 1805-06, having been a justice of the peace since 1155, deputy customs officer since 1192, and district appear to have done a credible job, and perfonned a significant service. They were: Susan Snelgrove, Sue O'Neill, Fred Swed Jr., Debbie Baleman, and Chris Jenkins. judge of the surrogate court since 1199 (Handcock "Garland"). Crewe cites a letter to Garland from Governor Gower dated 23 October 1806: "I have received your letter ... informing me that a further expense of seventy pounds has been incurred in obtaining a Survey and Register ofFishing Rooms in Conception Bay." Garland eithercompiled or directed the compilation of the registry version between 1804 and 1806, and had many years experience of disputes over fishing rooms in the district. What then are we to make of the date "1111" under "Date of this Entry" for his own property? Consider three excerpts from E.R. Seary's Family Names of the Island of Newfoundland: Butler, Dawe and Porter. Dr. Seary's quotations, in each instance, are from the CO 199 version: .BUTLER . .. Early instances: James, of Port de Grave, 1160, property "in possession of the Family for 98 years or upwards," that is, before 1662 (CO 199.18). (p. 12) DAWE ... Early instances: George, of Port de Grave, 1155, "property in possession ofthe Family" since 1595 (CO 199.18). (p. 135)[webversion, entry #5 14] PORTER . .. Early instances: William, of I-libbs Hole, 1171, property "in possession ofthe Family for 106 years," that is, since 1671 (CO 199.18). (p. 421)[web version, entry #542] These computations of possession feature in many Conception Bay family histories. In particular, the Dawe family's arrival prior to 1610 and the founding of John Guy's colony is often referenced, It gets 1he "fun treatment" of a fictionalized reconstruction in Gerald Andrews' Heritage ofa Newfoundland Outport: The Story of Port de Grave (9-11), The tradition is also explored in folklorist Martin Lovelace's 1980 article "John Guy meets 1he Dawes: The investigation of an oral historical tradition," But what if the length of possession-osuch as "in possession of the family for 106 years," in 1he case of WilIiamPorter--weremeasured from 1805 or 1806, 1he inferred date of compilation of the register? That is, what if William Porter's ancestor gained "possession" in 1699 or 1700, ra1her than in 1671. Does 1his assist us in conceiving how Garland interpreted the head "Date of 1his Entry"? In William Porter's case [Entry #542]1he "Date of 1his Entry" is 1777, Consider other entries for 1he Porter family ofHibbs Hole, abbreviated and reorganized into a table: II Claimant ances/ral possession dale ofentry Nature of claim 539 Richard P. "for 106 years" 1774 By deed of gift from Father 540 Richard P. "for 106 years" 1805 Purchased from his Mother 541 IUchard P. Ir "for 106 years" 1789 By deed of gift from Father (John) 542 WllJiamP. "forl06years" 1777 By deed ofgift from FaUler For Scary's interpretation to hold it is necessary to accept that Porter ancestors took possession offour parts ofa block of shorespace with 152 yards frontage at Hibbs Hole in 1668,1671,1683 and 1699 in four equal 38-yard sections, An alternative is much simpler: a single Porter ancestor was in possession of1he original l52-yard section for 106 years prior to 1805 or 1806, If1he "Date of1his Entry" is 1he date that 1he various Porters took personal possession, Richard and William were given plots by their father in 1774 and 1777, Richard Jr, by his fa1her (John, possibly a brother of Richard Sr, and William) in 1789, In 1his light, it is much easier to reconcile 1he "Plantations Book" wi1h earlier sources 1hat list Conception Bay planters by name (1675,1676,1708) but do not include some families which 1he conventional interpretation suggests were already long-time residents, There are examples where plots are listed as "cut and cleared" by 1he occupant and possessed (no indication ofancestors) for a number of years 1hat corresponds to "Date of1his Entry" e,g,: # Claimant ancestral possession date ofentry Nature of claim 510 Saml Dawc "Possessed 48 years" 1757 Cut and cleared ... Now consider 1he two entries which note possession for 160 years by Dawe ancestors at Ship Cove, Port de Grave: II Claimant ancestral possess/on date ofeTll'Y Nature of claim 513 Isaac Dawe 160 years J773 Deed ofglft from father 514 GeorgeD.Sr 160years 1755 byhlsMother's will Few entries anywhere else in 1he register cite ancestral possession of any more than 105 or 106 years (ofwhich there 4 are several, including· some Dawe neighbours ofIsaac and George Sr).' Tbree Earles at "Juglers Cove" (Bay Roberts) claim rooms "[P)ossessed by him and his ancestors for 120 years" and "[P)ossessed as above." The grandson of John Garland, a planter of Mosquito [Bristols Hope) in 1675, Charles Garland would certainly have been alive to the possibility that Conception Bay families could have been in possession of the fishing rooms for a century or more. The purpose here is not to proclaim that Dr. Seary was in error, nor to point out that numerous genealogists have been labouring under a misapprehension-although both could be true. It is just that trying to make sense of the history of settlement and the origins of private property in Newfoundland, rather than family hislory, requires re-evaluation of this document. Meanwhile, with so many "Date[s] of this Entry" associated with wills and inheritance, genealogists could test the theory on a family-by-family basis. This is an instance where the availability of a transcription in an electronic format 2A date of 105 or 106 years prior to 1805-06 could suggest that properties were acquired or confinned in 1700 or so, after the disruptive raid ofd'iberville in 1697, and after the passage of King William's Act in 1699. Commodores Norris (1698) and Leake (1699) both compiled infonnation concerning Conception Bay fishing rooms. In August 1701 Commodore John Graydon "settled" the planters' rooms in St. John's, so perhaps something similarwas "settled" in Conception Bay after the passage of King William's Act. encourages and materially assists such reevaluation on both fronts. A comparison of the Conception Bay document with the "Bonavista Register of Fishing Rooms, 1805-06, received IO Sep. 1806," and with the "Register of the Fishing Rooms in Twillingate and Places Adj acent Beginning 3 Janr 1806" is also instructive.. In each document the heads ofenquiry are similar, but not identical, to those in Gower's order. But, while Garland reproduced the headings almost word for word, the others interpreted their instructions. Gower: ＮｴｾＬｩｆ Name and Description ofthe Room Erect/OIU &c, wi/It its exact Boundaries 01' othe" Registry version: Name and Description of the Room or Other Erections, whh Its Exact Boundaries BonaviJJbI: Name by which the room is usually known Ex/ent oflhe room, or other situation and how to ascertaIn the boundary [two separate heads] Twlllingate: Name and description of the Room and the boundaries Gower: Second, In what Harbour Cove &c situated Registry: In what Harbour, Cove, etc., Situated So..vista: Where situated Twillln.ate: Situation in what harbour or cove There is no ambiguity as to when the infonnation in the "Bonavista Register" was gathered and by whom: 1805 and 1806, by district surrogate judge Jolm Bland (Handcock "Bland"). This document was at some point obtained by Nimshi Crewe, and was sold by Crewe to the Gosling Library "some years ago" (as he wrote in 1958). Bland's progress around fourteen settlements of that Bay can be traced from the column "Date of entry," ranging from 27 July 1805 (Greenspond) to 28 August 1806 (Open Hall). Bland registered 91 fishing rooms in Bonavista Bay, and the greatest antiquity he noted for any claim was 80 years, for two rooms at Ship Island, Greenspond. The Twillingate "Register" was probably compiled in the first instance by Andrew Pearce (1770-1841), a native of Dorset who was local agent for various West Country merchants, and who had been customs collector and justice of the peace at Twillingate since 1798. That the photocopy held at the Provincial Archives was taken from the original is clear from later notations, many of which (1816-19) were entered by Rev. John Leigh as surrogate. In the first instance, most entries are for rooms on the Twillingate Islands, and were made in 1806. It is distinguished from the others in having a surname index at the front, and by the fact that the original compiler skipped over several pages, to begin a register for Moreton's Harbour in 1807, and for Exploits Burnt Islands in 1808. A few rooms were entered for Tizzard's Harbourin 1811 by skipping back to a blank page. Considering individual entries in isolation may have obscured the meaning of the information compiled under "Date of this Entry" in the Conception Bay "Plantations Book." The popular inteipretation, such as that concerning the Dawes, has a long history of its own and was publicized by Nimshi Crewe and J .R. Smallwood long before Seary's Family Names appeared. Perhaps the Dawe "oral tradition" dates from Crewe and Smallwood collecting antiques together at Port de Grave in the 1930s (Crewe #254). Smallwood's Handbook and Gazetteer contains the first published reference to the date 1595 and the Dawe tradition. "The Dawe family of Ships Cove ... trace their history in Ship Cove back to 1595.... There is a tradition that some ofti'e Dawes were out on the fishing grounds on the day that John Guy's colonists arrived...." (Smallwood 108-109). An investigation of the origins of the "Plantations Book" and comparison with the Bonavista and Twillingate registers make it clear that the "Plantations Book" was not compiled over a period of decades, but over the course oftwo years. Further, the compiler had his own inteipretation of "Date of this Entry." Consider Govemor Gower's original heads of inquiry: Fifth, Name and Residence a/the Present Occupier Sixth, Whether built sold or leased af the Time ofthis Entry Seventh, Dale ofthis Entry Garland would appear to have associated ''this Entryn with the "Present Occupier," which led him to record the date at which that person entered into hislher occupation. This is, at the very least, a possible inteipretation of Gower's instruction, which associates "Whether built sold or leased" with ''this Entry." Historians and genealogists should applaud Charles Garland's inteipretation of his instructions, for while it is of some interest to use the column "Date of entry" in the Bonavista document to trace Judge Bland's circuit, neither the Bonavista nor Twillingate document contains anything like the wealth of historical data found in the "Plantations Book." Further, of the three surviving registers, and despite the 6 fact that he had more than one thousand rooms to register, only Garland heeded Governor Gower's supplementary instruction to uinsert with each as particular an account of the title or claim asserted thereto as you can obtain. . . ." (Gower 362-63). Through our efforts to locate early fishing rooms, ships rooms, Y and other properties in St. John's, myselfand Gerald Penney have reviewed a variety of documentation concerning the origins, nature, and practicality ofprivate property m Newfoundland. This bears directly on central and ongoing debates in Newfoundland history, inclUding the legality (or otherwise) of settlement, the conllict (orsymbiosis) between year-round settlement and the migratory fishery, and the effectiveness (or neglect) of the administration of justice. In this light a reassessment of the Conception Bay "Plantations Book" could be most infonnative. In any case, we can agree with the sentiment Nimshi Crewe expressed to Harry Maddick on 23 December 1958: "For certain types of historical research . . . that one day are bound to engage detailed attention, these books are important indeed." Robert Cuff is a Historian with Gerald Penney Associates Limited Archaeologists and ｾｧ｡ｴｩｲ･ｈ Consultants: gpaltd@nl.rogers.com. REFERENCES Andrews, Gerald W. Heritage of a Newfoundland Outport: The Story of Port de Grave. 1997. Rev. ed. Carbonear: Nfld.: Gerald Wilfred Andrews, 2006. [Bland, John] "Bonavista Register of Fishing Rooms, 1805-06, received 10 Sep. 1806." The Provincial Reference Library vault contains the original. Call number 639.2 R26 NR is a photocopy from the original, including [power] below. "Conception Bay Plantations Book," the web version, located in The Newfoundland and Labrador Genweb site: <http://www.rootsweb.com/-eann f/cbbrig prl805intro.htm>. Crewe, Nimshi. The Crewe papers (MG 281, The Rooms: Provincial Archives Division [TRPADJ), 1966. Box 10 #254 "Port de Grave," references the Plantations Book, Dawe family tradition, and Crewe's trips to Port de Grave with J.R. Smallwood. Box II # 276 and #277 also concern the Plantations Book. Gower, Erasmus. "Proclamation" and "To the Surrogates of the Several Districts of Newfoundland" both issued 2 I August 1804. Letterbooks of the Colonial Secretary [1804] GN 2/1la/ff. 359-63. St. John's: TRPAD. Graydon, John. "Planters Room in Port St. John's, settled by Capt John Graydon . . . 25th Aug 1701." 7 Letterbooks of the Colonial SecretaIy [1750), GN 2/1/A vol. I, ff90-93. St. John's: TRPAD. Handeock, W. Gordon. "Garland, Charles." Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 5. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1983,337-38. - - - - . "Bland, John." Dictionary of Canadian Biography, 6. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1987, 70-72. Howley, James P. "The Origin of the Term Fishing Room." Newfoundland Quarterly 2, 4 (1903):17. Lovelace, Martin. "John Guy meets the Dawes: The investigation ofan oral historical tradition." Canadian Folklore canadien 2,1-2 (1980):4453. [pearce, Andrew.) "Register of Fishing Rooms in Twillingate and Places Adjacent Beginning 3 Jane 1806." Governor's Office "Plantation Books" GN 1/13/4. St. John's: TRPAD,1806. - - - - . "Will of Andrew Pearce." Vol. 1[1841] ff. 371-74. St. John's: Registry of Wills, 1841. [Power, Catherine P.] Register ofFishing Rooms in Bonavista Bay 1805-06 . Glovertown, Nfld.: G1overtown Literary Creations, [1991]. Seary, E.R. Family Names ofthe Island of Newfoundland. 1977. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1998. Smallwood, Joseph R., ed. Newfoundland 1940; Hand Book, Gazetteer and Almanac: An annual Reference Book of Newfoundland 1940. St. John's: Long Bros., 1940. 8 "There's no place like Petty Harbour": Negation in a Post-insular Community Jennifer Thorburn 1HE COMMUNITY OF PETrY HARBOUR, Newfoundland, is an ideal site for sociolinguistic research because it is a historic fishing village that is now urbanizing, with residents becoming less isolated and the community functioning more and more as a bedroom community to the provincial capital St. John's (Van Her!< et a1.). This suggests that Petty Harbour is in what Wolfram labels a "post-insular language situation," Le., a situation "in which historically isolated language varieties emerge from this isolation through extended contact with speakers from other groups or because ofvarious kinds ofdemographic changes such as population loss" (3). Recent research has examined salient features ofNewfoundland English (henceforth NE) in the community, namely interdental stopping (e.g., this thing as dis ting) and nonstandard verbal s-marking (e.g.,! loves it), and have found that both features are in decline, with women leading this change, and that this decline is "linked to salience and degree ofcontrol" (Van Herk et a1. 92). However, less salient features ofthe English in this community, such as negation, have yet to be examined. The various ways in which sentences are negated have been discussed in depth by syntacticians but have not been investigated as thoroughly from a sociolinguistic perspective. While there are some studies that examine multiple aspects of the negation system of a particular speech community (e.g., Jespersen, Labov Inner City, Howe and Walker), most researchers tend to focus on a particular aspect ofnegation, such as negative concord (e.g., Seright, Iyeiri, Palacios Martinez, Anderwald, Howe, Nevalainen), as in] didn't say nothing to nobody, or copula negation (e.g., Weldon, Walker), as in He isn't happy. In NE, negation has been minimally investigated. Clarke notes that the negation patterns found in NE are "similar to those found in other vernacular varieties of English" ("Morphology and Syntax" 310), including negative concord. The present paper considers two ways in which sentences are negated: negative postposing and negative concord. Negative postposing occurs when the negator is located in post-verbal position (Labov "Negative Attraction"), as in (I): I. a. b. ...and of course, they used to mix nothing with that (u: older woman).' There is no grammar where I come from (0: younger man). 'Quotations are attributed to speakers from the Petty Harbour corpus by listing their speaker code by their sex and age. Regional Language Studies, No. 22, I March 2011 0079-933.5 9 This type of negalion predates not-based constructions (e.g., We did not at/end the party), although not-negation is now more productive (Mazzon). Tottle argues that postposed negation, or no-negation, is a widespread phenomenon. In her data, postposing was more frequent in "existential there-constructions with BE and sentences with stative HAVB" and less frequent with copula be and lexical verbs (Tottie 249). Howe and Walker also report finding negative postposing most frequently with be and have. Negative concord, or multiple negation, shown in (2), is defined as "the use oftwo or more negative morphemes in a clause to convey a single negation" (Nevalainen 257). 2. He didn't want nothing to do with it. (d: younger woman) This process has been discussed extensively in the literature (e.g., Jespersen, .Horn, Dahl, Tieken-Boon van Ostade et aI., Aoderwald) and is ofgreat interest when looking at English, since negative concord was an accepted negation strategy in Old and Middle English. It was replaced by the use of a single negator in the eighteenth century, based on prescriptive grammars created for modem English (Baugh and Cable). It is now widely considered a vernacular universal (Gramley and PUtzold, Chambers, Nevalainen). Previous research on negative postposing and negative concord in Newfoundland Although Clarke ("Morphology and Syntax" 310) states that negative concord is "commonplace" in NE, it is mentioned specifically in only three studies. Noseworthy (85-86) notes that there are three types of negative concord in Grand Bank: (i) verb + adverb, as in I don't never do that; (ii) verb + object, as in I haven't got neither axe; and (iii) adverb + object, as in I never seen nor ship or There was never no scar. He suggests that the use of negative concord is "a form ofredundancy to emphasize that a particular event did not occur" (86). Harris reports that the "use of double or multiple negatives" (129) occurred in her data at a similar rate to that reported in Grand Bank, although she does not expand on this point. Examples from her thesis show that both subject + verb and verb + object concord were found. Finally, Harold Paddock's dialect survey ofCarbonear also documents the presence of negative concord, typically ofthe verb + object variety. Negative postposing has not been discussed in the existing literature on NE. Methodology Tokens were extracted and then coded for analysis in Goldvarb X for Mac (Sankoff et al.), a statistical program designed forthe analysis ofnatural language. Although this paper confines itself to investigating negative postposing and negative concord, the analysis requires the consideration of all major negation strategies: (i) subject negation, as in Nobody's here, (il) verbal negation (reduced auxiliary + nol, as in Dave's not here, full 10 auxiliary + contracted nol, as in Dave isn 'I here, full auxiliary + nol, as in Dave is nol here, and ain 'I), (iii) negative poslposing, (iv) negative concord, and (v) use of negative adverb never. Tokens were coded for both social and linguistic variables. Two social variables -age and sex - were used in this analysis. For the linguistic variables, the following factor groups' were considered, based primarily on Weldon and Walker: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Clause type: main, dependent Sentence type: declarative, imperative, negative inversion, interrogative (sub-coded as yes/no questions, wh- questions, tag questions) Subject type: noun phrase (NP), pronoun, existential there or it, no overt subject Post-verbal constituent type: noun phrase (Nf), pronoun, adjective phrase (AdjP), adverb phrase (AdvP), preposition phrase (PP), no overt post-verbal constituent Auxiliary/verb type: copula be, auxiliary be, auxiliary have, dummy auxiliary do, modal (can, could; may. might, should, will, would), main verb Tense: present, past As there were very few tokens of sentence types other than declarative, the interrogative, imperative and inverted sentences were excluded from analysis. Following Weldon, negated quantifiers (3), adverbials (4), infinitivals (5), and sentence fragments (6) were also excluded. 3. 4. 5. 6. There's nola /01 ofp/aces around here I'd want to live. (c: younger woman) Nol oj/en do people visit here. And my father told him nol 10 be so foolish, blowout the candles and go to bed. (e: older woman) Oh, I'd say about sixteen, seventeen. Nol serious, now. (k: older woman) Also excluded due to low Ns were negated commands (7), yes/no questions (8), whquestions (9), and tag questions (10), as well as negative inversion (11), resulting in an, analysis of only declarative sentences. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Don'l be talking about ghost stories. (H: older man) You aren 'I going to let her do this, are you? How come she didn 'I serve us? (E: younger man) He was comical, wasn'l he? (u: older woman) Weredn'l many people had cars. (h: older man)' 'Although this is not negative inversion in the sense used in Labov (Inner City), featuring both a negated verb and a negated ｾｴ｣･ｪ｢ｵｳ word order has been inverted in a declarative sentence and is. as such, classified as negative inversion in the present study" following the more general definition of the tenn (Mazzon). II In total, 879 tokens were taken from the Petty Harbour data. Tokens were distributed fairly evenly across cells, with the exception ofthe middle-aged participants, for whom it was difficult to fmd data. Fortunately, the tokens are fairly evenly distributed across participants. Another caveat is that there was one older man (Speaker H) who had significantly fewer tokens (N=4I), which may have had an impact on the statistical analysis. Negative postposing As previously stated, negative poslposing is a traditional phenomenon that has declined in use in many varieties ofEnglish (Mazzon). Goldvarb results, shown in Table I, indicate that both linguistic and social factors were significant in Petty Harbour. Table 1. Factors cbosen as significant in tbe selection of negative postposing over otber negation types. Factor Weigbts AUXNERB TYPE Main verb Auxiliary be Copula be Modal do RANGE SUBJECT TYPE Existential NP Pronoun Null subject RANGE % N 0.92 0.81 0.7 0.47 0.2 73 15.2 4.3 19,8 1.8 0.3 92 23 247 171 332 0.93 0.47 0.39 0.38 40.0 3.0 2.6 2.7 120 67 655 37 55 POST-VERBAL CONSTITUENT TYPE Pronoun NP PP AdjP 0.72 0.7 0.21 0.1 8.3 19.1 1.3 0.8 133 282 78 123 AdvP KO 0.0 0 RANGE AGE 62 12 Old Middle Young 13.4 5.7 4.0 320 159 400 RANGE 0.69 0.46 0.36 33 10.7 5.1 411 468 RANGE 0.62 0.4 25 SEX Male Female Not selected as significant: Clause type, tense Bold = favouring context In this community, postposed negation is found primarily with copula and auxiliary be, as well as main verbs. This was an expected result; postposing also occurs in sentences with existential subjects, which limit where negation can fall in the sentence, greatly increasing the chance of postposing, as illustrated in (Ib). The type ofpost-verbal constituent that can carry postposed negation is also resIrieted. Object pronouns and NPs favour negative poslposing, an expected result given that most negative polarity items fall into these categories. Both social variables - age and sex - were significant. Table I suggests older men favour the use of poslposed negation. Cross tabulations, shown in Table 2, confrrm this fmding. Table 2. Cross tabulations for Petty Harbour compariog age aod sex for negative postposiog. Male Old Middle Young % 23.4 2.9 4.5 Female N 141 70 200 411 % 5.6 7.9 3.5 Total N 179 89 200 468 % 13.4 5.7 4.0 N 320 159 400 879 It seems that most of the age effect is a result ofthe older men's overwhelming use ofposlposing. Since this is one ofthe groups in which an equal number oftokens per speaker were not found, the percentage ofpostposed negation per speaker was also checked. Speaker h, for whom there are 100 tokens, uses pOSlposing 27.0% ofthe time, while speaker H, for whom there are 41 tokens, uses this conslrnction in 14.6% ofhis data. Both individual rates are higher than those ofother groups, supporting the conclusion that older men use negative poslposjng more frequently than others, and that it is productive in their systems. This suggests that poslposed negation, a more traditional negative conslrnction, is being replaced 13 by newer meiliods of negation, and is gradually disappearing from Petty Harbour speech. This finding is in keeping with ilie results for ilie more salient variables analysed in the community; older men were by far ilie most traditional speakers, wiili high rates of interdental stopping and nonstandard verbal s-marking (Van Herk et a!.). Furthermore, men, particularly aIder men, tend to be more nonstandard, in Newfoundland (Clarke "Phonological Variation") and oilier regions (Chambers). Negative concord When negative concord is compared to all other forms ofnegation, both linguistic and social variables are found to be significant, as can be seen in Table 3.' Table 3. Factors chosen as significant in the selection of negative concord over other negation types. Factor Weights AUXNERBAL NEGATION Reduced auxiliary Contracted not Full auxiliary + not 0.79 0.45 KO KO ain't RANGE 34 RANGE 0.77 0.7 0.66 0.51 0.09 68 % N J.J 1.8 0.0 0.0 88 600 0 0 2.4 4.1 4.3 7.6 0.4 332 J71 23 92 247 AUXNERB TYPE do Modal Auxiliary be Main verb Copula be 'In analyses using Goldvarb, factors are given a factor weight between 0 and I. Factor weights closer to I favour the use of the variant, in this case negative postposing, while factor weights closer to 0 disfavour use of the variant. Favouring factor weights are balded in the tables. The range between these factor weights is another indication ofsignificance: greater ranges indicate more significance and smaller ranges indicate less significance. Knock·outs (KOs) indicate categories that could not be considered in the statistical analysis due to the distribution of tokens, or lack thereof. Linguistic and social variables were analysed separately. 14 POST-VERBAL CONSTITUENT TYPE NP PP Pronoun 5.0 5.1 4.5 282 78 133 RANGE 0.55 0.49 0.39 16 5 3.8 1.2 159 320 400 RANGE 0.68 0.61 0.34 34 AGE Middle Old Young Not selected as significant: Clause type, subject type, tense, sex = favouring context Bold Two ofthe linguistic variables were significant- type of auxiliary/verbal negation and type of post-verbal constituent - which was expected since verb + object concord was seen in the data set. Negative concord is favoured with a reduced auxiliary such as ion '( or can't, in sentences such as the one shown in (2), but categorically disfavoured with copula be. Of the two social variables, only age was significant, with older and middle-aged speakers favouring the use ofnegative concord. As Table 3 shows, middle-aged participants were slightly more likely to employ negative concord. Cross tabulations, shown in Table 4, reveal that the variant is used predominantly by middle-aged men in Petty Harbour. The results for age seem to have overshadowed any potential finding for speaker sex, despite the fact that men use this construction more than women overall (3.9% vs. 1.4%), due to the middle-aged cohort. Table 4. Cross tabulations for Petty Harbonr comparing age and sex for concord. Male Female Total % N % N % Old 3.5 141 3.9 179 3.7 Middle 10 70 1.1 89 5.0 2 200 0.5 200 2.5 Young 411 468 negative N 320 159 400 879 15 Discussion Even though negative postposing is an older fonn ofnegation, it is still productive in Petty Harbour, at least in the speech ofolder men, who frequently use this negation strategy. The decline ofthis negative construction indicates that postpnscd negation is a relic feature in Petty Harbour English. Negative concord also appears to be in decline, although it appears with greatest frequency in the speech ofmiddle-aged men. Residents ofPetty Harbour also show some instances ofweredn 'I, aphonetic variation found in some Newfoundland communities (Clarke "Morphology and Syntax"). 12. a. b. And the road weredn 'I plowed at that time. (h: older man) They weredn 'I nylon. (0: younger man) The data suggest that older fonns ofnegation are being preserved in Petty Harbour, although the Ns were too low to make any finn statements about the nature of weredn 'I in Petty Harbour. In conjunction with the findings from Van Herk et aI., these data show that older linguistic fonns are still employed in Petty Harbour, though these features are in decline. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to acknowledge the financial support of the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council ofCanada (Doctoral Fellowship) and the Institute ofSocial and Economic Research. I would also like to thank my supervisor, Gerard Van Herk, and my comprehensive examination committee. All errors are my own. Jennifer Thorburn is a PhD candidate in the Department of Linguistics, Memorial University ofNewfoundland. 16 REFERENCES Anderwald, Lieselotte. "Negative Concord in British English Dialects." In Aspects of English negation, ed. Yoko Iyeiri. Philadelphia /Amsterdam: John Benjamins (2005), 113-37. Baugh, Albert C., and Thomas Cable. A History ofthe English Language. 5th ed. London: Routledge, 2002. Chambers, J.K. Sociolinguistic theory. 2d ed. Maiden/Oxford: Blackwell, 2003. Clarke, Sandra. "Phonological Variation and Recent Language Change in St John's English." In English Around the World, ed. Jenny Cheshire. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (1991),108-122. - - - - . "Newfoundland English: Morphology and Syntax." In A handbook of varieties of English. Volume 2: Morphology and syntax, ed. Bernd Korlmann, Kate Burridge, Rajend Mesthrie, Edgar W. Schneider, and Clive Upton. BerlinlNew York: Mouton de Gruyter(2004),303-318. Colbourne, Bramwell Wade. "A Sociolinguistic Study ofLong Island, Notre Dame Bay, Newfoundland." M.A. thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1982. Dahl, Osten. "Typology of Sentence Negation." Linguistics 17 (1979):79106. Gramley, Stephan and Kurt-Michale patzold. A survey ofmodern English. London: Routledge, 1992. Harris, Linda. "Two Island Dialects of Bonavista Bay, Newfoundland." M.A. thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 2006. Hom, Laurence R. "Some Aspects of Negation." In Universals ofHuman Language Volume I: Method & Theory, ed. Joseph H. Greenberg, Charles A. Ferguson, and Edith A. Moravcsik. Stanford: Stanford University Press (1978), 127-210. Howe, Darin M. ''Negation in African American Vernacular English." In Aspects of English negation, ed. Yoko Iyeiri. Philadelphia/ Amsterdam: John Benjamins (2005), 173-203. ----, and James A. Walker. ''Negation and the creole-origin hypothesis." In The English history of African American English, ed. Shana Poplack. Malden/Oxford: Blackwell (2000), 109-140. Hughes, Arthur and Peter Trudgill. English accents and dialects. London: Arnold, 1979. Iyeiri, Yoko. "Multiple negation in Middle English verse." In Negation in the History of English, ed. Ingrid Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Gunnel Tottie, and Wim van der Wurff. New YorklBerlin: Mouton de Gruyter (1999),121-46. Jespersen, Otto. "Negation in English and other languages." In Selected writings by Otto Jespersen. London: Allen & Unwin (1917), 2-151. Labov, William. Language in the inner city. Studies in Black English 17 Vernacular. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, 1972. - - - - . "Negative attraction and negative concord." Language 48 (1972):773-818. Lanari, Catherine E. Penney. "A sociolinguistic study of the Burin region of Newfoundland." M.A. thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1994. Mazzon, Gabriella. A history of English negation. Harlow, England: Pearson Longman, 2004. Nevalainen, Terttu. ''Negative concord as an English 'vernacular universal': Social history and linguistic typology." Journal of English Linguistics 34 (2006):257-78. Noseworthy, Ronald G. "A dialect survey of Grand Bank, Newfoundland." M.A. thesis, Memorial University of Newfoundland,1971. Paddock, Harold. A Dialect Sw-vey of Carbonear, Newfoundland. Publication of the American Dialect Society 68. Tuscaloosa, AL: University ofAlabama Press, 1981. Palacios Martinez, Ignacio M. "Multiple negation in modern English. A preliminary corpus-based study." Neuphilologische Mitteilungen 104 (2003):477-98. Sankoff, David, Sali Tagliamonte, and Eric Smith. "GoldvarbX:A Variable Rule Application for Macintosh and Windows." Toronto: University of Toronto, Department of Linguistics, 2005. Serigbt, Orin Dale. "Double negatives in Standard Modern English." American Speech 41 (1966):123-26. Tieken-Boon van Ostade, Ingrid, Gunnel Tottie, and Wim van der Wurff, eds. Negation in the history ofEnglish. New York/Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, 1999. Tottie, Gunnel. Negation in English speech and writing. A study in variation. Quantitative Analyses of Linguistic Structure 4. San Diego: Academic Press, 1991. Van Herk, Gerard, Becky Childs, and JenniferThorburn. "Identity marking and affiliation in an urbanizing Newfoundland community." Papers from the 31st Annual Meeting ofthe Atlantic Provinces Linguistic Association!Actes du 31 e Colloque annuel de l'Association de iinguistique des provinces atlantiques, ed. WladyslawCichocki. Fredericton, NB (2009):85-94. Walker, James A. "The ain't constraint: Not-contraction in early African American English." Language Variation and Change 17 (2005):117. Weldon, Tracey L. "Variability in negation in African American Vernacular English." Language Variation and Change 6 (1994):35997. 18 Tbe Genesis of James Cook's Australian Place-names William J. Kirwin AFTER DUTIES IN CANADA UNDER OFFICERS OF THE BRITISH NAVY, James Cook saw service in Newfoundland in 1762, surveying in Carbonear and Placentia Bay. These experiences were the beginning of two assignments in the island, which led to the publication of major charts long regarded as authoritative by hydrographers and mariners. The place-names on Cook's Newfoundland charts became an established basis ofthe regional toponymy (Seary, Northern Peninsula 15-17). The log kept for the brig Grenville, available in microfilm format though not yet published, contains circumstantial remarks about place-names attributed to Cook, and R.A. Skelton's article of 1954 offers a fme survey of his time in Newfoundland. In 1767 Cook was ordered to explore in the Pacific Ocean in the vicinity ofwhat are now Australia and New Zealand. On these voyages be kept a detailed daily journal replete with place-names which he assigned to coastal features. The meticulous edition of the Endeavour journal by J.C. Beaglehole thus furnishes rich textual detail about naming practices of the sort that were lacking in his Newfoundland survey years. Tracing origins is an important exercise in the compilation ofplace-names in many countries. Often scholars are successful in discovering evidence about the person who named a feature or the meaning of the elements in the name. In other cases, continual digging and linguistic reasoning only lead to a dead end. No defensible origin can be found. Consequently when minutely detailed journals of explorers exist, like those of Lewis and Clark in the United States or James Cook for coastal Australia, precise impositions of certain geographic names are recorded by the writer in a text composed practically on the date when the feature on land or sea was observed. Cook's journal for his coastal survey appeared in a scholarly edition in 1955. This text serves as the basis for the following remarks on forty-six names for which Cook stated or suggested his reasons for his choices. The Beaglehole edition italicizes the place-names, whose spelling is followed exactly below. Sometimes a simple phrase "I named ... it ... because" occurs, and elsewhere the phrasing might be "on which account 1 called it. . . ." (Beaglehole 299). A connection with the chosen name in the text might be at some remove, as when Cook mentions seeing the north side of a bay "from the top mast head" (318 Point Lookout). For numerous names, Cook offered no reason for his choice. As can be observed in the identifications in Beaglehole's notes, they fall into two categories: names of prominent contemporary personages and naval Regional Language Studiu, No. 22, I Mareh 2011 0079-9335 19 officers and a miscellaneous group. Named for renowned individuals are Cape Bedford, Cape Byron, Cleveland Bay, Cape Cleveland (after the bay), Cockburns Isles, Cape Conway, Cape Cornwell (i.e. Cornwall), Cumberland Isles, Dunk Isle, Edgcumbe Bay, Forbes's Isles, Frankland Isles, Cape Gloucester, Cape Grafton, Cape Granville (Le. Grenville), Halifax Bay, Cape Hawke, Cape Hillsborough, Holburn Isle, Cape Howe, Port Jackson, Keppel Bay, Keppel Islands (after the bay), Morton bay, C. Morton (after the bay), New Castle Bay, Cape Palmerston, Rockingham Bay, Cape Sandwich, Sr Charles Hardys Isles, Point Stephens, Port Stephens (after the Point), Temple Bay, Cape Townshend, Wallice's(i.e. Wallis's) Isles, Cape Weymouth, Weymouth Bay (after the Cape), and York Isles Among the miscellaneous namings are Bolt head, Broad Sound, Iron Head, Peir (also Pier) head, Repulse Bay, Sanday (also Sandy) Cape, and others. (Page numbers for the first appearance of these names are given in the Beaglehole Index, 657-84.) In the following groups of names, I suggest a label that describes Cook's grounds for his selecting a name. ' 'The influential scholar George R. Stewart proposed a classification oftoponyms which he adopted in his works on American place-names. It was apparently based on semantic analysis of the names, though he described it as derived by "mechanism of origin" (xxviiiMxxxii). Discussing specific names in his compilation, he occasionally referred to original namers and the reasons for L Association of a point on the map or of a date on the calendar with the geographic feature to be named C. Capricorn At 9 oClock we were abreast of the point ... I found this point to lay directly under the tropick of Capricorn and for that reason call'd it by that Name. 326 Cape Sf George A point of land which I named Cape 8t George we having discover'd it on that Saints day, bore West .... 302 [observed 24 April 1770] Trinity Bay . .. a large but not very deep Bay which I named Trinity Bay after the day on which it was discovered.... 343 Whitsunday's Passage This Passage I have named Whitsunday's Possage, as it was discoverd on the Day the Church commemorates that Festival. ... 337 ii. Recognition of detail of nearby topography Broken Bay At sunset the Northennost land in sight bore N 26° East, and some broken land that appear'd to fonn a Bay boare N 40° West distant 4 Leagnes, this bay I named Broken Bay .... 313 iii. Recognition of supernatural intervention in a crisis Prov[i)dential Channell The opening we came in by, which I have named their choices. 20 Prov[iJdential Channell, bore ENE distant 10 or 12 miles. 381 [A variant version: ... for this seem'd to be the only Probable means which Providence had pointed out to us to save the ship.... 546] iv. Place of observation noted Point lookout On the north side of this point the shore fonus a wide open Bay which I have named Morton bay, in the bottom of which the land is so low that I could but just see it from the top mast head. 318 v. Parallelism perceived between a resemblance in topography and a family resemblance Three Brothers . .. three remarkable large high hills lying continguous to each other .. . bore NNW. As these hills bore some resemblence to each other we call'd them the Three Brothers. ... 315 vi. Relation ofa feature to a nearby feature already named Cape Dromedary The shore under the foot of this Mountain [Dromedary] forms a point which I have named Cape Dromedary. ... 300 C. Morton This Land I named C. Morton it being the N Point of the Bay of the same name. 319 vii. Selecting a name to serve as a signal or sign to later observers Point Donger We now saw the breakers again within us ... [they] stretch off East two Leagues from a point under which is a small Island.... I The point off which these shoals lay I have named Point: Donger.317-18 ! Islands ofDirection The passage or channel . . . may always be found & known by the 3 high Islands within it which I have called the Islands ofdirection. because by their means a safe Passage may' be found even by strangers.... 544 Cape Flattery At Noon we were got betwixt the headland and the 3 High, Islands.... We now judged our selves to' be clear ofall danger having as we thought a clear open sea before us, but this we soon found otherwise and oecasiond my : calling the headland above mentioned Cape Flattery. 371 [An obsolete sense of jlattery is 'deceipt.'] Mount Warning We now saw the breakers again within us which we past at the distance of 1 League, they ... stretch off East two Leagues from a point under which is a small Island, there situation may always be found by the peaked mountain before mentioned ... and on this account I have named [it] I Mount Warning. 317- 18 viii. Assigning a name to honour a person CumberlandIsles [The islands which form this passage I named] Cumberland Isles in honour of his Roy' Highness the Duke of Cumberland. 337 Cape Sandwich . . . this point I named Cape Sandwich Honour y' Earl of that name. 340 Point Sutherland Last night Torby' [i.e. Forby] Sutherland seaman departed 21 this life and in the AM his body was buried a shore at the watering place which occasioned my calling the south point of this Bay after his name. [Point Sutherland is not in the text.] 307 York Cape The Point of the Main ... I have Named York Cape in honour of His late Royal Highness theDuke ofYorl<:. 385 ix. Selecting a name to express some emotion Hope Islands I have named them Hope Islands because we were always in hopes ofbeing able to reach these Islands. 347 Cape Tribulation . .. the north point [I named] Cape Tribulation because here begun all our troubles. 343 [damage to the Endeavour and prolonged repairs] x. Selecting a name which describes an event or phenomenon Botany Bay The great quantity of New Plants [Banks and Solander] collected in this place occasioned my giveing it the name of Botany Bay. 310 Break Sea Spit This Shoal I call'd Break Sea Spit, because now we had smooth water whereas upon the whole Coast to the south'" ofit we had allways a high sea or swell from y' SE. 321 Endeavour River I shall now give a short de[s]cription of the harbour I or River we have been in [for extensive repairs] which I have named after the Ship Endeavour River. 365-66 Point Hicks I have Named it Point Hicks, because Leuit' [ZachlUY] Hicks was the first who discover'd this land. 299 [See Beaglehole's Note 1 for discussion of great confusion on this statement.] Indian Head [We passed] a black bluf head or point of land on which a number of the natives were assembled which occasioned my nameing it Indian Head. ... 320. [Indian was a tenn for aboriginals from 1770 to 1872 (Australian National Dictionary). James Cook knew the usage also during his Newfoundland surveys between 1760 and 1767, translating the French sauvage for the Labrador Montagnais.] Point Lookout I landed and went upon the point which is pretty high, from which I had a view ofthe sea-Coast which trended away NWBW 8 or 10 Leagues.... Excepting Cape Flattery and the Point I am now upon, which I have named Point Lookout, the Mainland ... is low.... 372 Magnetical Head or MagneticalIsle ... the East point I named Cape Cleveland and the West Magnelical head or Isle as it had much the appearence ofan Island and the Compass would not travis well when near it. 338 Thirsty Sound This Inlet ... 1 have named Thirsty Sound by reason we could find no fresh water.... [thus the crew would become thirsty] 332 xi. Recognition of appearance, similarity, or animals being present Bird Isles . .. on these Isles we saw a good many Birds which occasioned my calling them Bird Isles. 383 22 Broad Sound The western Inlet ... known in the Chart by the name of Broad Sound we had now all open. It is at least 9 or 10 Leagues wide at the Entrance with several Islands laying in and before it. ... 334 BustardBay [We saw] Bustardssuch as we have in England one of which we killd that weigh'd 17\1, pounds which occasioned my giving this place the name of Bustard Bay. ... 325 Double Island Point The point set last night bore SWBW•.•. I have named it Double Island Point from its figure. . .. the Point it self is of such an unequal height that it looks like two small Islands laying under the land. 320 Mount Dromedary .. '. we were a breast of a pretty high mountain laying near the shore which on account of its figure I named Mount Dromedary. 300 Eagle Island We found on this Island a great number of birds the Most of them Sea fowl, except Eagles.... After leaving Eagle Island we stood sw directly for the Ship.... 374 Point Hil/iek (i.e. hillock) ... this point I have named Point Hilliek on accou[n]t of its I figure. The land of this Point is tolerable high and may be known by a round hillick or rock that appears to be detached from the Point. ... 339-40 Bay of Inlets Between this Cape [Palmerston] and C. Townshend lies the Bay ofInlets, so named from the number oflnlets Creeks &c' in it. 334 LizardIslandThe only Land-animals we saw here were Lizards and these seem'd to be pretty plenty which occasioned my nameing the Island Lizard Island. 373 Long Nose The north point of this bay on account of its figure I named Long Nose.... 303 C. Manyfold . .. this point I named C. Manyfold from the number of high hills over it. [spelled .Manifold in next paragraph] 328 Pigeon house (hilltop) A remarkable peaked hill laying inland the top of which look'd like a Pigeon house and occasioned. my giving it that name.... 301 Red point . .. northward of this is a point which I calld Redpoint, some part of the land about it appeared of that colour. 303 Sandy Cape . . . this poinU have named Sandy Cape on accou[n]t of two' very large white patches of Sand upon it.. 321 smooky Cape . . . the land, the northecmost part of which bore from us N 13° West and a point or headland on which were fires that caused a great quantity of smook which occasioned my giving it the name of smooky Cape. ... 315 Cape Three points Some pritty high land which projected out in three bluff points and occasioned my calling it Cape, Three points . . . bore SW distant 5 Leagues. 313 Point Upright . .. we were abreast of a Point of land which on account of its perpendicular clifts I call'd Point Upright .... 301 Cape Upstart . .. the western point of land ... which I have named Cape Upstart because being surrounded with low I land, 23 it starts or riseth up singley at the first making ofit. 337-38 Because of the conventional requirement to keep a ship's log, as soon as Cook named a coastal feature and fixed the name on his charts (not examined for this article), the name was available for his narrative of the ship's progress and the description of the coast. Cook took leave of the eastern coast on 22 August 1770. "Having satisfied my self ofthe great Probabiility of a Passage, thro' which I intend going with the Ship, and therefore may land no more upon this Eastern coast of New Holland, and on the Western side I can make no new discovery the honour ofwhich belongs to the Dutch Navigators; but the Eastern Coast from the Latitude of 38° South down to this place I am confident was never seen or viseted by any European before us. . . ." 387 His vessel Endeavour reached England on 13 July 1771. SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY The Australian National Dictionary; A Dictionary oj Australianisms on Historical Principles. Ed. W.S. Ramson. Melbourne: Oxford University Press, 1988. Beagleho1e, J.C., ed. The Voyage oj the Endeavour 1768-1771. Vol. 1 of The Journals oJCaptain James Cook on his Voyages oj Discovery. 4 vols. Cambridge: Published for the Hakluyt Society at the University Press, 1955. Brown, Harrison. Admirals, Adventurers and Able Seamen: Forgotten stories about places on our British Columbia coast and how they got their names. Vancouver: Keystone Press, [1957]. (Cook, 7-9). Cobeldick, Trevor M. Cook Voyage Place Names oJNew Zealand. Wellington: Paerangi Books, 2001. Cook, James. "An Observation of an Eclipse of the Sun at the Island of New-found-land,August5, 1766, by Mr. James Cook. ..." Philosophical Transactions oJthe Royal Society 57 (1767):215-16. Cordingly, David, ed. Captain James Cook as a Seaman, Navigator and Surveyor. London: National Maritime Museum, 1988. David, Andrew. The Charts & Coastal Views oJCaptain Cook's Voyages. 2 vols. London: Hakluyt Society in association with the Australian Academy of the Humanities,1988, 1992. - - - - . "Further Light on James Cook's Survey of Newfoundland." International Hydrographic Review 1,2(2000):6-12. - - - - . "James Cook's 1762 Survey of St John's Harbour and Adjacent Parts of Newfonndland." Terrae Incognitae 30 (1998):63-71. Fitzgerald, L. "Point Hicks to Cape Howe: Cook's Landfall--19 April 1770." Victorian Historical Magazine 42 (Aug. 1971):579-90. 24 Harley, Brian J.S. The Legacy of James Cook: The story of the Bay of Islands. Comer Brook: Harkim Enterprises Limited, 1999. (Captain James Cook, 12-32). Hildebrand;J.R. "Columbus ofthe Pacific; Captain James Cook, foremost British navigator, expanded the great sea.... " National Geographic 51,1 (1927):57-132. Hunter, A.C. "Newfoundland's Debt to Captain Cook." Newfoundland Quarterly 67, 4 (1970):30-31. Knight, T.M. "Cook the Cartographer." Cartography 7, 3 (1971):110-18. James Cook, surveyor ofNewfoundland: being a collection of charts of the coasts of Newfoundland and Labradore, &. Drawnjrom original surveys taken by James Cook. San Francisco: David Magee, 1965. Lee, Jack. "I have named it the Bay of Islands." Auckland: Hodder & Stoughton, 1983. Little, C.H. "Captain Cook in Canada." Canadian Geographical Journal 64, 6 (1962):188-97. Pippis [i.e. Kippis], A. "Newfoundland's First Marine Surveyor." Newfoundland Quarterly 60, 2 (1961):11. Pullen, Hugh Francis. "James Cook in North America, ＱＷＵＸｾ & 1778." Commonwealth Journal 13, I (1970):27-33. Robson, John. "James Cook's Contribution to the Mapping of Newfoundland lU)d Newfoundland's Contribution to the Career of James Cook." Association of Canadian Map Libraries andArchives Bulletin 124 (Fall 2005):3-13. Seary, E.R. "The Contribution of James Cook to the Toponymy of Newfoundland." Onomastica 59-60; (1981):45-46. - - - - . Place Names of the Avalon Peninsula of the Island of Newfoundland. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1971. - - - - . Place Names ofthe Northern Peninsula. 1959-1960. A New ed. Ed. Robert Hollett and William J.. Kirwin. Sl. John's: Institute ofSocial and Economic Research, 2000. Skelton, RA. "Captain James Cook as !' i Hydrographer." Mariner 'sMirror 40 (1954):92-119. - - - - . Captain James Cook-after Two Hundred Years. London: Published by thc Trustees of the . British Museum, 1969, Stewart, George R. American Place, Names; A Concise and Selective Dictionary for the Continenial UnitedStates ofAmerica. New York: Oxford University Press, 1970. Verner, Coolie. "Cook and the Cartography ofthe North Pacific: An exhibition ofmaps for the conference on Captain James Cook and his times, April 1978." Burnaby, British Columbia: Library Simon Fraser University, 1978. Whiteley, William H. "James Cook and British Policy in the Newfoundland Fisheries, 1763-7." Canadian HistoricalReview 54 (1973):245-72. - - - - . "James Cook, Hugh Palliser and the Newfoundland Fishery." 25 Newfoundland Quarterly 69, 2 (l972):IM2, - - - - . "James Cook in Newfoundland, 1762-1767." St. John's: Newfoundland Historical Society, 1975, obstructed by a barrier of gravel, sand or mud" (xii).' About seventy toponyms referring to these ponds are found along the south and west coasts of Newfoundland. After the flTSt appearance of the names for these features in documents, chartmakers have recorded the toponyms down to the present. Some ofthe evidence is primary, apparently obtained from fishermen in the coves, and sometimes it is based on an earlier available chart or document, thus establishing a traditional descent, a genealogy. In Newfoundland there are at present seventy-one identified places with barachois and variants in its designation; some names fonn a "cluster," based on a basic place-name. For instance the Gazetteer includes Big Barachois and adjacent Barachois River and Barachois Rock northwest ofPort aux Basques. Two principal orthographic variants ofthe form are found in records ofplace-names on the Island. The earliest reference to a MISCELLANY William J. Kirwin Barachols in Newfoundland and Labrador A BARACHOIS IS A GEOGRAPHIC FEATURE formed at the mouth of a stream and composed of a gravel bank separating a pond from the salt water outside. A description from a slightly different viewpoint can be found in the Gazetteer of Canada; Newfoundland: "Barachols. Saltwater pond or small bay, usually lTechnical infonTIation about barachois in the Canadian context can be found in Glossary of Generic Terms in Canada's Geographical Names 11-12, 15. See also Dictionary of Canadian/sms and Geonames barachois and barasway for examples of the toponym in other Canadianprovinces. The Newfoundland details are in Dict/onary of Newfoundland English barachois and barasway. Saint-Pierre and Miquelon toponyms are not treated in tins survey, Regional Language Studies, No. 22, 1 March 2011 0079·9335 26 barachois so far noted occurs in the 1662 northern French document, "Extrait du Registre (establi) a l'admiraulte de Sainct Malo" 18 avril 1662: La Rade du grand bane compris Ie barachoua soixante hommes cy ('the beach of the grand bank including the barachoua [is suitable for] sixty men here'; grand bank here is probably a feature, not a settlement).' The fishing stations noted in this communication were located on the western shore ofPlacentia Bay, that is, on the Burin Peninsula. The other variant, in Little Bay Barrysway, appears a hundred years later in James Cook's log of the schooner Grenville on 9 August, 1765.' This phonetic rendering ofthe word likely was based on the speech of men familiar with the vicinity of the settlement of Placentia where this geographic feature was located. (The -way pronunciation occurs in other Newfoundland placenames besides barasway, as in the places Franyols, Bay d'Espolr, and Grandols Harbour [Grandsway 1770] and in the vessel type shalloway [DNE 465]. It is an obsolete pronunciation of French -ols noted in the eighteenth century and in Quebec speakers 4 ) In the charts recording '1662 Extrait; La Morandiere cites this as follows: "La rade du Grand Bane compris Ie Barachoa pour 60 hommes," vol. I, p. 424. The form barachois is recorded since c 1680 DepOt de la Marine 128/2/6. '''Log and Journal." 'Baraehois [barafwel S.m. Petit port, anse,lieu de refuge. Ex.: Anerer dans Ie barachois (Glossaire 93). certain names in Basque on the Island's west coast, two similar names were recorded, presumably of the same topographic feature. Denis de Rotis (1674) has a name interpreted as Batracto or as barracto. The former is the reading of Harrisse (316, no. 35), and the second is that of George RF. Prowse (E.R. Seary's records). In another manuscript chart Pierre Detcheverry (1689) has the west coast name Barrachoa (Harrisse 325), similar to that ofthe St.-Malo document. The search for the etymology of French barachois has so far produced no strong evidence. The first document containing the word was written in StMalo, Brittany, though Breton dictionaries have nothing remotely similar. Perhaps the Tr'sor de la langue franyalse, under barachols, summarily expresses the present scholarly view: IIOrig. incertaine" (1975). In recent decades the spellings of the toponyms have favored barachols (about 54%) and barasway Ｈ｡｢ｯｵｴＮＴＶＥﾻＩｾ al\?ng with minor orthographic variants. The 1983 Newfoundland Gazetteer ratio of barasway to barachois is 41 to 22. A number of oral reports' of barachois and barasway were collected in the project to survey Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, place-names between 1990 and 1993 ("Placentia Bay Names Data' Base"). Interviewers with tape recorders . spread large maps ofrelevant areas before informants, who identified places and names that were familiar in their own usage. These were later transcribed along with coordinates and other information in a data base. For the barachois names the totals are misleading, because a single 27 informant might use the identical pronunciation for several different placenames, The dominant pronunciation found in the data !Jase is barasway (roughly 42 instances), and among the minor variants is baraswah (4). It is clear that the speakers in this sample have not adopted the un-English consonant sequence -shwof French barachois, APPENDIX Barachois toponyms in the island of Newfoundland may be found in the Newfoundland Gazelleer. Clusters are indicated by indenting the names after the first entry. Barachois Brook (Local Service District) Barachois Brook Barachois Ponds Barachois Brook Barachois du Barre Barachois Head Barachois Point Barachois Pond Barachois Pond Provineial Park Barachoix (Locality) Barasway Barasway (Inlet) Barasway (Cove) Barasway Bay Barasway de Cerf(Cove) Barasway Island Barasway de Plate (Vacated or Seasonal Settlement) Barasway Harbour Barasway Island Barasway Point Barasway Point Barasway Point Barasway Pond Barasway Brook The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Barasway) The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Inlet) The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Cove) The Barasway (Cove) Big Barachois Barachois River Barachois Rock Big Barachois Big Barachois River Big Barasway Big Barasway Big Barasway Bottom Barasway Cape Barachois (pond) Cowlest Barasway Fortune Barasway Frenchman's Cove Barasway Garnish Barasway Great Barasway (Barasway) Great Barasway (Set.) L'Anse-au-Loup Barasway Little Barachois Little Barachois River Little Barachois Little Barachois Brook Little Barachois River Little Barasway (Set.) Little Barasway Little Barasway Brook Little Barasway Little Barasway Little Barasway 28 Lower Barasway River Murray Barasway Northeast Barasway Peltry Barasway Rocky Barachois Rocky Barachois Bight Ryle Barrisway (Cove) Ryle Barrisway Brook Simmonds Barasway ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many aspects of the research of the English Language Research Centre are based on the extensive collections made by E.R. Seary and his assistants between 1950 and 1980. I am grateful to Joan Ritcey, Queen Elizabeth II Libraries, for her generous advice; to Peter Pope, Archaeology, for sending me the information in the 1662 "Extrait"; and to Heather Ross, Natural Resources Canada, for instructions about searching for Newfoundland barachois names REFERENCES Aulestia, Gorka. Basque-English Dictionary. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1989. A Dictionary of Canadianisms on Historical Principles. Ed. Walter S.· Avis and others. Toronto: W.J. Gage Limited, 1967. Dictionary of Newfoundland English. (DNE) (1982) Ed. G.M. Story, W.J. Kirwin and J.D.A. Widdowson. 2d ed. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1990. Gazetteer of Canada; Newfoundland. 2d ｾＮ ｏｾｷ｡Ｚ Energy, Mines and Resources Canada, 1983. Glossaire du Parler franr;ais au Canada. Quebec: L' Action Sociale (limitee), 1930. Glossary of Generic Terms in Canada's Geographical Names. "Terminology Bulletin 176." Ｚ｡ｷｾ Department of the Secretary of State ofCanadR,. 1987. "Log and journal of Captain James Cook· during his survey of Newfoundland 1764-1767." Microfilm 625, Memorial University, Queen Elizabeth II Libraries. La Morandil:re, Ch. de. Histoire de 10 peche franr;aise de la morue dans I 'Amerique septentrionale (de la nos jours). 3 tomes. revolution Paris: G.-P. Maisonneuve et Larose; 1962-1966. Massignon, Genevieve. Les Parlers. franr;ais d'Acadie; Enquete linguistique. 2 tomes. Paris: Librairie C. Klincksieck, [1962]. "Placentia Bay Names Data Base." Placenames collected in field research directed by Robert Hollett, English. Language Research Centre,. Memorial University of Newfoundland between 1990 and 1993. Tresor de la langue franr;aise" Dictionnaire de la langue du XIX et duXX sieele (1789-1960), [directed by] Paul Imbs and others. 16 tomes. Paris: Editions du centre national de. a 29 la recherche scientifique, BIBLIOGRAPHY 1971·1994. Newfoundland and Labrador English and o1her Languages on the Web GREAT AMOUNTS OF INFORMATION about all topics of Newfoundland language arc available on 1he web, 1hrough its search engines. But 1he printed (and spoken) material 1here is highly variable. Some sites are aU1horitative; theDNE's site, and indeed the entire Newfoundland Heritage Web Site, along with the many works on the Memorial University Digital Archive Initiative, spring to mind as decidedly less vernacular than the vast majority of sites. The Internet is, after all, a virtual locus of self-publishing. Difficulties with vernacular sites arise when evaluating the accuracy, authority, objectivity, and thoroughness of the reports of Newfoundland and Labrador words and usage. The province has its cultural-including linguistic--patriots and sentimentalists, its activists and zealots; not always does such affiliation lend itself to a 1horough scholarly treatment. The trustwor1hiness of a web posting must be weighed up; aids to creating lexicographical trust are 1he inclusion of the writer's name and affiliations and the willinguess to provide specific references and links to sources. Certain non-scholarly pitfalls are found over and over again. A commonly held beliefabout vernacular culture is that one's own form actually represents 1he entire universe of regional forms; thus a writer often overlooks or even dismisses 30 the possibility of variation. Unlike oldfashioned "letters to the editor," anonymous posting seems to encourage enthusiastic declarations and loaded reasoning. Scholars who enter terms into online search engines will receive many thousands of responses in return. Determining which are of value can be difficult. Anyone can publish on the Internet because there is no review process. For example, peer-reviewed scholarly articles exist alongside poorly researched works of opinion and assumption. The writers' own .pronunciation, usage, definition or explanation of expressions (which can be very valuable when stated as such) can often be stumbling blocks to a clear understanding ofactual coverage or usage. Their personal opinions and earnest arguments about Newfoundland usage can cloud the waters. Often they are primarily offering advice and proscriptions about expressions they are somewhat or highly offended by. Such reports can take the form of sweeping assertions about origins and etymologies ofsurnames, genealogies, place-names, ethnic groups (extinct and extant), based on second- and third-hand reports from the "old people" or vague oral history. Sometimes what is proposed as a local term is actually merely technical vocabulary or even a widely known, common but informal term. Unless a query retrieves extensive texts, the postings usually do not quote language as actually used, in identified speech, quotation, fiction, news article, or archived recording. Web information on Newfoundland language may not inspire much trust if, along with the views supplied, there is not an indication of some monitoring or reviewing or an opportunity to edit or emend the posting. Philip Hiscock and William J. Kirwin Recent publications An efficient way to locate printed works related to Newfoundland and Labrador language studies is to consult the resources in lhe Queen Elizabeth II website: <http://www.library.mun.caJ> For books search "catalogue" by keywords: linguis$ languageS dialect$ after you have changed the "all libraries" setting to "Centre for Newfoundland Studies," so that only the Newfoundland and Labrador material comes up. For articles, on the same page (<http://www.Jibrary.mun.ca/) click "Article Indexes," then under "P," the "PAB (Newfoundland Periodical Article Bibliography)" and search by keywords: linguis$ languageS dialectS Combine these terms with any other keywords (map$, wordS, names$, surnames$, place names$, etc.) joined by "and" to find Newfoundland and Labrador articles. With assistance of J. Ritcey. 31 Works that have come to our notice Andersen, August, William Kalleo, and Beatrice Watts, eds. Labrador U/lnnalsigutet: An Inuktitut-English Dictionary of Northern Labrador Dialect. Nain: Torngasok Cultural Centre, 2007. Bulgin, James, Nicole Elford, Lindsay Harding, Bridget Henley, Suzanne Power, and Crystal Walters. "So very really variable: Social Patterning of Intensifier Use by Newfoundlanders Online." Linguistica Atlantica 29 (2008):101-115. Clarke, Sandra. "A Bibliography of Writings on Newfoundland English." http://www.mun.ca/linguistics/resea rch/l anguage/NL_Engl ish_ bibliography.pdf. 2010. Weh. 18 February 2011. - - - - . ''New dialect fonnation in a Canadian aboriginal community: Not so different after all?" Variationist Approaches to Indigenous Minority Languages. Ed. James N. Stanford and D. Preston. Amsterdam/ Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2009. 109-128. - - - - . Newfoundland and Labrador English. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2010. 212 p. - - - - and Philip Hiscock. "IIip-hop in a Post-insular Community: Hybridity, local language and authenticity in an online Newfoundland rap group." Journal of English Linguistics 37, 3 (2009):241-61. Dorais, Louis-Jacques. The Language of the Inuit; Syntax, Semantics, and the Society in the Arctic. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010.396 p. Gold, Elaine and Janice McAlpine, cds. Canadian English: A Linguistic Reader. Kingston, Ont.: Queen's University, Strathy Language Unit, "Occasional Papers No.6, 2010 241 p. <http://www.queensu.ca /strathv/apps/OP6.pdt>.2010. Web. 18 February 2011. Hornsby, Stephen J. Surveyors ofEmpire; Samuel Holland, J.F. W Des Barres, and the Making of The Atlantic Neptune. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press, 2011. 304 p. The Kelligrews Soiree. Conception Bay South, Nfld.: Town of Conception Bay South, 2010. 32 p. Glossary 28-30. McGrath, Robin. All in Together: Rhymes, Ditties and Jingles of Newfoundland and Labrador. St. John's: Boulder Publications, 2009. 261 p. 32 Mi'sel Joe. An Aboriginal Chief's Journey. Compo and ed. Raoul R. Andersen and John K. Crellin. St. John's: Flanker Press Ltd., 2009. 172p. Old-Time Songs and Poetry of Newfoundland; Songs of/he People from the Days ofour Forefathers by Gerald S. Doyle. A Facsimile Reprint of the 1940 Edition [the second edition]; With a new introduction by Anna Kearney Guigne. St. John's: Folklore and Language Publications; Memorial University ofNewfoundland, 2008. [82]p. Oxford English Dictionary Online: link to Historical Thesaurus. STUDENT ASSISTANTS Names of Memorial University students who have helped in projects ofthe English Language Research Centre were presented in RLS...Newfoundland 18, p. 31. Further names can be added to that list. Alicia Colbert and Amanda Saunders carried out the field research collecting place-names in Placentia Bay, Newfoundland, directed by Robert Hollett between 1990 and 1993. Trevor Porter and Perry Pond collected Trinity Bay placenames, resulting in Porter's 1999 M.A. thesis. Student assistants who have worked in ELRC since February 2010 include Auditee Ameen, Brent Augustus, Catherine Burgess, Joelle Carey, Manjot Gill, Melanie Hurley, Rebecca Kalombo, Rebecca Lewis, Matthew Lidstone, Meaghan Malone, Jane Manuel, Alison McEvoy, Nicole Penney, Paul Pigott, Suzanne Power, Renee Sanson, Brandi Snow, Kevin Terry, and Lisa Wilson. All students worked for the Dictionary of Newfoundland English Word-File Digitization Project, except for Meaghan Malone, who worked for the Online Dialect Atlas of Newfoundland and Labrador English (DANL). ft PrfnUnlServtce,