a
ISSN 0101-2061 (Print)
ISSN 1678-457X (Online)
Food Science and Technology
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1590/fst.51721
A historical and nutrition-dietetic analysis of food consumption habits in ottoman
culinary culture in the light of travel books
Mert AĞAOĞLU1, Büşra AYAZ2, Yurdagül AYAZ3, Mustafa YAMAN4*
Abstract
This review uses an interdisciplinary perspective to examine the eating habits of the Ottomans through the information conveyed
in the works of western travelers who came to the Ottoman territory. Travel books, which are the primary sources for Ottoman
history, were used to analyze the food consumption habits in Ottoman culinary culture. The impressions of western travelers
were taken directly and displayed in quotation marks. Then, within the knowledge of the literature, the Ottoman food culture
was interpreted in the context of nutrition and dietetics. During the period of the Ottoman Empire we can see that honey
was used as a sweetener in desserts, that barley and rye were preferred in bread making, and half-baked bread, which was
traditionally consumed in the Ottoman food culture, was enjoyed. According to the travels books, vegetables, grains, meat,
dairy products, and olive oil were among the most consumed foods. The Ottoman Empire incorporated different factors and
brought together a unique new culture. As seen, The Ottoman cuisine, which incorporated food from different cultures, owes
its wealth to the innovations it developed within its social dynamics. According to travel books, healthy food and nutrition
were at the forefront in the Ottoman period.
Keywords: Ottoman; culinary; culture; food; nutrition.
Practical Application: This review uses an interdisciplinary perspective to examine the eating habits of the Ottomans through
the information conveyed in the works of western travelers who came to the Ottoman territory.
1 Introduction
Ottoman culinary culture played a major role in the Ottoman
Empire. Throughout history, individual societies have created
new cultures as people are constantly moving from place to place.
The Ottoman Empire incorporated many different peoples and
brought together a unique new culture by bringing these people
together (İnalcık, 2014).
The origin of the word culture, which has passed into our
language from French, is the Latin word “cultura” (Kabaağaç
& Alova, 1995). Culture, as a word, means cultivation and
agriculture. In another definition, culture is defined as all material
and spiritual values that society has produced and created during
throughout history. Society and geographic environment are
needed for the formation of culture. Language, religion, eating
and drinking habits, clothing, music, literature, and art are the
main elements that constitute a culture. Cultural interaction
and exchange occur during societies’ encounters due to trade
relations, wars, and migrations. Civilization is the upper and
most inclusive level of a culture that rises on robust, vibrant, and
dynamic foundations. The most basic elements for a civilization
are a settled life, cities, organized society, and a tradition of
written literature. In addition to all these, an important indicator
of civilization is a developed culinary culture. The Ottoman
cuisine, which consists of influences from different cultures,
owes this wealth to the innovations it has developed within its
diverse social dynamics (Gürsoy, 2013).
Pastry and meat were dominant in the culinary culture of
the Pre-Islamic Ancient Turks who came from the nomadic
steppe culture. After the Turks settled in Anatolia, they were
introduced to vegetables and seafood through the settled Greek
community. Therefore, the names of fish and vegetables have
passed from Greek to Ottoman and into modern Turkish. Some
of these names were taken as they are, and some of them were
adapted to Turkish to be more suitable in terms of pronunciation
(for example; mullet, horse mackerel, lobster, sea bream, sea
bass, bluefish, mackerel, bonito, broad beans, cabbage, spinach,
beans, artichoke, parsley). At the same time, the words Kebab
(Figure 1) and lahmacun (Figure 2) apart from the words that
are transmitted from Greek, have been transferred from Arabic
as a result of contact with Arabs; and the words rice, eggplant,
and meatballs came from Persian (İnalcık, 2002). This study uses
an interdisciplinary perspective to examine the eating habits of
the Ottomans through the information conveyed in the works
of western travelers who came to the Ottoman territory. Travel
books, which are the main sources for Ottoman history, were
used as a basis, as well as other books and articles.
Received: 03 July, 2021
Accepted: 14 Dec., 2021
1
Department of History of Arts, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Sakarya University, Sakarya, Turkey
2
Department of History of Arts, Institute of Social Sciences, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
3
Şehit Binbaşı Bedir Karabıyık Multi-Program Anatolian High School, Istanbul, Turkey
4
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health Sciences, İstanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, İstanbul, Turkey
*Corresponding author: mustafayaman1977@gmail.com
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 42, e51721, 2022
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Ottoman culinary culture and nutrition g
Figure 1. Turkish kebab.
Figure 3. Halva.
enhanced gastroenterological and cardiovascular health. Prophet
Muhammad recommended honey against diarrhea in hadith books.
In many clinical studies, honey application has been reported
for the prevention and treatment of gastrointestinal disorders
such as peptic ulcer, gastritis, gastroenteritis (Bogdanov et al.,
2008). An increase in hemoglobin content and a better skin
color were seen when infants were fed honey instead of sucrose
(Takuma, 1955).
Figure 2. Lahmacun.
2 Details on Ottoman culinary culture from the
language of western travelers
2.1 Honey desserts
Tobacco is in large glass jars in tobacco shops.
These look like jars filled with almond sugar in candy
shops. It is sold in ice cream. There are shops selling
honey desserts and halva (Figure 3) (a type of flexible
honey gelatin) (Flaubert, 2016, p. 284).
As honey is rich in functional compounds, it was added to
the content of a variety of desserts consumed during this period.
Due to the variation of botanical origin honey contains small
amounts of proteins, enzymes, amino acids, minerals, trace
elements, vitamins, aroma compounds and polyphenols. In
most ancient cultures, honey was used for both nutritional and
medicinal purposes. An alternative medicine called apitherapy
has developed in recent years and offers treatments based on
honey and other bee products against many diseases (AlvarezSuarez et al., 2010). Honey is very rich in polyphenols and the
main ones are flavonoids, phenolic acids, and phenolic acid
derivatives. These are compounds known to have antioxidant
properties (Pyrzynska & Biesaga, 2009). Honey has numerous
nutritional and biological effects such as antimicrobial, antiviral,
antiparasitic, anti-inflammatory, antimutagenic, anticancer and
immunosuppressive activities. Different clinical nutritional studies
have confirmed various effects after honey ingestion, such as
2
In the evening, we fill our stomachs with beautiful
melon, lots of thyme and honey, flour butter and a
kind of dark dough pudding made of confectionery
(Flaubert, 2016, p. 290).
The habit of consuming thyme for Turks is due to the variety,
taste, and health benefits of thyme species in Anatolia. Thyme
(Thymussp) protects the human body against germs and is a
traditional herb that is mostly consumed as a tea or as a spice in
meals. The Ottomans consumed this plant with meals because
of its many benefits to health, especially to regulate blood sugar
after meals (Durmuş et al., 2016).
The thyme plant has one of the highest levels of antioxidants
among herbs. Although there are different types of thyme plant, there
are various bioactive compounds in their chemical compositions.
The thyme plant has one of the highest levels of antioxidants
among herbs. It contains many flavonoids, phenolic antioxidants
like zeaxanthin, lutein, naringenin, luteolin and thymonin.
All have been determined to have antiseptic, antispasmodic,
antitussive antimicrobial, antifungal, antioxidative, and antiviral
which have supportive immune system effects in vitro and in
vivo studies Flavonoids and phenolic compounds belong to the
group of bioactive components in the structure of many plants,
such as thyme which provide hydrogen repelling free radicals
formed in the human body. These properties create positive
health benefits on the human body (Dauqan & Abdullah, 2017).
Pudding is a dessert that consists of both sugar and milk.
Pudding production takes place at high temperature. It is thought
that caramelization and Maillard reaction may occur as a result
of heat treatment during the production of this pudding. As
a result, many harmful compounds are formed. Functional
compounds in thyme and honey prevent the formation of this
harmful production (Nagai et al., 2018; Yusufoğlu et al., 2020).
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 42, e51721, 2022
Ağaoğlu et al.
2.2 Bread and Dough
Rye was the most cultivated grain, and rye bread
was also ubiquitous. It was a black bread; it had a bad
taste for unaccustomed people, but the people of the
region respected it very much, and when they stopped
on the road, they fed it to their horses with the rye
bread (Wittman, 2011, p. 284).
Rye (Secale grain L.) is very rich in bioactive components
such as phenolic acids, alkylresorcinols, benzoxazinoids and
lignans. Besides, rye contains important dietary fibers such
as arabinoxylan, cellulose, β-glucan, fructans and lignin
(Jonsson et al., 2018). Rye is Europe’s most important bread
grain in addition to wheat and is consumed mainly as bread
in Northern Europe. In these countries, almost 40% of dietary
fiber comes from rye foods. It has been reported in many clinical
studies, the dietary fiber found in rye better regulates blood
glucose levels than with refined wheat bread. Consumption of
grain products produced from rye has been reported to reduce
the risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease and some cancers
(Bondia-Pons et al., 2009).
Hayrettin Pasha was previously appointed as the
police director by the Babıâli. We had a long conversation
before we went to the inn that had been reserved for
us. I need to add what my companion said about this
conversation: Hayrettin Pasha complained about the
conservatism of the local people: They could not give
up their old habits. For this reason, he had to assign a
particular baker to bake the bread for him to eat and
teach the locals, but it still did not benefit the people.
The older man said that the bread made in this region
was not suitable for health, and I agreed. (Yozgat)
(Barth, 2017, p. 126).
In fact, half-baked bread, which is traditionally consumed in
the Ottoman food culture, preserves its nutritional value more
due to the shorter heat treatment time (Catak & Caman, 2020).
The traveler is talking about the bread being unhealthy, but
half-baked bread is healthy because it preserves its nutritional
value. For this reason, there is a contradiction with what the
traveler says.
The people living in Syria are delighted in terms of
nutrition. They eat salty olives, harmful and indigestible
cheese, badly baked and coarse bread pressed into a flat
round, rancid butter, or sometimes oil. They eat meat
very rarely, but when they eat, they add a delicious and
satisfying meal made of rice, which they call rice. Their
main drinks are water (Barth, 2017, p. 126).
Considering the eating habits of different nations living
in Ottoman lands other than the Turks, it is not very similar
to the Anatolian Turkish food culture. As examined in the
Syrian example, it is seen that rice with salt, fat, and plenty
of carbohydrates was consumed. On the contrary, it has been
observed that the balance of sweet and sour, which balances
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 42, e51721, 2022
each other in a meal, is preserved in the Anatolian Turkish food
culture (Cankül & Ayvalı, 2020).
2.3 Vegetables and fruit
Menavino states that the Ottomans believed that
eating pears before meals were beneficial for health.
He says that if they overeat and feel uncomfortable,
they consume one peach seed. It is known that in the
16th century, cold lemon sherbet was served in the
middle of a meal in a feast in the summer months
(Covel, 2009, p. 174).
Pear is a fruit rich in monosaccharide content and dietary
fiber. Therefore, when a pear is consumed, it balances blood
sugar (Movahedian et al., 2020). Since its consumption before
meals will balance blood sugar, it can reduce food intake
during a meal. In addition, due to the pectin content of pears,
it absorbs cholesterol in the body and can protect the body
against environmental toxins. The fat and protein content of
pears is very low, and when consumed regularly, it cleans the
blood (Özaydın & Özçelik, 2014).
Ottaviano Bon, who had visited the palace in the 17th
century during the reign of Sultan Ahmed I, states that the dried
plums brought from Egypt were used in fried and boiled dishes.
Prunes and grapes were the most commonly used products
to flavor dishes in Ottoman cuisine. Luigi Bassano, who was
in Istanbul during the reign of Sultan Suleyman I, states that
the Ottomans put cumin and poppy seeds in bread. Albertus
Bobovius, who worked in the Enderun part of the palace during
the reign of Sultan Mehmet IV in the second half of the 17th
century, explains that the Ottomans did not eat in a hurry but
instead filled their stomachs slowly. Describing the palace at
the end of this century, Tavernier informs us that two meals a
day were eaten in the palace; meat and rice were consumed at
dinner between 3 and 5 o’clock (Tavernier, 2010).
Prunes contain dietary fibers, carbohydrates, amino acids,
vitamins, minerals and antioxidant polyphenolic phytochemicals
such as chlorogenic acid, neochlorogenic acid, caffeic acid,
coumaric acid, and rutin. Prunes are highly famous in folk medical
practices. Because, it has laxative and digestive properties and
used for treatment of hypertension, diabetes, jaundice and fever.
It is mentioned above that dried plums are used in frying and
boiled dishes. During the frying and boiling, many mutagenic/
carcinogenic substances are occurred that harm human health
(Jabeen & Aslam, 2011). Prunes contain many antioxidant
polyphenols (Bobasa et al., 2020) and it has been reported that
foods high in polyphenols reduce oxidation (Cengiz et al., 2020;
Yusufoğlu et al., 2020). Therefore, it is thought that polyphenol
in prunes reduces oxidation during the frying and and boiling.
Poppy seeds, 45-54% fat and 20-30% protein, were added to
bread in the Ottoman Empire. Poppy seeds are rich in unsaturated
fatty acids such as oleic and linoleic acid, and there addition
to bread increases its nutritional value (Öztaşan et al., 2017).
Cumin (Cuminumcyminum) is an important spice that is used
for culinary purpose due to its special aromatic effect. Cumin, a
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Ottoman culinary culture and nutrition g
traditional spice, has been widely used since the Middle Ages, as
it is a symbol of love and loyalty. The cumin seeds contain fixed
oil, volatile oils, essential oils, and other elements. Besides, it
contains many beneficial components against various diseases
such as pinene, terpinene, cuminaldehyde, oleoresin and thymol
(Fatima et al., 2018).
This reddish, clayey soil, whatever its depth, was
of good quality. These efforts of the people were also
rewarded; in these selected areas, fruits, wheat, and
vegetables were out. The grapes served to us on the
table were of uncommon size and beauty. (Wittman,
2011, p. 90).
Delicious grapes are grown in these vineyards. They
offered us plenty of grapes and grape must for dinner
(Barth, 2017, p. 100).
We walk to the village. A coffee house whose roof
is being repaired. We smoke hookahs and eat grapes
with bread (Flaubert, 2016, p. 265).
As seen in the Ottoman Empire, grapes are consumed both
with meal and alone. Grapes is one of the most popular and
consumed fruits in the world, are rich in phytochemicals such
as phenolic acids, flavonoids, stilbenes, and proanthocyanidins,
all of which are strong antioxidants. Epidemiological studies
indicated that the consumption of grapes with reduced risk of
chronic diseases such as certain types of cancer and cardiovascular
disease. In addition, in vivo studies have shown that grapes have
strong antioxidant activity, inhibit cancer cell proliferation and
suppress platelet aggregation, as well as lower cholesterol (Yang
& Xiao, 2013). Polyphenols contained in foods slow down starch
digestion (Ademosun et al., 2021). Therefore, as bread is rich in
starch, when consumed with grapes, they will slow down starch
digestion, and since grapes will increase the blood glucose level
more slowly, they will also decrease the bread’s glycemic index.
Pilgrims disturb people to get alms; they swarm
like greedy vultures on the watermelons that we eat
so greedily to the green skin (Flaubert, 2016, p. 157).
We eat watermelon for lunch at La Gita. An old
woman huddles to pick up the shells from the ground
(Flaubert, 2016, p. 160).
Figure 4. Grape molasses.
As for table vegetables, turnips, okra, coussa
squash, tomatoes and a vegetable-like bean we know as
French beans are what they eat the most. There is also
a root brought from Beirut, Akka, Sidon, or Dimyat.
It looks a bit like a potato when cooked, but the color
is darker, and the shape is not that smooth. The locals
consider it a healthy and beautiful vegetable, peeled
and boiled, and many dishes. Okra is a delicious and
mucous vegetable. It adds a delicious taste to soups
(Wittman, 2011, p. 124).
It is possible to add other vegetables with excellent
flavors to this list: Cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, lettuce,
fennel, turnip, cucumber, radish, and onion; I must
say the onions are very sweet (Wittman, 2011, p. 124).
We stayed in the camp of the Turks that day… Our
location was perfect, and we had a well in a place with
perfect water. But much attention was not paid to the
vegetables brought to us. We were given some gourd,
okra, and cucumber. On the other hand, plenty of
mutton and chicken meat was brought. Our food was
coming from my Grand Vizier (Wittman, 2011, p. 73).
Except for the broad bean, all of them grew in the
wild. The peasants planted the beans in the cultivated
fields. It was obvious that they were taking care of it.
I learned that they extract oil from the seed and put it
in their soup (Wittman, 2011, p. 73).
Scarce fruits and vegetables contain lycopene. Watermelon
is one of the most lycopene-rich foods after tomatoes. According
to clinical studies, lycopene is known to be effective against
cancer (Korolev et al., 2020). In addition, in other studies, it
is recommended that watermelon peel should be consumed
with other food due to its nutritional and functional properties
(Imoisi et al., 2020).
Broad bean (Viciafaba L.) is a plant whose seeds and
green parts are consumed. It contains 20-36% protein, 32-61%
carbohydrates, and a high amount of dietary fiber. In addition
to the A, C, and B group vitamins, the broad bean is rich in
phosphorus, calcium, sodium, iron, and potassium (Koç, 2016).
We are having dinner in a tavern. A stew with
tomatoes inside. We eat this stew with our hands,
drinking snowy sherbet that smells of grapes, roses,
and molasses (Figure 4) (Flaubert, 2016, p. 179).
We came across a few henna fields. These yellowish
or orangish dry leaves of the lovely bush are painted
and used quite frequently in this region with Turkey.
The branches are pruned to keep the bushes stunted.
4
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Ağaoğlu et al.
They also grow cloves, lentils, and mustard plants
(Wittman, 2011, p. 176).
Among the vegetables, beans are similar to the
French beans but appear to be of low quality. Beets,
hibiscus, lettuce, onions, turnips, and other radishes
are grown in the gardens. The root of the radish is not
round but long like a carrot. They also use lentils in
soups and meals (Wittman, 2011, p. 199).
As can be seen, vegetables had an important place in
nutrition in the Ottoman Empire. Vegetables meet most of the
daily micronutrient intake. Especially the foods mentioned
above which are rich in B group vitamins. It provides important
contributions to the energy conversion in the metabolism
(Tardy et al., 2020). The consumption of okra is frequently
mentioned. Okra contains high levels of dietary fiber (TURKOMP,
2021) and its consumption is thought to balance blood sugar.
2.4 Carob
Almost all day, we pass through the middle of the
barren land covered with thistles and small carob trees,
destroyed by the wind blowing from the sea (Flaubert,
2016, p. 176).
In the travel book of Breüning, which was a traveler
in the Ottoman lands during the reign of Sultan Murad,
it says that the Ottomans sweetened the compote and
sherbet with honey. Reinhold Lubenau also writes in
his work that the jams are sweetened by adding carob
molasses (Belon, 2020, p. 185).
Carob (Figure 5) is a food that is frequently consumed
today and has a high level of functionality. Studies have reported
that carob has high antioxidant activity (Ibrahim et al., 2020;
Tounsi et al., 2020). Carob contains high amounts of sugar like
dried apricots. Polysaccharides in carob fruit as an excellent
source of phenolic components and fibers. Besides, Carob pulp
contains a large number of bioactive substances including, cyclitols,
fibers, polyphenols, amino acids, and minerals. Consumption
of carob in diet can prevent and treat various diseases such as
diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome and colorectal
cancer (Loullis & Pinakoulaki, 2018). Studies have found that
products made with carob have lower advanced glycation end
products. The increase of advanced glycation end products in
foods causes complications such as diabetes and certain type
of cancer (Yusufoğlu et al., 2020; Çatak, 2020).
Pierre Belon, who was a traveler in the Ottoman
country between 1546 and 1549 during the reign
of Sultan Süleyman I, writes in his travel book that
everyone from the Ottoman aristocrat to his porter
consumed garlic and yogurt after mixing them together
(Belon, 2020, p. 37).
Garlic (Alliumsativum L.) is a bulbous plant species from
the genus Allium, belonging to the Alliaceae family. Garlic has
been used in different cultures throughout the world, as a spice,
food, and for therapeutic purposes. It is known that garlic, as a
natural antibiotic, has therapeutic properties on hypoglycemia,
diabetes, and hypertension; antibacterial, antifungal, and
anticarcinogenic effects have been reported in many studies
(Özaydin et al., 2020).
Theophile Gautier, who came as a traveler to Istanbul,
the Ottoman capital in the 19th century, states that mint
juice was sprinkled on salads and greens. Julia Pardoe,
who came to the Ottoman lands as a traveler in the same
century, says that cooked chicken came with olives and
was consumed in this way (Pardoe, 2017, p. 92).
It is seen that salads and greens were consumed in the
Ottoman period. Although these foods are low in terms of energy
due to their low nutritional value, they contain high amounts of
vitamins and minerals (TURKOMP, 2021). Olive is a food rich
in both vitamin E and oleic acid which are crucial for healthy
nutrition. Vitamin E scavenges free radicals in the body, while
oleic acid suppresses appetite and increases the fat burning rate
in the brain (Belli & Yaman, 2020).
2.5 Eggs
This man still feeds us the usual lamb meat and
endless hard eggs. Seeing these, my throat gets choked.
I eat dry bread as I did in the previous days. The Turks
in front of me are having a terrible meal with eggs
(Flaubert, 2016, p. 348).
Dinner with a dozen à la carte eggs cooked by a
lady owner of the inn (Flaubert, 2016, p. 348).
Figure 5. Carob.
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 42, e51721, 2022
Here they prepared an excellent breakfast for us:
We enjoyed the food offered to us. But any European
would undoubtedly find this breakfast very odd because
our meal consisted of dried apricots and eggs (Barth,
2017, p. 163).
5
Ottoman culinary culture and nutrition g
The traveler speaks of eggs as being bad and that the Europeans
do not consume or like them. The egg is the most crucial food
of animal origin in terms of its nutritional value. It contains
high-quality protein and is especially rich in essential amino
acids. In addition, eggs contain high amounts of vitamin B12
and other water-soluble B group vitamins (TURKOMP, 2021).
2.6 Wheat
There was plenty of space here to grow fruit trees.
Water canals irrigated these trees. In addition to wheat
and barley, corn and millet were also grown (Barth,
2017, p. 30).
Unlike today, barley flour was consumed and used in bakery
products in the Ottoman Empire. Barley contains beta-glucan,
a high water-soluble dietary fiber. Beta-glucan especially lowers
the glycemic index of foods and thus prevents the increase in
blood glucose. In addition, beta-glucan reduces heart disease
by lowering cholesterol (Tosh & Bordenave, 2020).
2.7 Meat
Dinner was pretty good. Especially the steak with
minced onions, which is one of the local dishes of this
place, was very delicious (Barth, 2017, p. 192).
We had lunch on the edge of a square-shaped
ornamental pool, and the menu included figs, dried
meat, and palm jam (Flaubert, 2016, p. 176).
Meat has an essential place in the daily diet of people.
Meat is the easiest to produce among animal foods. Due to its
properties such as taste, high biological value, satiety, and thanks
to its richness in complex B vitamins and various minerals and
essential amino acids, it has an essential place in human nutrition
(McAfee et al., 2010; TURKOMP, 2021).
If there is soup or liquid food in the bowls, the
spoons are handled immediately. If there are solid
foods, guests can pick them up with their fingers. No
matter how repulsive these customs may seem to the
feelings and opinions of the British, the deliciousness
of the food was already enough to make us accept the
situation. These traditional methods, which shook us
so much, succeeded in eliminating our tendencies to be
meticulous after a while. The meat was usually cut into
small bites, making it easier to eat. But this time, the
ducks were all being served in the middle. The owner
of the feast was tearing the ducks with his fingers and
distributing them to his guests (Wittman, 2011, p. 28).
In Ottoman, lamb is not allowed to be eaten until
April. Pork is forbidden to Muslims altogether, but
pork is still allowed to be sold on the markets in early
spring because foreign representatives or ambassadors,
or Christians buy it. This indulgence also allowed us to
6
buy large pork legs, but unfortunately, we sent it to a
Turkish bakery to cook it. When the situation arose, we
found ourselves in a very unpleasant situation. The poor
baker was fined twenty piastres (Wittman, 2011, p. 55).
We stayed in the camp of the Turks that day… Our
location was very good, and we had a well in a place
with perfect water. But much attention was not paid
to the vegetables brought to us. We were given some
gourd, okra, and cucumber. On the other hand, plenty
of mutton and chicken meat was brought. Our food
was coming from Grand Vizier (Wittman, 2011, p. 46).
Chicken and turkey meats, which are still widely consumed in
Turkey, also play an important role in human nutrition. Chicken
meat, which is low in calories and fat, has quality protein value
and the short fiber of chicken meat is also healthy, as it is digested
quickly. It also supports the nervous system as it contains B2, B6,
and B12 (Demirci, 2015).
If available, they usually eat a little bit of bread or biscuits,
cheese, onions, olives, and vegetable oil. They rarely have reached
the luxury of eating animal food. Their favorite food is mutton
and poultry in a dark broth with rice. But such a luxury is
uncommon for most of the soldiers filling the battalions of the
Turkish army. They have turned to other, less expensive pleasures.
The first to come to mind is coffee and tobacco. They drink the
coffee (Figure 6) as dark as possible, while the tobacco they are
very addicted to is smoking by putting them on sticks that they
have never separated from their sides. Since the Qur’an forbids
wine, the main drink of every Muslim is water (Wittman, 2011).
It is known that coffee is one of the world’s major commodity
and is the most important trade product in the world after oil.
Coffee was brought to Istanbul by Selim I in 1519, after the
military action in Egypt. Turkish coffee was introduced to France
and Parisian society for the first time in 1669 by the Turkish
ambassador Süleyman Ağa. Coffee, which spread to Europe
thanks to travelers and traders, gained its real fame after the
Ottoman Siege of Vienna in 1683. The armies of the Ottoman
Empire, which were defeated as a result of the siege, left plenty
Figure 6. Turkish coffee.
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Ağaoğlu et al.
of coffee behind while withdrawing from the gates of Vienna
(Balcı, 2019). Because of its health benefits, coffee has been
associated with a lower risk of diseases such as type 2 diabetes,
obesity, cardiovascular disease and certain types of cancer.
Coffee contains many bioactive compounds such as caffeine,
chlorogenic acids and diterpenoid alcohols, which have been
associated with many potential health benefits. For instance,
caffeine reduces the risk of developing neurodegenerative
disease and type 2 diabetes, and chlorogenic acids and diterpene
alcohols have many health benefits, including antioxidants and
chemoprotectants (Gökcen & Şanlier, 2019).
it increases the nutritional value of the curd. In addition, there
are serum proteins in the whey which are fundamental during
the curdling of cheese. In addition, milk contains high amounts
of vitamin B2 and calcium. Vitamin B2 is involved in energy
metabolism, while calcium is important for bone health and
the development of babies (Prudêncio et al., 2014).
The Ottoman State was established in the Söğüt district of
Bilecik. This region is in the middle of the olive-olive oil culture.
Due to the easy access to olive and olive oil, olives and oil were
consumed frequently in the Ottoman Empire. Olive oil is a type
of oil that is obtained from olives collected from the olive tree by
a variety of techniques. This oil is consumed both hot and cold
and has a unique flavor and aroma. Olive oil has antioxidant,
anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic properties. It has
a strong protective effect against various diseases, especially
helping to prevent membrane lipids and intracellular molecules
(Visioli et al., 2002). Oleic acid, one of the main components of
olive oil, protects the cell membrane, and lipoproteins fight against
oxidative stress by reducing LDL cholesterol and triglycerides
(Trichopoulou & Dilis, 2007).
Sheep, cattle, and bread were plentiful in Büyükdere
and sold at very affordable prices. It was the same for
all types of poultry. Eggs are also plentiful. But cheese
and butter are very ordinary. Vegetables are very
similar to those in England. Broad beans, beans, peas,
cabbage, cucumbers, squash, Watermelon, and the
like are common. So are the fruits: peaches, apricots,
pears, apples (but quite unsavory), figs, cherries,
pomegranates, cranberries, mulberries, and grapes.
In addition to these, there are plenty of walnuts and
hazelnuts (Wittman, 2011, p. 16).
The consumption of biscuits by the Ottomans is also mentioned
here. Biscuits are known as a food that are consumed to eliminate
hunger for a short period of time. Foods that are consumed as
hunger sedatives were consumed with a variety of beverages,
and this is assumed to be a diet. Snack foods generally contain
wheat flour, sugar, oil, and cocoa; therefore, snacks are high in
carbohydrates and fat. It is thought that the Ottoman soldiers
used biscuits during wars because of their high energy content.
These biscuits contained milk and dairy products, whey powder,
egg, cocoa, hazelnut, sesame, and coconut. These additives are
known to have high nutritional values (Unal & Dean, 1991).
It is mentioned that meat was rarely consumed. It is thought
that meat may have been expensive and therefore consumed less.
Meat consumption is seen as an important source of activities
in human metabolism as meat is rich in essential amino acids,
fat, and water-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K), and minerals
(TURKOMP, 2021).
2.8 Milk and milk products
Cheese is a concentrated nutrient that contains the most
critical elements of milk. It is a vibrant food, especially in terms
of protein, vitamins, calcium, and phosphorus. For this reason,
it is a food that has an essential place in our daily diet (Yöney,
1970; Vahabzadeh et al., 2017).
After drinking our coffee and eating curd cheese
and quince for breakfast, we got ready to go on our
expedition in the city (Barth, 2017, p. 70).
Casein, which is the most crucial component of milk, is very
rich in protein. Since casein passes from milk to curd cheese,
Food Sci. Technol, Campinas, 42, e51721, 2022
In the village, we stopped by, they prepared a delicious
breakfast and served cream, cheese, and honey with it
(Barth, 2017, p. 208).
As a grain-based food, bread has an essential place in Turkey
just as it had in the Ottoman Empire. Bread occupied an important
place in nutrition during the Ottoman period with its rich
vegetable protein and carbohydrate content (Yurdatapan, 2014).
Cereals grown in Turkey are rich in carbohydrates, protein,
and fiber. The most popular of these foods is wheat. In addition
to carbohydrates, fat, and protein, wheat also contains vitamins,
which are essential elements of human and animal nutrition.
Bread plays a vital role in food consumption because it is cheap,
satisfying, and habitual (Dimitrov et al., 2017).
The people living in Syria are delighted in terms
of nutrition. They eat salty olives, bad and indigestible
cheese, badly baked and coarse bread pressed into a flat
round, rancid butter, or sometimes oil. They eat meat
very rarely, but when they eat, they add a delicious
and satisfying meal made of rice, which they call rice.
Their main drinks are water (Wittman, 2011, p. 126).
Camels drink slowly large amounts of water. They
hadn’t drunk for three days. We are silent too, but
this water is disgusting! Ababdas do not want to sell
us milk; milk is their only food. (Arabia) (Flaubert,
2016, p. 154).
Rich dinner. The water is disgusting! However,
they promised me that I would drink water in Kuseyr!
Kuseyr water is full of scary soap and rotten eggs to
the shoes. Not another fragrance! Mixing some raki in
it is in vain; it does not change the taste of this water
(Flaubert, 2016, p. 157).
7
Ottoman culinary culture and nutrition g
The white soil jugs that the women carried on
their heads contained honey, milk, and drinking water
(Wittman, 2011, p. 82).
Milk is a highly bioavailable food and contains essential
amino acids, fat, lactose, important minerals (calcium (Ca),
phosphorus (P), vitamins (riboflavin (B2), vitamin B12), and
high-quality protein components. One liter of milk provides
113% of vitamin B12, 104% of vitamin B2, 50% of vitamin A
and pantothenic acid, 30% of vitamin D, and B1, which should
be consumed in the daily diet. Milk plays an important role,
especially in metabolic activities and its essential components
are vital for human nutrition (Seğmenoğlu & Baydan, 2012).
There is another lovely food called yogurt by the
locals, and they bring it with desserts after dinner. Its
preparation begins by letting the milk sour a little. Then
they put a small amount of this in fresh milk and wait
for it to settle a little. They serve this food with sugar.
It tastes very nice, and when you add strawberries, it
becomes like a cream. The milk sold here is usually a
mixture. Goat, sheep, cow, and buffalo milk are mixed
and sold (Wittman, 2011, p. 16).
The history of yogurt is very old. Studies conducted are probably
based on the Turkish history of yogurt. It is reported that yogurt
first came to Central Asia and then to Anatolia, and from there, it
passed to Rumelia (Herdem, 2006). The richness of yogurt comes
from milk and living microorganisms formed by the fermentation
process. These microorganisms increase the digestibility of yogurt.
Yogurt also has benefits on the intestinal flora. Additionally, it
is stated that it accelerates growth and the lactic acid in yogurt
content accelerates the absorption of calcium, phosphorus, and
iron. Vitamin D, which is necessary for calcium and phosphorus
absorption, is reduced by consuming yogurt daily (Seğmenoğlu &
Baydan, 2012). Dairy products are rich in high-quality protein as
well as vitamin B2 and calcium. Adequate consumption of dairy
products meets most of these two micronutrients, which are daily
requirements (Willett & Ludwig, 2020).
The Ottoman Empire first became an empire with the
transition to Rumelia in the period of Orhan Gazi and the reign
of Sultan Mehmed the Conqueror. The Ottoman Empire, which
expanded its lands from Anatolia to Rumelia, North Africa and
Egypt, Arabia, the Caucasus, and the islands of the As a result of
the interaction with these new cultures, many cultural elements
were borrowed, however, these elements were adapted to the
Ottoman culture through a filter and were never adapted fully. The
cultural transfer was mutual, and the influence of the Ottoman
Empire were soon seen throughout the cultures in these new lands.
Culinary culture has also taken its fair amount from this situation,
and new products and new dishes entered the Ottoman cuisine.
However, the Ottoman Civilization has created a belonging by
adding something on else, developing it, and adapting it to its own
cuisine instead of applying the same one to one (İnalcık, 2014).
One of the best examples of this is seen with peppers and
tomatoes. These new products, which reached Europe from the
Americas and then to the Ottoman lands, have been evaluated
8
differently from their use in America and Europe. Stuffed peppers
are one example of this difference. This dish, which is a product
of the Ottoman peoples, shows the development and synthesis
of the Ottomans by adding something to create something new.
A similar manifestation occurred with tomatoes. Not unlike the
sauces in Europe and America, the Ottomans also used them to
make tomato paste and stewed dishes. However, tomato paste
was made from peppers and stuffed made from tomatoes, and
new flavors were added to the Ottoman cuisine. This innovation
led to a transformation in the cuisine in the second half of the
19th century, and tomatoes and tomato paste started to replace
dried fruits such as plums, currants, and apples (Isin, 2018;
Yerasimos, 2015).
The change showed itself in desserts as well, and molasses,
honey, and grape juice began to be used as natural sweeteners.
In addition, refined crystallized sugar produced from sugar cane
started to be used as a sweetener in many products. Sugar beets
were first produced in factories in England in the beginning of
the 19th century, and spread from England, to other parts of the
world. Refined sugar is addictive, damages the body, accelerates
aging, causes weight gain and diabetes. From the second half of
the 19th century, with the introduction of refined sugar in the
Ottoman Empire, especially in Istanbul, it was seen that diabetes
increased, and related deaths occurred. The cause of death of
the Ottoman sultans Murad V (died 1904) and Sultan Mehmed
Reşad V (died 1918) along with the writer Ömer Seyfeddin (died
1920) were recorded as diabetes (Adıyaman, 2019).
The westernization which began with the reign of Sultan
Mahmud II caused a transformation within the Ottoman
society. Ottoman cuisine was also affected by these movements,
and modifications began in the food culture. The most radical
change was experienced in desserts with the introduction of
refined sugar (Isin, 2018).
3 Conclusion
The Ottoman Empire incorporated different elements and
brought together a new and unique culture by bringing these
elements together. The Ottoman cuisine, which incorporated
different cultures, owes its wealth to the innovations it developed
within its social dynamics. Culinary culture also took its share
from different cultures, and new products and dishes entered
the Ottoman cuisine. The Ottoman Empire created a sense of
belonging by adding to existing cuisines, and developing and
adapting them to their own instead of applying the same one
to one. During the Ottoman period, besides vegetables, fruits,
barley, bread, meat, and dairy products, functional foods such
as grapes and plums were frequently consumed. In light of travel
books referenced, it is clear that healthy foods and nutrition were
at the forefront throughout the Ottoman period.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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