African Traditional Medicines

Culture, traditional practices, and social norms of different societies have been found to have great impact on healthcare systems and people understanding of health and illness. This paper discusses how the Dagomba of Ghana theorizes health and illness and the impact of language and secrecy in traditional healing. Using the Dagomba lay theories of health and illness and that of medical pluralism, the paper found that among Dagomba, the concepts of health and illness are complex, holistic and interrelated. The Dagomba theorized that health is a discourse and a relational concept. It is also seen as being in a state of balance with the self, others, the society and the spiritual world but not the absence of illness. The paper argues that illness among Dagomba has both internal and external dimensions. It is seen as something which is part of life and growing up. Accordingly, some illnesses are innate while others come and go. Within their traditional healthcare system, language and secrecy are found to have both pragmatic and psychological functions. Language is not only used in naming illnesses and expressing other medical conditions but it is also used as a means of communication such that patients and healers engagement in the medical discourse promote good health. Secrecy is found to perform the role of patent law (intellectual property rights) to healers' traditional knowledge. It is also used to protect both patients and the potency of traditional medicine and healing. Finally the paper draws the attention of medical practitioners, especially those in the formal health systems, to the fact that cultural sensitivity and the respect for people lay theories of health and illness need to be taken seriously since that could help to promote effective healthcare delivery and reduce conflicts between patients and healthcare professionals.

The avascular necrosis (AVN) of the femur head due to the death of the osteocytes of the bone marrow occurs because the organ is not supplied with sufficient blood. The prevalence of the problem is 10%-50% in adults. The etiology of the disease includes various factors such as trauma, cigarette smoking, drinking spirits, taking corticosteroids, genetics, metabolic disorders, human immunodeficiency virus, pregnancy, and the like. The treatment of necrosis can be conducted regarding the degree of the problem. In the present paper, a case was reported whose femur head necrosis was treated by applying Iranian Medicine without using common drugs in modem Medicine. The patient was a 46-year-old man who had felt severe pain in his left hip since a month before referring. The pain had gradually increased and the AVN of the femur head was diagnosed after magnetic resonance imaging. Finally, the surgery and arthroplasty of the femur head were recommended in this regard. In general, surgery and arthroplasty were recommended regarding the hard medicinal and complicated treatment of the AVN of the femur head. However, it is noteworthy that applying Iranian medicine capacities is possible for curing the disease.

Context: The anti-nociceptive and anti-pyretic properties of the crude aqueous extract of Anogeissus leiocarpa (DC). Guill. & Perr. leaves have been reported.

Aims: To investigate the anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, and anti-pyretic properties of aqueous extract of A. leiocarpa leaves (AEAL) and its fractions to identify the bioactive compound(s).

Methods: AEAL was fractionated successively and eluted in gradients of solvent mixture (n-hexane, ethylacetate, and methanol). Eluates, which showed similar TLC profiles were pooled to afford 5 fractions (F1-F5). AEAL and the fractions were subjected to phytochemical analysis and investigated for anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, and anti-pyretic effects using carrageenan-induced paw edema and Brewer’s yeast-induced pyrexia in rats, and acetic acid-induced writhing in mouse models, respectively.

Results: Phytochemical analysis indicated presence of terpenoids, saponins, steroids, glycosides, flavonoids, tannins and alkaloids. At 200 mg/kg b.w, AEAL and F1-F5 recorded significant (p<0.05) improvements in paw edema, abdominal constrictions and pyrexia, which is comparable to the standard (ketoprofen or Aspirin), relative to the control groups, with F4 observed to be the most potent fraction. GC-MS analysis of F4 reveal the presence of hexadecenoic acid, 15-methyl-, methylester, 9-oxabicyclo (6.1.0) nonane, cis-, cholest-4-en-3-one, cholesterol and 3-diazo-1-methyl-1, 3-dihydro-indol-2-one.

Conclusions: The results indicate that identified compounds, particularly 3-dihydro-indol-2-one, could be responsible for the anti-inflammatory, anti-nociceptive, and anti-pyretic properties of the extract.

We are a people. A people do not throw their geniuses away. And if they are thrown away, it is our duty as artists and as witnesses for the future to collect them again for the sake of our children, and, if necessary, bone by bone.-Alice Walker

Oral  lichen  planus  is  a  cell-mediated  immune  condition.  It  is  one  of  the  most
common dermatological disease present in the oral cavity.  It is mostly found in
middle  aged  and  elderly  Indian  population  with a  prevalence  rate  of  2.6%.  The
purpose of this article is to highlight a case of oral lichen planus affecting a 22-year-old male without concomitant cutaneous lesions who had been treated earlier
with  topical  steroid  but  repeated  recurrence  of  the  lesion  made  us  to  shift  the
treatment from steroid to herbal curcumin which yielded positive results.

‘Traditional healers’ (sangomas) in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa, are organized into ‘schools’ around a senior teacher (gobela). Healing is understood by its practioners to be a profession, not a religion or even a spiritual exercise. Healers actively assess the effectiveness of their healing methods, transmit their knowledge to each other, and evaluate each others’ performances in ways that stray far from the mere transmission of ‘tradition’. Clients are likely to pay sangomas as much as they would medical doctors for their services, which are not limited to the medical. Their practices can be divided into roughly six ‘disciplines’: divination, herbs, control of ancestral spirits, the cult of foreign ndzawe spirits, drumming and dancing, and training of new sangomas. The status of sangoma is achieved through an arduous process of teaching and learning through which the student or initiate is simultaneously ‘healed’ and educated to become a member of the profession that coheres around these knowledge practices.

RÉSUMÉ: Les « guérisseurs traditionnels » (sangomas) de la province du Mpumalanga, en Afrique du Sud, sont organisés en « écoles » autour d’un enseignant principal (gobela). L’activité de guérisseur est considérée par ses praticiens comme une profession et non comme une religion, ni même un exercice spirituel. Les guérisseurs évaluent activement l’efficacité de leurs méthodes de guérison, se transmettent des connaissances et évaluent leurs performances entre eux de façons très éloignées d’une simple transmission de « tradition ». Les clients payent souvent les sangomas autant que les médecins pour leurs services, qui ne se limitent pas au domaine médical. Leurs pratiques se divisent en six grandes « disciplines » : la divination, les plantes, la maîtrise des esprits ancestraux, le culte des esprits ndzawe étrangers, les percussions et la danse, et la formation des nouveaux sangomas. Le statut de sangoma est obtenu au terme d’un processus ardu d’enseignement et d’apprentissage au cours duquel l’étudiant ou l’initié est simultanément « guéri » et formé à devenir member d’une profession qui rassemble autour de ces pratiques de connaissance.

The research on the factors affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine was Conducted in Musasa sector, Rutsiro District, Western Province in Rwanda for the period between 2013 and 2015. The idea of this research raised from the confusion and Doubts about the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in their therapeutic services to the patients. These two medicines should have the same Mission to Maintain and improve the population health of Musasa sector. Repeatedly, various authorities (WHO in 1978 in Alma Ata, and Rusaka in 1985 the Ministry of Health of Rwanda, TSRI in 1980, the AGA Rwanda in 2011) raised the problem of disagreement and Lack of complementarity between providers in modern and traditional medicine. Based on the complaints of people beneficiaries of the services offered by these two medicines, WHO recommended all member countries (Including Rwanda) that primary health care must be available to everyone through the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine and the person must be regarded as a whole organism and should be Treated in the light of Each components (physical body and mind), living in a Particular context to be taken into account When developing a treatment. Unfortunately, in Musasa sector, Where complementarity of traditional and modern medicine is not applied, we Noted the growing number of patients Who died in the puzzle / mystery . Among the patients 0.115% in 2012 and 0, 42% in 2013 consulted traditional practitioners did not obtained effective action on their health. The main suspected poisoning complications were post-medication, and abdomens and stomach surgery where counted 2 cases in 2013, 1 case of maternal Death in 2013 due to family conflict. Indeed, this study was Conducted to answer the questions of what to do to Promote the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine and what could reduce the consequence of divergence of these two kinds of medicines working in Musasa sector. This study adopted an ontology philosophy and epistemological subjectivism. In general, the adopted philosophy allowed the researcher to-have details on the condition under study and to understand the reality which could be interpreted.
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The adopted Methodological approach is based on "mixed Methods". This method of investigation is by the way a combination of the qualitative and quantitative approach which helped the research to master the phenomenon in its all dimensions. In a specific Manner, our combined research and technical procedures of analyzing quantitative and qualitative data also combines quantitative and qualitative Approaches. This means that in clustering the researcher took quantitative data and qualitative and transform them into narrative so that they could be analyzed qualitatively. Alternatively, the researcher has analyzed quantitatively quantitative and qualitative data. On one hand, this research is exploratory, because it tries to discover all factors affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine as well as to sufficiently understand the elements that can constitute the model of complementarity and coordination of the activities of traditional and modern medicine. On the other hand, this research is explicatory because the researcher tried to know why there are factors affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine. On basis of the adopted research strategies "Case study and archival or historical study" like exploratory and explicatory case studies linked with two strategies were used in the technology of data collection which was based on interviews, observations and documentary analysis. The used technical analysis of documentary was extensively exploited within archival or historical research strategy. It allowed the researcher to collect documentary secondary data in related with research subject. The technical observation consisted with noticing and discovering all factors that makes or influences the complementarity. It was helped with the aid of perception senses or with specific instruments. The technology of interviews allowed the researcher to collect primary data. Furthermore the exploratory and explicatory kind of the study exploited "non-standardized interviews." in general In fact, the researcher used individual interviews and testimonies for 38 persons to discover the factors affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine. Among whom30 were traditional practitioners, 8 were modern health providers working in Musasa sector.
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Data provided by interviews and testimonies were verified by cross-checking to insure their accuracy or correctness and check of inconsistency. Data were analyzed by using excel software. They were treated in form of diagrams, bar charts and pictures leading to the contribution model of the work. Qualitative data were quantitatively Analyzed (under numerical form: Percentages and frequencies) and quantitative data qualitatively were analyzed (under narrative form) in an interpretative process. And finally, we arrived to following results: Concerning socio-cultural factors i) 70% of traditional Practitioners, 87% modern health care providers have affirmed that the level of understanding / knowledge of the disease is a factor affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector. ii) 100% of traditional Practitioners and 93.3% of modern health care providers affirmed that the low level of study for traditional Practitioners in Musasa sector is a factor affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine. iii) 100% of modern health care providers interviewed stated that, the imagination of disease in diagnosis by traditional Practitioners is a factor affecting the complementarity between traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector. iv) 70% of modern health care providers interviewed confirmed that traditional Practitioners offer services in hidden of their houses without showing how they detect and treat diseases. This is also a factor that Prevents the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector. v) 57% of traditional Practitioners, 50% of modern health care providers interviewed confirmed that traditional Practitioners have a conservative spirit that prevents them from divulging / their traditional healing forces. Indeed, the tradition is a factor that prevents the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector. Concerning economic factoring vi) 75% of modern health care providers interviewed often said that, traditional practitioners aimed to gain money / personal interest (individual profit orientation) when delivering their services. Indeed, their desire to stretch money is a factor that affects the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector. vii) 93% of traditional practitioners, 100% of modern health care providers interviewed have sufficiently confirmed that the lack of appropriate tools and equipment for traditional medicine is
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a factor that affects complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector. viii) In the interview, 87% of traditional practitioners, 88% of modern health care providers interviewed said that the lack of appropriate infrastructure in traditional medicine is a factor that affect the complementarity between modern and traditional medicine in Musasa sector; Regarding political factors ix) 90% of traditional practitioners, 88% of modern health care providers interviewed said that the lack of organic law governing traditional medicine is a factor that affect the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector; x) 80% of traditional practitioners, 75% of modern health care providers interviewed remarked that the lack of organization in traditional medicine as a factor affecting the complementary between activities of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector; xi) 100% of traditional practitioners, 100% of modern health providers interviewed said that there is no National policy for traditional medicine appeared in the official gazette of the State, is a factor affecting the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine in Musasa sector.
After having determined the socio-cultural, economic and political factors that prevent the complementarity of traditional and modern medicine the researcher elaborated a model encouraging the complementarity of these two kinds of medicine working in sector of Musasa. He tested the applicability of the results of his research and their contribution to the complementarity of the traditional and modern medicine as well as to the related complications and mortality reduction of the patients seeking the help at traditional practitioners. Finally, the researcher suggested other further researchers on the impact of socio-sanitary complementarity between traditional and modern medicine in health system. Also, he recommended to the Ministry of Health to advocate traditional practitioner for developing the national politics and the law governing the traditional medicine. The Rwanda's, Provinces, Districts and Sectors should initiate the coordination body of the traditional and modern medicine activities from the peripheral level to central level. The traditional practitioners have been recommended to follow instructions ordered by the Ministry of Health, State, District and Sectors. The modern health care providers have been recommended to create the discussion forum and the exchange committee of monitoring and assessing of the therapeutic activities of traditional practitioners.

African Traditional Medicine is a mainstay of primary health care for the majority in Africa. About 80% of the population has relied on resources within their environment to survive since God’s creation.
Plants, minerals and animals constitute the major natural resources ever used by mankind for preventative, curative and rehabilitative health in Africa. Like any other continent, these resources have been used for over ten thousand years by traditional health practitioners, who acquired their knowledge and skills through observation, spiritual revelation, personal experience, training and direct information from their predecessors.
Despite numerous attempts at government interference, this ancient system of healing continues to thrive in Africa and practitioners can be found in many other parts of the world. Under colonial rule, many nations considered traditional diviner-healers to be practitioners of witchcraft and outlawed them for that reason. In some areas of colonial Africa, attempts were also made to control the sale of traditional herbal medicines. After Mozambique obtained independence in 1975, diviner healers were sent to re-education camps. Opposition to traditional medicine has been particularly vehement during times of conflict, when people have been more likely to call on the supernatural realm. More recently, interest has been expressed in integrating traditional African medicine with the continent's national health care systems. In Kwa-Mhlanga, South Africa, a 48-bed hospital combines traditional African medicine with homeopathy, iridology, and other Western healing methods, as well as traditional Asian medicine.

The aim in this paper is to draw the attention on the way African Societies preserve and transmit their ancestral Knowledge Sytems from the antic times to the contemporary days. It stresses the need to strengthen the way of the Preservation and Transmission of these Knowledge Systems in the interest of the forthcoming Generations and in the interest of the whole Mankind.

This paper is to provide a conceptual analysis of Paul’s teaching on the law and grace in light of the salvation brought by Jesus the Christ and their relevance for today. The method adopted for writing this paper is hermeneutical analysis of Paul’s view of law and grace in Romans which involves historical-critical method and application. This paper is limited in scope to selected passages in Romans 1-8. Internet sources, commentaries and textbooks on Paul’s Epistle to Romans and journal articles are employed in the course of writing this paper. The writer discusses Paul’s view of the law and covenant, his view of grace and salvation and his view about Christ’s freedom from the law through grace and the relevance of this interpretation for Christians today.
The paper is divided into four sections. Section one discusses the authors and his world, which has to do with the world of Paul. Section two discusses contextual matter in the text that involves Paul’s view about the law, grace and salvation. Section three discusses the reader’s world while the final section discusses the relevance of law and grace for the church.

The age-old traditional health care practices and institutions are still relevant and are followed by communities across the Nigeria. The Yoruba peoples of south-western Nigeria remains exemplary in the growth of traditional health care systems, medicines and institutions. In various societies that exist individuals such as Adahunse, Babalawo, Onisegun, Elewe Omo have physical and spiritual knowledge of health and healing practices. The practices are transmitted from one generation to the others, and have served their communities and evolved into an institution. An exemplary institution with a rich history of trado-medic practices is “Ile Abegan”, Ogbomoso. The history of this trado-medic institution of Ile Abegan, offers insight into the history of medical practices in Ogbomoso and how it has continued to evolve alongside the contemporary health practices. Hence, the emphasis of this study is to reconstruct the history of traditional health care and practitioner history using Ile-Abegan as a research setting. This study adopts a historical research methodology which relies mainly on oral interview and secondary sources of data. The findings of the study revealed that contrary to the common perspective about the inadequacies of trado-medic institution in Yoruba land, it is incredible and fascinating that Ile Abegan has offer a rich history of how this institution have contributed to trado-medic health historiography of Ogbomoso and its environment.


Keyword: Ile Abegan, Trado-Medic, Health Care Practices, Ogbomoso.

Today marks another milestone in the annual celebration of the Okota Festival – a festival to reunite the spirit of a people with their ancestors and showcase the cultural heritage of Arigidi Akoko. I salute His amiable Eminence Otunba Gani Adams (National Co-ordinator, Odua People’s Congress (OPC), who is the sponsor and promoter of Olokun Foundation that annually organize the two-day fiesta tagged ‘Okota Festival’ since 2008.

Okota Festival has the aim of ‘Promoting one of African Deities for Positive Social Change and Development’. The festival annually features a beauty pageant contest with a grand prize of a motor car and serving as idol of Okota Festival in order to re-enact the beauty of African traditions and culture in fashion similar to what obtains at Osun-Osogbo Festival. The crowd files in procession to the riverside to make sacrifices to Okota River goddess before people rush into the river for spiritual impartation and cleansing.

The Great Spirit behind Okota River is reputably revered as a problem solver because whatever problem is brought to the goddess is answered. OKOTA welcomes all and sundry except thieves and liars. Okota festival has been a source of love and unity for generations of Arigidi-Akoko descendants because the ‘highly benevolent river goddess’ who is a harbinger of goodwill and a major source of refuge to the people from the pre-colonial era till date. The deity - Okota is highly revered among the people and credited with potent supernatural powers. Narratives have attributed to the fact that Okota made barren women to bear fruits of the womb and the afflicted to receive healing after tasting the water its river.

In studying the similarity of Okota with other Yoruba ancestral deities, a good point of reference can be drawn from the works of James C. Lewis entitled Olokun (an orisha in Yoruba religion associated with the sea). He noted that Olokun has male and female personifications, depending on where it is worshipped. Olokun is also personified in human characteristics with patience, endurance, sternness, observation, meditation, appreciation for history, future visions, and royalty personified. Its characteristics are found and displayed in the depths of the ocean. Its name means "owner" (Olo) of oceans" (Okun).

Olokun also signifies unfathomable wisdom. That is, the instinct that there is something worth knowing, perhaps more than can ever be learned, especially the spiritual sciences that most people spend a lifetime pondering. It also governs material wealth, psychic abilities, dreaming, meditation, mental health and water-based healing. Olokun is one of many orisha known to help women that desire children. In female form among the Yoruba, Olokun is the wife of Olorun and, by him, the mother of Obatala and Odudua. Again, while these relationships are taken quite literally, they actually serve to tell occult members which orisha work well together in healing situations, as well as to provide historical references to relationships between communities that serve as centres or hosts to main shrines for each of these orisha.

Olokun is worshipped in Benin, Togo and among the Edo and Yoruba in Nigeria. In African Diasporas religions, Olokun is sometimes considered the patron Orisa of the African Diaspora, the descendants of those who were carried away during the Transatlantic Slave Trade. Olokun is still revered in modern Lagos, and Eyo Olokun masquerades are among the main attractions at the Eyo festival. Lewis concluded that Oya (Deity of the Winds) and Egungun (Collective Ancestral Spirits) herald the way for those who pass to ancestor ship by the critical role of Iku (death) and Aye (life) and the transition of human beings and spirits between these two existences.

Nigeria as a nation lost much of its cultural heritage, history and institution that were founded on solid traditional settings where knowledge of the Okota would have spread due to the influence of western education, religion and culture. Efforts to trace back those lost cultural values and to give it a dignifying place has brought us here today to reconnect with ideas of ancient times that truly make us Africans, Black people, Yoruba race or adherents of traditional beliefs. This is the basis of this lecture piece: ‘‘THE MYTH AND POWERS OF TRADITIONAL MEDICINE - – A focal point for the celebration of Okota Annual Festival’’

Traditional Knowledge (TK) is a central component for the daily life of millions of people in developing countries, including India where access to “modern” health care services and medicine is limited due to economic and cultural constraints. Some TK is codified, that is, formalized in some way (eg Ayurveda) however, a great part of it is non-codified, such as, “folk”, “tribal” or “indigenous” medicine which is based on traditional beliefs, norms and practices accumulated during centuries old experiences of trial and error, and passed to successive generations through oral tradition. The protection under Intellectual Property Rights (IPRs) of traditional and indigenous knowledge has received growing attention since the adoption of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992. However, the concept of Protection in case of TK is understood and interpreted in different ways by different groups; hence there exist two schools of thought-as per one belief protection essentially means to exclude the unauthorized use by third parties; whereas others regard protection as a tool to preserve traditional knowledge from uses that may erode it or negatively affect the life or culture of the communities who are in possession of such knowledge and have developed / applied it.

Early encounters with Africa initiated a European fascination with the “fetish.” Though this term has been extensively problematized, anthropologists have kept the term, reading fetishes as cultural texts and searching to untangle the material assemblages and deep symbols that comprise them. This article contributes to our knowledge of fetishes by applying a practitioner-centric approach to their use and meaning in the matrices of Vodu. First, I elucidate meanings of these spiritual embodiments using ethnography of prayer and sacrifice in Gorovodu as practiced by ethnic Ewe and Mina communities in southern Togo. I then deploy the language of phenomenological anthropology to argue that fetishes bring intentionality into being and focus. Their filled presence directs consciousness towards the spirits and allows practitioners to sensuously experience spirituality and spiritual being. Rituals surrounding material fetishes are a means of intending reciprocal relationships with the divine into perceptual consciousness, and it is through these relationships that life and success are made possible.

Context: The importance of traditional medicine cannot be over emphasized as a quarter of prescription drugs globally are natural based. In this type of medicine, plants are mixed together or are sometimes used in combination with other materials such as animals and minerals, as remedy. While a considerable amount of documentation of indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants has been executed, there is paucity of similar studies on animals in Nigeria. Aims: To carry out a survey of ethnozoology among the Epie-Atissa and Ogbia people of Bayelsa State, Nigeria, with a view to documenting species with zoo-therapeutic values. Methods: Using a semi-structured questionnaire, information was gathered through personal interviews with traditional medical practitioners. The data were evaluated using some ethnozoological indices such as use value of the species, family use value, relative frequency of citation, relative number of use, relative importance index, and cultural importance (CI). Results: A total of 43 species of animals belonging to three phyla, Chordata (66.7%), Arthropoda (22.2%) and Mollusca and Pisces (15.9%) were gathered in ten classes with Mammalia being the most mentioned (22.7%) followed by Reptilia (18.2%) and Pisces (15.9%). The most important diseases cited were inflammation/pain/arthritis (20.0%), ear/nose/throat (18.3%), reproductive purpose (16.7%) and convulsion/epilepsy (15.0%) while the most culturally important animals (CI) included Agama agama (0.85), Protopterus dolloi (0.45), Testudo graeca (0.23), Gorilla gorilla (0.17), Hemachatus haemachatus (0.14) and Hemidactylus frenatus (0.14). Conclusions: The survey furnishes the populace including medicinal plant researchers and some other traditional medicine practitioners with a real wellspring of communicable knowledge. These medicinal animal materials could be included in the healthcare delivery system of the country.

African herbal medicine is as ancient as humankind, and was categorised into organised healing systems since before ancient Egyptian times, around 3000 BC and earlier. African herbs became popularised in Europe, following colonisation of Africa by European nations. Contemporary inroads of African modernisation processes include dramatic culture shifts around understanding the nature and definitions of wellbeing and cure, and the use of 'medicine' and 'healing' to effect health improvements. Viewing endemic disease in the face of extensive poverty, pressure is exerted by international communities and African national governments to ensure greater reliance on conventional biomedicine, while traditional healing cultures are now often portrayed as ineffective, over-simplistic, superstitious and potentially dangerous, or conversely as exclusively 'magical' and disconnected from everyday reality. Despite this, African herbal products have supplied a lucrative global marketplace, to an extent where some species are now threatened. Ongoing interest in the use of herbs is evidenced by popular articles and scholarly research. Significant value is accorded to African indigenous herbal medicine to treat 'new' diseases, including HIV/AIDS (as a current lead cause of mortality for adults in Africa). This paper discusses issues pertinent to herbal use in the context of HIV/AIDS treatment, including environmental impacts, and focuses on relevant shifts in the social and cultural contexts of herbal medicine practice in Africa.

From the colonial era until the HIV and Ebola epidemics of today, Africa has often been perceived as a ‘diseased continent’ – as a continent whose population and development has suffered greatly from a particularly heavy disease burden. In this course, which aims to introduce students to the social and cultural history of medicine in Africa from a global perspective, we will trace the origins and the impact of this perception. We will explore how both Africans and foreign actors in Africa dealt with disease and ill-health from precolonial times into the postcolonial era. We will look at African health concepts and healing systems and analyse how Africans dealt with western biomedical concepts and practices introduced and often violently imposed by colonial and missionary doctors, experts in tropical medicine and international organizations such as the WHO. These interactions were shaped by manifold forms of resistance and led to different forms of accomodation, hybridization and medical pluralism. We will also analyse the global dimensions of health and healing in Africa, by exploring not only how biomedical knowledge and practices circulated between empires and continents, but also how African healing ‘traditions’ and drugs travelled across oceans.

Between 2008 and 2011, South African and American investigators carried out a randomized controlled trial to assess the safety and efficacy of an African traditional medicine in South Africans who were HIV-seropositive but asymptomatic. The medicine was derived from Sutherlandia frutescens, a plant endemic to and widely used to stimulate immune function by people across southern Africa. In this article, I report on the cross-cultural challenges generated by trial investigators’ transformation of Sutherlandia into a clinical trial substance and a potential “treatment gap” therapy for persons with HIV. While Sutherlandia is in many respects an unusual addition to evidence-based medicine, it is also familiar in this context—especially in the manner the therapy was biopolitically imagined by trial investigators, and in terms of the indeterminacy the therapy produced.

Are nations with multiple EDL revisions converging toward the WHO model list (WHOEML), and thereby
ignoring the needs of their local populations?  This research will utilize secondary data primarily
from the individual nations themselves and the World Health Organization, along with input from
individuals intricately knowledgeable in the creation, development, and maintenance of essential
medicine programs to answer the question: “With all the resources available to the WHO, why do
individual nations put so much time, effort, and resources toward their own drug lists and
programs?” The nations for this research are: Ethiopia (ETH), Zambia (ZMB), South Africa (ZAF), and
Ghana (GHA).  Aim and Objectives: To examine the level of similarity between individual national
EDLs and the 18th WHOEML. Methods: Using Microsoft Excel, the various EDLs will be compared - each
national list will be compared to the WHOEML.  Results: Expectation is to find a substantial
similarity between medications on individual lists and those of the 18th model WHOEML.

Context: The knowledge of traditional uses of medicinal plants in the management of diabetes mellitus in Zaria is still intact with the traditional medicine practitioners. Aims: To collect, identify and document medicinal plants used traditionally for the management of diabetes mellitus in Zaria city. Methods: Open-ended informal interviews and general conversation were administered to twenty-two (22) traditional medicine practitioners (TMPs) and herb sellers. The data collected included the local names of plants, parts used, method of preparations and mode of administration. Results: Twenty-six (26) species of plants belonging to eighteen (18) families were identified. Herbal remedies were mostly prepared from freshly collected plants, while decoction was the main method of preparation. Leaves and stem bark formed the major parts of plants for herbal preparations. Conclusions: The study has documented different traditional practices used for the management of diabetes mellitus in the study area. Further studies should be conducted to evaluate the antidiabetic activity of plant species that have not yet been studied and to identify the bioactive compounds responsible for the antidiabetic activity as claimed by the traditional healers.

An interview survey was conducted among drug shop owners to investigate the access to and perception of counterfeit medication along transport corridors of East Africa spanning Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda and Democratic Republic of Congo. Owners of 171 retail drug outlets of modern medicines were interviewed on their knowledge, perception, and practices related to counterfeit medicines. Forty-four (44) encounters with counterfeit medicines were reported. Twenty-two (22) of the 171 interviewed drug store owners said that quality was the least important aspect they considered when procuring drugs. Generally, 65.9% of the drugs were sourced from registered wholesalers and distributors while the remaining 34.1% were supplied by unregistered in-country or cross-border sales representatives. In all the four countries, the 10 fastest moving drugs were reported to originate from 27 different countries with most (39%) from India. From 171 interviewees, 135 acknowledged that they were aware of the existence of counterfeit drugs, 106 of whom attributed their level of awareness to mass media. Only 32 of the interviewees reported having received any formal training on counterfeit medicines at seminars or workshops. 160 of the interviewees acknowledged that counterfeit drugs pose a major threat to the patient and pharmaceutical market. The region has a plethora of drug outlets run by attendants with varying backgrounds, diverse knowledge on medicines and practice patterns. There is an urgent need for medicine regulators and other stakeholders in Africa involved in medicine safety, to focus on properly regulating these outlets and also standardizing and training the drug outlet personnel.
Keywords: Counterfeit, Falsified, medicines, East Africa.

Multi-culturalism and -ethnicity are key features of African societies and an understanding of traditional belief systems and cultural perceptions about health, illness and healing is therefore pivotal on the African continent. This is all the more true when it comes to mental health. Despite neuro-psychiatric disorders ranking third (after HIV/AIDS and other infectious diseases) in contributing to the overall disease burden in South Africa, mental health is still acutely stigmatized and is generally seen as a peripheral and isolated issue. This is partly due to the
various cross-cultural causal explanations and perceptions that exist amongst Africans with regard to their mental health. In many of the indigenous languages, no equivalent words for concepts like ‘counselling,’ ‘therapy’ or ‘depression’ exist and traditional beliefs in supernatural causes of, and remedies for mental conditions are rife. It is furthermore not uncommon for people to accept biomedical explanations and treatment for their condition, even while espousing more traditional and cultural (ethno-etiological) perceptions about their mental health, and utilizing the traditional treatment options and rituals provided by
traditional healers. This paper will consider some of these mental health ethnoetiologies in Southern Africa and will show how cultural, religious and spiritual beliefs about mental health can colour perceptions and influence communication. An argument will be made for a culture-sensitive understanding of mental illness in Southern Africa, the fundamental principles that underpin African beliefs with regard to health and illness will be considered, and a collaborative therapeutic approach that is culture-sensitive, pluralistic and patient-centred will be advocated.
The primary example that will be explored in this chapter is kufungisasa, a cultural construction of the mental illness generally known as depression in Western biomedicine.

With Chika Ezeanya-Esiobu and Vedaste Ndungutse.

This study explores Rwandan ethno-veterinary knowledge and the degree to which this knowledge is reflected in the country’s technical and vocational education and training (TVET) instruction. The knowledge considered is the Indigenous medicinal knowledge used by rural Rwandan livestock farmers to treat their cattle. Through interviews with farmers, TVET graduates and TVET teachers, and an examination of the current TVET Animal Health curriculum, the research identifies a neglect of Indigenous knowledge in the curriculum, despite the fact that local farmers use numerous Indigenous medicinal innovations to treat their animals. The focus of Rwanda’s TVET Animal Health curriculum is on Western-origin modern veterinary practices. The authors argue that this leaves Rwandan TVET Animal Health graduates unprepared for optimal engagement with rural farmers and with the full range of potential treatments.

A chegada de facultativos médicos e farmacêuticos na Guiné dita Portuguesa com a criação dos serviços de saúde na primeira metade do século XIX trouxe novos conceitos e práticas a uma região onde os curandeiros reinavam. Olhada com uma mistura de fascínio devido a sua natureza exótica e desconfiança pelo seu clima e doenças tropicais endémicas, a Guiné ainda era um agrupamento de presídios dispersos cercados por um interior largamente desconhecido. Médicos e farmaceuticos a um lado e curandeiros como os djambakós e murus noutro, protagonizaram um encontro difícil e hesitante a partir dos meados de oitocentos que pouco mais produziu que alguns resultados pontuais. Porém, a publicação dos primeiros dados sobre a rica flora do território e algumas das suas aplicações fito-terapeuticas no último quartel do século mostram que houve um intercâmbio de conhecimentos sobre o tratamento de diversas patologias comuns e tropicais. Após as campanhas militares e a implantação de uma administração colonial nas primeiras décadas do século XX, quando se estabelecem serviços clínicos em todo o território, a assistência médica e a farmacopeia ocidental aproximou-se aos utentes nativos. Ao mesmo tempo, administradores e antropólogos enveredaram pela procura dos costumes e tradições dos povos através de inquéritos etnográficos, incluindo as fito-terapias mais comuns utilizadas pelas populações. Neste modo fazem-se os primeiros passos para uma sistematização dos conhecimentos sobre os paliativos locais que resultam no primeiro estudo etno-botânico sobre um povo da região. O presente ensaio pretende destacar estas dinâmicas e intercâmbios, que não obstante o seu carácter ambivalente, forneceram dados novos que permitiram conhecer melhor certos aspectos fundamentais da vida diária dos habitantes.

Background Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (W. somnifera) is a herb commonly known by its English name as Winter Cherry. Africa is indigenous to many medicinal plants and natural products. However, there is inadequate documentation of medicinal plants, including W. somnifera, in Africa. There is, therefore, a need for a comprehensive compilation of research outcomes of this reviewed plant as used in traditional medicine in different regions of Africa. Methodology Scientific articles and publications were scooped and sourced from high-impact factor journals and filtered with relevant keywords on W. somnifera. Scientific databases, including GBIF, PubMed, NCBI, Google Scholar, Research Gate, Science Direct, SciFinder, and Web of Science, were accessed to identify the most influential articles and recent breakthroughs published on the contexts of ethnography, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and commercialization of W. somnifera. Results This critical review covers the ...

Background: Temperament (Mizaj) determination is an important stage of diagnosis in Persian Medicine. This study aimed to evaluate thermal imaging as a reliable tool that can be used instead of subjective assessments. Methods: The temperament of 34 participants was assessed by a PM specialist using standardized Mojahedi Mizaj Questionnaire (MMQ) and thermal images of the wrist in the supine position, the back of the hand, and their whole face under supervision of the physician were recorded. Thirteen thermal features were extracted and a classifying algorithm was designed based on the genetic algorithm and Adaboost classifier in reference to the temperament questionnaire. Results: The results showed that the mean temperature and temperature variations in the thermal images were relatively consistent with the results of MMQ. Among the three body regions, the results related to the image from Malmas were most consistent with MMQ. By selecting six of the 13 features that had the most impact on the classification, the accuracy of 94.7 ± 13.0, sensitivity of 95.7 ± 11.3, and specificity of 98.2 ± 4.2 were obtained. Conclusions: The thermal imaging was relatively consistent with standardized MMQ and can be used as a reliable tool for evaluating warm/cold temperament. However, the results reveal that thermal imaging features may not be only main features for temperament classification and for more reliable classification, it needs to add some different features such as wrist pulse features and some subjective characteristics.

Objectives Rhus coriaria L. (RC) is a deciduous shrub with several pharmacological activities. Evidence of the effects of RC on weight, hyperlipidaemia, hypertension and diabetes mellitus have been presented in this study. Books, thesis and internet-based resources such as PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, EMBASE, Cochrane, Ovid and Google Scholar were searched for the English, Arabic and Persian literature from 1966 to 2020 (December). The keywords were Rhus coriaria L., Sumac, metabolic syndrome and all its medical conditions (hyperlipidaemia, hypertension, obesity and diabetes mellitus). The inclusion criteria were full-text animal and human studies conducted on RC to evaluate its efficacy on any components of metabolic syndrome (MetS). Jadad scale was used to assess the quality of evidence. Key findings Reviewing 23 relevant studies demonstrated that RC is able to decrease the level of blood glucose, glycated haemoglobin, serum insulin and insulin resistance. Studies on hyperlipidaemia and obesity have very contradicting results, and there is no definite conclusion on the effect of RC on lipid profile. However, the hypotensive and effect of RC was confirmed in the existing studies. Summary According to the literature, RC can be considered as a promising curative candidate for MetS. However, further studies with larger sample size and higher methodological quality are needed.

By the study, plants used as medicine in the study area were identified and discussed. All the medicinal plants revealed are categorized according to their knowledge types and describe about the source of the plant, values of the plants, and parts of the plant used as medicine. In addition, the use of these medicinal plants; preparation and application methods, along with the ranking preferences of the plant are discussed. Finally, discussion has made to relate the outcome of the study to existing literature and diseases/illnesses etiology, and types. The data collection was divided into two stages. At the first stage the prevalence's of illnesses in the village were collected by the help of elders. For this, the researcher conducted 4 formal interviews. At the second stage the researcher applied mixed methodological approach to collect data on medicinal plants. The data were collected both from primary and secondary sources. The primary data were collected by using survey, key informant interview, and non-participant observation. The secondary data were also used. Forty different types of illnesses and diseases are revealed from the study area. These diseases and illnesses fall down into three disease etiology; personalistic, naturalistic and emotionalistic. These diseases/illnesses are also categorized into four according to the villager's perception about the location of the diseases/illnesses; upper part, middle part, common part, and lower part. Based on the severity of the diseases/illnesses, these diseases/illnesses are classified into three; non serious, moderate serious, and grave. 49 medicinal plants are used by villagers to treat and prevent 23 types of diseases/illnesses prevalent in their village. Most of these medicinal plants are wild, while others are cultivated or grown near house either for other purposes or medicinal purpose. The most commonly part of plants used as medicine is leaf, followed by seed, and root respectively. The most common method of preparation of the medicine is squeezing, followed by dissolving, powdering, crushing, and others (boiling, roasting, burning and cooking) respectively, while some of these medicinal plants are used in raw form. The most common route of application of these medicinal plants is oral, followed by dermal, nasal, optical, and homeopathically respectively.

Health, a fundamental part of human existence calls for the use of every available resource especially in Africa. Among many serious health issues in Africa is High Blood Pressure (HBP). The HBP scourge has occasioned researches that confirmed increase in the number of cases of HBP, possible causes of HBP, and orthodox ways of preventing and managing HBP patients, so as to prevent conditions such as stroke. In the midst of the rise in the number of cases of HBP, African Traditional Medical practitioners make huge claims regarding the reliability of alternative therapies. These claims and the increase in the number of cases of HBP, make it important to verify and examine the role and the efficacy of ATM in fighting HBP scourge. This study examined 200 cases of stroke-patients who were purposively selected from three Alternative healthcare centres in Nigeria. Case study method was adopted to ascertain the line of treatment that each patient used before stroke, and to determine the line of treatment that is more likely to prevent stroke. Analysis of the data collected was done using tables and descriptive methods. Data gathered showed that most of the stroke patients used orthodox therapies before having stroke. This indicated a level of deficiency in orthodox therapy. The research shows that ATM therapies are more reliable in maintaining and preventing stroke when compared to orthodox therapy. This paper recommends more research into the nature and types of ATM HBP therapies in the fight against the HBP scourge.

Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) and Traditional Indian Medicine are the earliest known Medical systems of the world. Both have contributed to the overall wellbeing and have pioneered to newer horizons in providing Holistic Health care. This review paper is a small attempt to document the similarities of herbs which are common to both Traditional systems and also to find out their inevitable roles in managing Non- Communicable Diseases. Both India and China are known as the “Emporium of Medicinal plants” due to availability of thousands of herbs which has got several unique properties. We are using herbal drugs in day to day practice as home remedies, health foods, Over-The –Counter (OTC as self medication) and as prescribed drugs in the Traditional Medicine sector. This strategy supports an integrated approach to herbal remedies for all sorts of diseases including some deadly lifestyle disorders including cardiovascular diseases, cancer, obesity, respiratory disorders, diabetes e...

Background: Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal (W. somnifera) is a herb commonly known by its English name as Winter Cherry. Africa is indigenous to many medicinal plants and natural products. However, there is inadequate documentation of medicinal plants, including W. somnifera, in Africa. There is, therefore, a need for a comprehensive compilation of research outcomes of this reviewed plant as used in traditional medicine in different regions of Africa. Methodology: Scientific articles and publications were scooped and sourced from high-impact factor journals and filtered with relevant keywords on W. somnifera. Scientific databases, including GBIF, PubMed, NCBI, Google Scholar, Research Gate, Science Direct, SciFinder, and Web of Science, were accessed to identify the most influential articles and recent breakthroughs published on the contexts of ethnography, ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and commercialization of W. somnifera. Results: This critical review covers t...

Background: This study was designed to ascertain this claim and to investigate the possible mechanism of action in relation to their phytochemical contents, using crude extracts of N. latifolia and M. esculenta leaves on topical wound in a rat model of Type 1 diabetes.
Methods and Materials: The leaves were air-dried under shade and subjected to cold extraction in 95% ethanol. Normoglycaemic male Wistar rats were subjected to 2-month high-energy diet/ fat emulsion manipulation and injected with alloxan (150 mg/kg BW/day, i. p.). Fasting plasma glucose was determined after 7 days and rats with values exceeding 200 mg/dl were selected. 16 diabetic rats (120 – 180 g) were randomly assigned to four groups of four animals each. Wound was inflicted on the back of each rat by excision method. The crude extracts were topically applied over a period of 21 days. The scar tissues were removed at 7 days interval for collagen quantification and wound margin reduction was also monitored using tracing paper.
Results: The crude extracts showed efficient wound healing activity as revealed by increased collagen content (scar tissues versus fresh wound tissues ab initio). Percentage wound closure also progressed significantly (p< 0.05) upon topical application of the extracts.
Conclusion: The crude extract of N. latifolia leaves has proven to be more potent than that of M. esculenta in wound healing in Type I diabetic rats. It stimulated wound contraction and collagen formation, making it a promising natural product for further screening in search of new chemical entities that can be useful in diabetic wound management.

It is estimated that 80% of the global population uses alternative or traditional medicine. In resource poor countries, traditional health practitioners are the primary and often the only providers of health care to the majority of the population including people living with HIV/AIDS (PLWA). Globally, there are approximately 36.9 million people living with HIV and nearly 70% of these are in Sub-Saharan Africa. PLWA often use African Traditional Medicines either alone or in combination with western medicines including antiretroviral therapy. The purpose of this review is to consider from available literature, the current trends in traditional medicine use amongst PLWA in Sub-Saharan Africa. This review also evaluates the existing research literature on the collaboration efforts between traditional health practitioners and orthodox medical practitioners in HIV/AIDS interventions. The commonly used traditional medicines in the management of HIV/AIDS as well as safety and potential Drug-herb interactions will also be considered in detail.

This book is one of the few volumes written on traditional healing regulation in South Africa. It exposes the reader to the life, experience and practices of regulating traditional healing in South Africa. It will get you thinking about the pros and cons of regulating ancient practices, spirituality, belief and related paradoxes. It also engages the reader with issues of power, trust and reciprocity which in my view constitute critical attributes of every community. I sincerely hope that you enjoy reading it and engaging critically with its content.

Culture, traditional practices, and social norms of different societies have been found to have great impact on healthcare systems and people understanding of health and illness. This paper discusses how the Dagomba of Ghana theorizes health and illness and the impact of language and secrecy in traditional healing. Using the Dagomba lay theories of health and illness and that of medical pluralism, the paper found that among Dagomba, the concepts of health and illness are complex, holistic and interrelated. The Dagomba theorized that health is a discourse and a relational concept. It is also seen as being in a state of balance with the self, others, the society and the spiritual world but not the absence of illness. The paper argues that illness among Dagomba has both internal and external dimensions. It is seen as something which is part of life and growing up. Accordingly, some illnesses are innate while others come and go. Within their traditional healthcare system, language and s...