Black Sea history

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino pobre, débil y acosado por innumerables enemigos y lo transformó en el más poderoso de toda Grecia.

A lo largo de sus páginas podremos conocer la historia del reino Macedonio, desde sus orígenes míticos hasta la formación de un imperio, de la mano del que, a la postre, se convertiría en el padre del mítico Alejandro Magno y en el forjador de un nuevo ejército que cambiaria el devenir de la guerra en la Antigüedad. Filipo II fue el creador de la falange macedonia, formación que se demostraría como inigualable en el campo de batalla y que reportaría incontables victorias sobre poderosos enemigos, como los ilirios, los tesalios, los tracios, los beocios o los atenienses. Pero no sólo eso, logró integrar en el campo de batalla a la infantería y a la caballería para emplearlos en nuevas formaciones tácticas: armó a sus soldados con las míticas sarissas y apreció como pocos las posibilidades militares que la maquinaria de guerra podía proporcionarle, siendo el mecenas de numerosos avances en este campo. Soñó con conquistar el Imperio persa, cuando ya había logrado lo que nadie antes fue capaz: el control de Grecia.

Sólo la muerte le arrebató esa hazaña, pero sentó las bases de lo que más tarde conseguiría su propio hijo. Su figura levantó tanto odios como pasiones; se le conocía como mujeriego y bebedor, pero también por su habilidad para la oratoria, por sus astucia, determinación y valor. Siempre luchó en primera línea junto a sus soldados y nunca permitió que éstos le llamaran rey, sino solo "General".

The excavations carried out lately at Yassıhöyük/Gordion, Boğazköy/Büyükkaya, Kaman-Kalehöyük, Çadırhöyük, Porsuk and Liman Tepe and also the survey at Hydas and Hisarlık Tepesi/Troya VIIb2 and Tel-el Cüdeyde excavations of which findings were evaluated later, reveals clearly that the Hittite Empire vanished approx. in 1190 BC and it was the end of the Late Bronze Age and beginning of the Dark Age, that is the Early Iron Age (1190-850 BC). These settlements located in North-West, West, Central and Southern regions of Anatolia determine how the movements of people who were called Thracean-Phrygian migrations and the Sea People moved towards Anatolia, and brought to an end of the Late Bronze Age. Not fixing any center belonging to the Early Iron Age on the Black Sea coasts indicates that these movements of people were not by means of Northern Anatolia, that is the Black Sea.

Architecture of the Iron Age in the Central Black Sea Region shows different pecularities compared to the Land and Coastal zones. By the help of present data we have, the earliest samples of the Iron Age pottery in the Black Sea Region can be dated to the end of the Early Iron Age. During the Middle Iron Age important settlements in the Kızılırmak/Halys Bend are Boğazköy, Alaca Höyük, Hacı Bektaş Höyük (Suluca Karahöyük), KamanKalehöyük, Eskiyapar, Oluz Höyük, Alişar Höyük, Çadır Höyük and also in the south of the Kızılırmak/Halys, Kültepe, Sultanhanı, Yassıdağ, Topaklı and Porsuk.

The pottery possessed in these settlements, known as Alişar IV, are the painted potteries having composition of figures of deer styled in silhouette technique and a concentric circle motif and sometimes with geometrical motifs. It is observed that the styles of ceramics workshops in the Kızılırmak/Halys Bend and its south that had been producing monotonously since the Middle Iron Age had some changes since the Late Iron Age, especially due to their decorations. Instead of figures of deer in silhoutte, figures with a more natural view, using linear and reserve technique appeared. The figures of bird were more abundant in number and in view, and also figures of bull, donkey, roe, goat, lion, dog, fish and insect were used as the main elements in the compositions. Apart from this, various creatures such as bull with wings and sphinx, and also strange, unusual creatures that can not be identified appeared. The figures of human in a styled form which were few in the Middle Iron Age, started to be the most important thing in the Late Iron Age. Mother Goddess/Kubaba of Phrygians, who had been worshipped since the Neolithic Period, was depicted on the pottery during this period. We observe that the pottery workshops in the Kızılırmak/Halys Bend and also the ones in the south were influenced by the innovations and also the political events that occurred in the Late Iron Age and showed this on their productions. For instance, figures of horse and cavalrymen that appeared suddenly were most probably due to the Eurasian Horse-Riding Nomads. Besides, it is apparent that the figures of sphinx with crown and beard, depicted on the pottery had an influence of Western Iran that is Median-Achaemenid. Apart from the motifs and figures in the Late Iron Age, there were some notable changes in the paint decoration technique. The traditional colors of dark red, brown and black continued to be used in decoration; however, as an innovation, figures and compositions were started to be drawn in the frames with white and beige base. This frame technique was applied, after sometime, without using the white base. We acknowledge that the pottery workshops continued their productions in the Kızılırmak/Halys Bend, not only by keeping their traditional characteristics, but also reflecting the external influences during the period that is from the beginning of 5th Century BC to the middle of 4th Century BC, Hellenistic Period that is the Last Phase of the Late Iron Age.

As a result of archaeological survey carried out up to present, no settlement or camp site belonging to the Eurasian Horse-Riding Nomads in Anatolia, that is the Scythians and Cimmerians were determined. Besides, in the light of present data, it is under debate where the Scythians spread and in which regions they were. It is assumed that some tribes of Eurasian Horse-Riding Nomads who moved in to Anatolia through the Caucasia and destroyed Yassıhöyük/Gordion utterly in the end of the Middle Iron Age, then from Paphlagonia to the Central Black Sea Region and from there to the Eastern Black Sea Region.

Another culture that was effective in the Central Black Sea Region, was Achaemenids. Among the satrapies that were established in Anatolia by Achaemenids, we acknowledge that three satrapies comprise the Black Sea Region of today. The first satrapy to mention is Daskyleion that comprises NorthWest Anatolia, together with Paphlagonia and Mariandyns, land means western part of the Black Sea Region. The second satrapy named Katpatuka (Cappadocia) was ruling today’s Central Anatolia and probably the Central Black Sea Region. The third satrapy in the Eastern Black Sea Region was ruling the lands of Mushki, Tibarens, Macrons, Mossyniks, Marelis; the land between today’s Ordu and Trabzon provinces. The second satrapy named Katpatuka (Cappadocia) comprised the today’s Central Anatolia and the Central Black Sea Region; that is the central part of the coasts of northern Anatolia. As we acknowledge, apart from Phrygia, Paphlagonia and Kilikia were the tax regions (nomos) of Achaemenid King Darius the Great, Cappadocians are mentioned as ‘Syrian’, however Pontus is never mentioned, thus, this northern area was included in Cappadocia in 6th century BC. Cappadocia Satrapy most probably comprised the region of Anatolia from the Taurus Mountains reaching at the Black Sea. Cappadocia Satrapy was divided into two parts. The southern part was named as Major Cappadocia and the northern part as Minor Cappadocia or Pontic Cappadocia. We acknowledge that Gashka people who live seminomadic in the Cental Black Sea Region during the Iron Age, did not settle in permanently and also did not let any alien settle in the region. We observe that despite their powerful dominance, some settlements that appeared to be seen on the terrestrial of the Central Black Sea Region during the end of Early Iron Age and also acquired a character with its ceramics with painted decoration of Central Anatolia Iron Age, were dwelled in by the people whose place of origin was the Central Anatolia. We acknowledge that this policy of dwelling was effective completely in the Land and Coastal regions by degrees. In the light of all these evaluations, we can utter that the culture of the Central Black Sea Region during the Iron Age had the local pecularities of Central Anatolian Culture and was an extension to the north.

"The ancient city of Tios/Tieion was founded on the western side of the Filyos where it discharges into the Black Sea and was one of the transit points between the Bithynian and Paphlagonian regions in the antiquity, is in the Filyos township of Çaycuma District of Zonguldak province in the western Black Sea region of Turkey. The territory of Tios and the Filyos region, from the beginning of the 19th century, were visited by archaeologists, epigraphists, embassadors and missionaries such as Ch. Texier, E. Boré, W. F. Ainsworth, H. De Hell, W. Von Diest, E. Kalinka, G. Mendel, L. Robert, A. Gökoğlu, D. French and Ch. Marek, for travelling, reseaching and surveying of the Black Sea Region and Anatolia. They all published books and articles concerning the results and notes of their observations and researches which mention Tios. In addition to these, some scholars who have not visited this site, also wrote about the history, epigraphy and numismatic of Tios, such as P. Becker, W. Ruge and P. Franke. In addition, a consequence of archaeological excavations from 2006 directed by. Prof. Dr. Sümer Atasoy in the ancient city, new articles were published depending on newly discoveres structures and finds.


Antikçağda Billaios Irmağı'nın (= Filyos Çayı) denize döküldüğü deltanın batısında kurulan ve Bithynia ile Paphlagonia bölgeleri arasındaki geçiş noktalarından biri kabul edilen Tios /Tieion; bugün Batı Karadeniz Bölgesi, Zonguldak İli, Çaycuma İlçesi, Filyos Beldesi'nde yer almakta olup, Tios egemenlik alanı ile kentin bulunduğu Filyos Bölgesi, 19. yüzyılın başlarından itibaren Anadolu veya Karadeniz seyahat veya araştırmaları kapsamında, Ch. Texier, E. Boré, W. F. Ainsworth, H. De Hell, W. Von Diest, E. Kalinka, G. Mendel, L. Robert, A. Gökoğlu, D. French ve Ch. Marek gibi birçok arkeolog, epigraf, gezgin, elçi ve misyoner tarafından ziyaret edilmiştir. Söz konusu bu kişiler yaptıkları çalış­mala­rın sonuçlarını veya gözlemlerini gerek günlükler şeklinde gerekse sonradan kaleme aldıkları yazılarla yayımlamışlardır. Ziyaret ve çalışma amaçlı gelen bu kişilerin yanı sıra, kentte hiç bulunmamış; ancak kentle ilgili tarihsel, epigrafik veya nümismatik çalışmalar yapmış olan veya kente değinen P. Becker, W. Ruge ve P. Franke gibi bilim adamları da olmuştur. Bunlara ek olarak son dönemde kentte Prof. Dr. Sümer Atasoy tarafından başlatılan arkeolojik kazılarla birlikte, kent ile ilgili bazı yeni çalışmalar yayımlanmıştır."

"Réactualisée par le récent débat sur l'adhésion de la Turquie à l'Union européenne et par la crise ukrainienne, la question des confins de l'Europe apparaît de manière contrastée dans le cas d'une ville comme Odessa. Dès son origine, elle a été conçue comme une ville libre et ouverte tout en servant de capitale à la Nouvelle Russie. Construite à l'européenne par des architectes français, elle a vu d'emblée s'installer différentes communautés nationales, et Pouchkine a pu dire à juste titre qu'on y «respire l'Europe».

Néanmoins, Odessa reste d'un point de vue géographique «doublement périphérique» par rapport à la Russie et à l'Europe. Tout au long du XIXe siècle, on y «exile» les intellectuels exclus des capitales de l'Empire des tsars. La ville prospère, mais de Paris, Londres ou Berlin, elle paraît en marge de l'Europe urbaine et culturelle. En 1847, Balzac ne vit lui-même «de la frontière européenne à Odessa qu'un même champ de la Beauce». Le triomphe de la révolution bolchevique introduira une véritable coupure dans l'histoire de la ville et de ses relations avec l'Europe.

Par un jeu de miroirs, le cas d'une ville-carrefour comme Odessa, lieu emblématique d'une Europe multiculturelle et multinationale, dit quelque chose du sens multiple de l'Europe, témoigne de ses déchirements et de ses conflits intérieurs. Elle permet aussi de mieux cerner les contenus de la civilisation européenne et de préciser les contours du Vieux Continent."

This paper presents and analyzes the causes, the development and the results of the Russian Anti-Ottoman military campaigns of 1687 and 1689 (directed against the Crimean Peninsula).These military campaigns were the beginning of the Russian-Ottoman war of 1686-1700. Although unsuccessful, they were a useful fighting experience. Russia won that war and got access to the Sea of Azov. But she managed to get the much desired access to the Black Sea only in 1774 (by the peace treaty of Kucuk Kaynarca which ended the Russian-Ottoman war of 1768-1774).