Carriage of Goods by Sea

∆ύο βιβλία µε ιδιαίτερο ενδιαφέρον για το ναυτιλιακό κόσµο κυκλοφορούν από τις Εκδόσεις Αθ. Σταµούλης. Πρόκειται για τα έργα "Marketing Ναυτιλιακών Επιχειρήσεων" και "Ναυλώσεις" (2η Έκδοση), τα οποία συνδυάζουν σύγχρονη πρακτική, ερευνητική τεκµηρίωση και θεωρία.

Τοβιβλίο των Ναυλώσεων αποτελεί μια πρωτοποριακή για τα ελληνικά και διεθνή δεδοµένα µελέτη, η µοναδικότητά της οποίας έγκειται στην ολοκληρωµένη παρουσίαση του αντικειµένου των ναυλώσεων από οικονοµική, νοµική, πρακτική αλλά και ιστορική σκοπιά. Το βιβλίο:
- Εξοικειώνει τον αναγνώστη µε την ελληνική και αγγλική ορολογία των ναυλώσεων
- Παρουσιάζει το νοµικό πλαίσιο του αντικειµένου παραθέτοντας στην αγγλική γλώσσα 180 δικαστικές υποθέσεις
- Παρουσιάζει µε διαγράµµατα την εξέλιξη των ναύλων, πλοίων και φορτίων
- Αναλύει µε παραδείγµατα την πρακτική διαδικασία διαπραγµάτευσης και εκτέλεσης της ναύλωσης
- Περιγράφει τους τρόπους χειρισµού των φορτίων και τα τεχνικά χαρακτηριστικά των πλοίων
- Μελετά µε υποδείγµατα τους τύπους και την ορολογία των ναυλοσυµφώνων
- Περιγράφει και ταξινοµεί σε θεµατικές ενότητες τις ναυτιλιακές συντοµογραφίες
- Εξετάζει τους υπολογισµούς ναύλου και σταλιών
- Παρουσιάζει τους ναυλοδείκτες και τα ναυτιλιακά παράγωγα

Η µεθοδική παρουσίαση του αντικειµένου των ναυλώσεων στηρίζεται σε εκτενείς βιβλιογραφικές αναφορές, χρήσιµες διευθύνσεις στο ∆ιαδίκτυο, ειδικά παραρτήµατα µε ναυλοσύµφωνα, ναυτιλιακά έγγραφα, γεωγραφικούς χάρτες, πίνακες και νοµοθετικούς κανονισµούς. Το συνοδευτικό DVD προβάλλει υποδείγµατα από τα πιο αντιπροσωπευτικά έγγραφα της BIMCO, παρουσιάζει το λογισµικό "Integrated Shipping Solution", περιλαµβάνει βιντεοσκοπήσεις ταξιδιών και φορτοεκφορτώσεων ενδεικτικών φορτίων και παρουσι-άζει πλούσιο φωτογραφικό υλικό εµπορικών πλοίων.

Το βιβλίο του Μάρκετινγκ Ναυτιλιακών Επιχειρήσεων έρχεται να καλύψει ένα μεγάλο κενό στη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, αποτελώντας την πρώτη συστηματική προσπάθεια ανάλυσης των πτυχών του marketing στον τομέα της εμπορικής ναυτιλίας. Ερευνά επιστημονικά και περιγράφει μεθοδικά τη διαδικασία εφαρμογής του marketing στη ναυτιλιακή επιχείρηση, προσφέροντας τις απαραίτητες εμπειρικές και θεωρητικές γνώσεις για την κατανόηση των αναγκών του πελάτη (ναυλωτή-φορτωτή), τη βελτίωση της πολιτικής ναυλώσεων της επιχείρησης και την ανάπτυξη της κερδοφορίας της.
Μέσα από case studies παρουσιάζεται μία συγκριτική ανάλυση της στρατηγικής και της φιλοσοφίας του marketing που υιοθετούν οι ναυτιλιακές εταιρείες της ελεύθερης αγοράς και της αγοράς γραμμών παγκοσμίως και στην Ελλάδα. Έμφαση δίνεται στην παρουσίαση των προγραμμάτων marketing που εφαρμόζουν
οι μεγαλύτερες ναυτιλιακές εταιρείες-κολοσσοί στον κόσμο, προσφέροντας πολύτιμες γνώσεις για όλα τα επιμέρους στάδια εφαρμογής του marketing, όπως η διάγνωση των αδυναμιών της πολιτικής ναυλώσεων μίας εταιρείας, η οργάνωση και αξιοποίηση των πόρων της και ο σχεδιασμός στρατηγικών marketing.

The current article is practice-oriented and is intended for shipowners and sea carriers as well as for practitioners and students who wish to revise or expand their knowledge on this specific area of the carriage of goods by sea. The paper provides the reader with a thorough understanding of the main instrument regulating the carriage of dangerous cargo – the IMDG Code. Further, Section II of the paper addresses also the carriage of solid bulk cargo (the IMSBC Code) and the most frequent problems and hazards which are associated with the transportation of such cargo. In general, the paper analyses the process of carriage of hazardous cargo from the perspective of the carrier, and, thus, it may be used as a guide to the carriage of dangerous goods.

Contracts regarding carriage of goods by sea with a vessel or a ship appropriate for the necessities of the stipulated voyage is deemed contracts of affreightment. Originally, since the Turkish Commercial Code is taken from the German Commercial Code, the differences between the Anglo-Saxon form of legal perception and the continental form of legal perception adopted by both Germany and Turkey is overwhelmingly undeniable. It is irrefutable, however that the bills of lading which are usually stipulated with the prefabricated forms by international organizations from BIMCO to GENCON contain almost identical ordinances and understanding their legal denotations would require a common comprehension that leaves only few margins for discretion. Be it through the liabilities of the parties or the basic grasp of the determination of the terms, this analysis aims to provide that necessary comprehension by comparison of English precedents and doctrine along with the current Turkish Commercial Code and scholar views.

This essay is intended to provide a comprehensive overview of the key functions of the Bill of Lading with reference to its role as a contract for the carriage of goods in international trade and transport by sea, through case law, while explaining how it differentiates from other documents, such as waybills and ship’s delivery orders.

During the transportation of goods by sea, every cargo must be accompanied by shipping documents that provide for its qualitative and quantitative evidence. Such records are the Bill of Lading, the Delivery Order and the Waybill. The depiction of these three types of records and their main functions is the purpose of this essay.
Nevertheless, due to its inclusive character, the Bill of Lading is the most important out of the three aforementioned documents. In the analysis to follow there will be an attempt to clarify the key functions of the Bill of Lading with reference to its role in international transport and trade by sea as also an effort to combine the case law with the specific Articles and Paragraphs of the Carriage of Goods by Sea Acts which are the main Conventions that determine the unique and certain Rules of the Bill of Lading as amended by the Protocol signed at Brussels on 23rd February 1968 and by the Protocol signed at Brussels on 21st December 1979 (Carriage of Goods by Sea Act 1971/92).
The Bill of Lading is crucial for both parties involved in a cargo carriage. The buyer who is the non-privy party of the carriage of goods by sea, needs a reassurance that his order will be delivered in apparent good order and condition. As for the shipper and the carrier, the privy parties of the carriage, the Bill of Lading is of vital importance for their economic and commercial activity, as without it they cannot act and have a profit (The Stettin 1889).

For international trade to flourish there must be an involvement in transaction of goods by sea between a buyer in one country and seller in another. It is essential to know about the contract that governs the carriages of goods by sea, as international trade has been highly beneficial in regards to shipping industry. The carrier plays a significant role in this contract and it is necessary to understand its involvement in the contract in regards to his obligations and immunities. Also, this research shall study the present rules governing the carriages of goods by sea namely The Hague Rules, the Hague-Visby Rules, the Hamburg Rules, and the Rotterdam Rules. Comparing it to the obligation and immunity of the carrier under the Indian carriages of good by sea act. It shall also study about the liabilities imposed to the carrier in terms of limitations, exceptions duties, and burden of proof.

As India continues to adopt The Hague Rules, which has serious defects however, modifications have been made under the Indian carriages of goods by sea. This research shall correspondingly raise questions like; do the current laws in India provide sufficient provisions to protect the rights of the cargo owners? What differences does it have in its provisions that deal with the carrier and the customers’ rights? If the international conventions are ratified by India, is there any expected changes for the improvement of the rules that governs the carrier’s obligations and what practicable rules should be provided for India’s maritime law to reflect itself to the international standards. In addition, this study will compare the English law with respect to all the questions raised above, under the contract that governs the carrier’s liability under the carriers of goods by sea in order to overcome the shortcoming of its predecessor. Further, this paper will put forward some suggestions and recommendations as part of its conclusion.

Third parties protection has been an extensive issue for the shipping
community over the last century. Although this problem has been solved to
some extent in practice by various means of circumvention created by the
industry, it remains conceptually obscure. A substantial obstacle with third
party protection is the classic perspective of contract law, which considers
a contract to be a bilateral promise between the parties. However, it can be
argued that in the modern factual context of the shipping industry, where
third parties are the pivots of the business, the reliance perspective and a
particular aspect of reliance perspective related to third parties could be
an alternative way of looking at the issue de lege ferenda

The charterparty is a legal contract of employing a vessel. In shipping matters, it is a highly important document since it allocates obligations, rights, duties, liabilities, risks, earnings, costs and profits between the contracted parties, namely, the shipowner and the charterer. The interpretation of the above mentioned matters, as well as the understanding of charterparty terms, is considered of critical importance in chartering practice. Therefore, this paper constitutes a review of the most important aspects arising from charterparties in the main types of charter. The present study is based on shipping practices followed in accordance with the English Common Law throughout the chartering process (pre-fixture, fixture, execution of the charter, post fixture). This is a synopsis about the distribution of the liabilities and expenses between the shipowner and the charterer in the most representative types of charter. The analysis is seen from a commercial stand point. Therefore, it is mostly addressed to the shipping practitioners, maritime economists, academics, students and researchers who seek to form a comprehensive view on the subject. It may also form a basis for further study on chartering aspects (legal, economic, managerial and practical).

Pubblico questi appunti di lavoro, apparsi a puntate sul sito sinistrainrete.info, come spunto di riflessione e dibattito, nonché contributo a un lavoro di ricerca che non può che essere collettivo fra chi, ancora oggi, non si rassegna allo status quo e avverte l'urgenza di un'alternativa sistemica al modo di produzione attuale. Buon lavoro a tutti.
Paolo

A huge amount of factors can have an influence on an efficient chartering policy.
The division into the two main fields of time and voyage charterparties has an influence mainly on costs allocation between shipowners and charterers: under a voyage charter the shipowner is obliged to provide and pay for all the operating cost of the ship, whereas in a time charter the owner normally will pay for the crew and the cost to insure the ship and the charterer will pay for bunkers, port and stevedoring costs and all other usual expenses.
A shipowner is not just a subject who is trying to place his ships on the market. He is a fundamental ring of a long chain of interests and financial values, considering that the majority of goods bought and sold every day in the world are transported by sea.
He must therefore take into account a broader scenario, when considering which kind of strategy to adopt in the perspective of maximizing his profits.
Among many factors that have an influence on the profitability of a charter-party, the concept of time, broadly interpreted, is fundamental.
The possibility to earn rather than the eventuality of losing money or to pay damages to charterers, or to claim damages to the charterers because of delays are of course influenced by the “time-factor”.
Time therefore is an essential element to be considered when a shipowner is approaching the market. The aim of this work is to underline the importance of an efficient time management policy for a shipowner, trying at the same time to point out possible advises to find solutions to problems that tend to emerge in practice.

The Joint Cargo Committee has recently updated the Marine Cargo Insurance Clauses. This a spanish translation of the Institute's CL Clauses "A" (a. k. a. "all risks clauses")

The original Marine Insurance ICC (A) 2009 text was published in English by the International Underwriting Association of London. The IUA has no responsibility for the contents translation into Spanish.
El texto original de las Marine Insurance ICC (A) 2009 fue publicado en inglés por la Intemational
Underwritting Association. La IUA no es responsable del contenido de esta traducción al español.

The 2009 revision of the all-risks Marine Insurance ICC (A), by the International Uderwriters Association of London incorporates changes of varying degrees of importance. Formal amendments are designed to adapt these provisions to the international market. Whereas changes in the exclusions provisions incorporate scenarios that have not previously been addressed by the ICC or either open or narrow the scope of existing exclusions. Last but not least, the modification of the duration clauses is undoubtedly the most significant amendment that this new version of the ICC (A) includes.

The use of informatic and telematic applications in the field of transports has several advantages in terms of efficiency, cost reduction and security.
On the other hand, it shows risks of unauthorized access to computer systems.
Maritime and air carriage documents are excluded from the scope of the United Nations Convention on the Use of Electronic Communications in International Contracts (so called «eCommerce Convention») according to the express provision of its Article 2, para 2.
The advent of computerized systems is expected to have strong impact on structure of distance sales and documentary credit. Maritime trade experienced various models of electronic documentation, based on agreements among all parties involved in the carriage. Various
uniform law conventions allow for the issuance of electronic transport document, but they do not provide rules on their actual use. This also applies to recent Rotterdam Rules, which expressly provide for the issuance of negotiable electronic transport record and identify exclusive
control of the record as equivalent of possession. If a set of rules internationally accepted among all interested parties, including financial bodies, will not be developed, a new instrument ofuniform law on that specific topic may be appropriate.

L’impiego di applicazioni informatiche e telematiche nei trasporti ha vari vantaggi, in termini di efficienza, riduzione dei costi e sicurezza.
Tuttavia, essa presenta anche i rischi di accessi fraudolenti ai sistemi
informatici. La documentazione del trasporto marittimo ed aereo è esclusa dall’ambito di applicazione della Convenzione Uncitral sull’uso di comunicazioni elettroniche nei contratti internazionali, della c.d. «eCommerce Convention», alla stregua dell’espressa previsione di cui al suo art. 2, §2.
L’avvento dei sistemi computerizzati è destinato ad incidere fortemente
anche sugli assetti tradizionali delle vendite fra piazze diverse, come nel credito documentario. Nei traffici marittimi sono stati sperimentati vari sistemi di documentazione elettronica della merce trasportata, basati sull’accordo fra i soggetti coinvolti nel trasporto. Varie convenzioni di diritto uniforme ammettono l’emissione di documenti di trasporto in forma elettronica; tuttavia, esse non disciplinano il loro impiego in concreto. Ciò vale anche per le recenti Regole di Rotterdam, che prevedono espressamente la possibilità di emettere documenti
elettronici negoziabili, e individuano il controllo esclusivo della registrazione elettronica come equivalente al possesso. Se non si svilupperà uno schema negoziale internazionalmente accettato fra le categorie interessate, ivi compresi gli enti finanziatori garantiti dalle merci, potrà essere opportuna l’adozione di un nuovo strumento di diritto uniforme su questo specifico argomento

General Average is a concept that belongs only to maritime law. It is connected and interwoven with it and it can legitimately be defined as the first real international body of rules apt to regulate a legal issue in international maritime trades. Even though it has almost three millennia of history behind its back, it is still an obscure and very technical field for many. In the last two hundred years, due to technological developments and the globalization of commerce, the face of maritime trades changed dramatically. General average thus underwent a severe scrutiny, a massive revision and periodical calls for its abolishment. The scope of this paper is to examine the institution from the origins and to find whether General Average has still a place in modern trades or should rather be relegated to the shelves of history books in a Law Library.

The bill of lading and charterparty are vital for international trade and transport. To signify their enduring importance, this paper firstly seeks to illuminate the earliest historical evidence relating to the bill of lading and charterparty, and secondly, discuss their current legal and commercial nature and functions as well as their relationship with other transport documents such as the booking note, cargo manifest, mate's receipt, and delivery order. In this context, the paper examines the lifecycle of transport as regards the documents used in the bulk and liner markets.

Στην κατά ταξίδι ναύλωση ο χρόνος βαρύνει εναλλακτικά ναυλωτή και εκναυλωτή, αναλόγως του σταδίου εκτέλεσης του ταξιδιού. Στην παρούσα μελέτη επικεντρωνόμαστε στα ζητήματα καθυστερήσεων που αναφύονται κατά την εκτέλεση του προκαταρκτικού ταξιδιού έως και την ολοκλήρωση της φόρτωσης. Πραγματοποιούμε (υπό II) μία γενική επισκόπηση των ζητημάτων που μπορεί να επηρεάσουν την έναρξη του χρόνου αναμονής, αλλά και των θεσμών της αναμονής, υπεραναμονής κα ανθυπερμονής υπό το ελληνικό δίκαιο και τη σημασία τους υπό το φως των ειδικών συμφωνιών των μερών και, κυρίως, υπό τη γενική χρήση των standard μορφών ναυλοσυμφώνων.
Στη συνέχεια (υπό III), προσεγγίζουμε ορισμένα ειδικά θέματα καθυστερήσεων στον λιμένα φόρτωσης στη ναύλωση κατά ταξίδι συγκεκριμένα, τη χρήση της ρήτρας laycan και την πραγματοποίηση ενδιάμεσων ταξιδιών κατά το προκαταρκτικό ταξίδι (υπό ΙΙΙ 1 και 2), την έννοια του αφιχθέντος πλοίου υπό το ελληνικό και αγγλικό δίκαιο και τη διαμόρφωσή της τα νεότερα χρόνια (υπό ΙΙΙ 3), ορισμένα ζητήματα περί της προϋπόθεσης επίδοσης νόμιμης ειδοποίησης ετοιμότητας (ΙΙΙ 4) και, τέλος, τον τρόπο υπολογισμού του χρόνου αναμονής από το ελληνικό δίκαιο, καθώς και από τη συμφωνία των μερών (υπό ΙΙΙ 5).

In voyage charters, depending on the stage of the voyage, time is running alternatively against the charterer or the shipowner. This paper focuses on issues of delays that arise from the preliminary voyage up until the conclusion of loading operations. It generally reviews (under II) issues with regard the commencement of laytime; as well as laytime and demurrage provisions of Greek law and their scope under the general use of special contractual agreements and standard forms of charterparties. Subsequently (under III), it contemplates certain special subjects regarding delays at the loading port in voyage charters. That is, the use of laycan clauses (under III 1); intermediate voyages (under III 2); the notion of an arrived ship under Greek and English law, as well as how it has contemporarily developed (under III 3); certain issues regarding the validity of the NOR (under III 4); and finally, the calculation of laytime under Greek law as well as under the relevant contractual agreements (under III 5).

The adoption of the 2008 Rotterdam Rules in six equally authentic language versions has presented the maritime community with an issue that it has not (knowingly) previously encountered, namely the issue of the interpretation of plurilingual treaties.

Previous research offering a comprehensive overview of digital transformation in the maritime transport sector is limited. In this paper, the authors examine the role of digitalisation in chartering business, using several cases. The development of innovative technologies to enhance the chartering business is presented analytically. Special emphasis is given to the role of the e-bill of lading in the bulk and liner markets. The advantages, disadvantages and legal barriers of the e-bill of lading are examined thoroughly for both markets (bulk and liner markets). The research follows a qualitative case study approach. It shows that even though digital technologies offer important advantages in the chartering business, many legal barriers should be overcome. The findings fill the gap in the literature and assist the maritime professionals and shipping companies in understanding the necessity of digitalisation in chartering business.

The plaintiff insurance company initiated a law suit to recover of the indemnity premium. She claimed that the carrier caused a container cargo damage which was insured by them under a cargo insurance policy. On the contrary, the defendant sea carrier stated that the damage occurred during land transportation which she was not
involved in the land transportation in any manner whatsoever. In addition, the carrier had not assumed any responsibility in this respect and therefore was not responsible for the damage.

In June 1979, the member states of the United Nations met in Manila for the 5th session of UNCTAD conference. Earlier in the 1970s (1973/74), UNCTAD had proposed a cargo sharing rule of 40/40/20 giving each of the trading partner countries the right to carry 40 per cent of the liner cargo generated by their own foreign trade and leaving the remaining 20 per cent for third flag carriers.

The United Nations Convention on a Code of Conduct for Liner Conferences came into force on the 6th of October 1983. Bangladesh had acceded to the convention on the 24th July 1975 and in light of it, the Bangladesh Flag Vessels (Protection) Ordinance 1982 was promulgated. A subsequent gazette notification SRO 343-2/82 was incorporated into the ordinance incorporating the following clause in recognition of UN Code of Conduct for Liner Conference.

The current article is a review of the ordinance that has now been amended and called, "Bangladesh Flag Vessels (Protection) Act 2019" questioning whether the desired objective for enacting the law has been achieved and if there is any economic benefit in the continuation of the law.

The current article is practice-oriented and is intended for shipowners and sea carriers as well as for practitioners and students who wish to revise or expand their knowledge on this specific area of the carriage of goods by sea. The paper provides the reader with a thorough understanding of the main instrument regulating the carriage of dangerous cargo-the IMDG Code. Further, Section II of the paper addresses also the carriage of solid bulk cargo (the IMSBC Code) and the most frequent problems and hazards which are associated with the transportation of such cargo. In general, the paper analyses the process of carriage of hazardous cargo from the perspective of the carrier, and, thus, it may be used as a guide to the carriage of dangerous goods.

Resumen: La modificación en 2009 de las cláusulas generales (A) en seguros a todo riesgo, elaboradas por la IUA, incorpora cambios de diversa importancia. Las modificaciones formales se encuentran encaminadas a adaptar estas cláusulas al ...

У своєму розвитку коносамент пройшов декілька послідовних етапів, які характеризують важливість цих відносин для економіки будь-якої країни.
Так, якщо раніше коносамент був пов'язаний з договором морського перевезення і являв собою nоваророзпорядчий документ тільки у зовнішньоекономічній діяльності, то зараз він має характер документа, що свідчить про наявність певного товару у вільному продажу.
За допомогою коносаменту можливе не тільки здійснення операцій з перевезення вантажу, а також його реалізація через біржову торгівлю, одержання кредитної позики та здійснення застави.
Генезис коносаменту як одного із різновидів цінних паперів, гадаємо, мав істотний вплив на формування сучасних поглядів на їх правову природу. Спроби дослідників створити науково обґрунтовану теорію цінних паперів призвели до появи нової юридичної концепції.
Основною її рисою є зміщення акценту з поняття «правоволодіння» до поняття «володіння титулом».
Ця концепція призвела до появи теорій безтілесного майна, майна в боргових вимогах тощо. їх загальний напрям зводиться до головної ідеї: теоретично обґрунтувати використання нового об'єкта речевих прав, змістом якого є різноманітні зобов'язальні права майнового змісту. «...Щоб створити майно, — зазначає Р. Саватьє, — не має необхідності в існуванні реальної «речі», достатньо абстракції, яка не має конкретного об'єкта» .
Зараз подальший розвиток морського приватного права вимагає вдосконалення правових форм регулювання відносин між сторонами. Це призвело до появи нових видів коносаменту в світовій практиці. У багатьох західних країнах використовується бездокументарна форма коносаменту .
Встановлення нових видів коносаменту в національному законодавстві сприяло б спрощенню здійснення не тільки операцій з морського перевезення вантажів, а й біржової торгівлі товарами, розвитку економіки України в цілому.
Все це підтверджує необхідність перегляду в національному законодавстві самого поняття коносаменту, розширення його функціонального призначення та видів.

یکی از قواعد مرسوم حاکم بر مطالبه و تحویل کالای حمل‌شده از طریق دریا، قاعدۀ ارائۀ سند حمل است؛ به این معنا که تحویل کالا از سوی متصدی حمل صرفاً در قبال ارائۀ سند حمل از سوی مطالبه‌کنندۀ دریافت کالا صورت پذیرد. مبنای تأسیس این قاعده جلوگیری از تضییع حق صاحب واقعی کالا، حصول اطمینان از اجرای مورد قرارداد و نیز محافظت از متصدی حمل در برابر مسئولیت‌های پیش‌بینی نشده است. مقررات کامن‌لا و قوانین حمل و نقل دریایی انگلستان بسته به نوع سند صادر‌شده رویکرد متفاوتی به موارد یادشده دارند. در قانون دریایی ایران به قاعدۀ ارائه به‌صراحت اشاره نشده است و در مقایسه با دو نظام دیگر، دایرۀ شمول محدودتری دارد. همچنین برخلاف نظام‌های پیش‌گفته، رویکرد کلی قانون دریایی ایران نسبت به حق تحویل کالا دارای ابهام است. بنابراین، در این نوشتار تلاش شده است با روش توصیفی- تحلیلی از طریق بررسی مقررات داخلی ایران، انگلیس و قواعد کامن‌لا، علاوه بر تشریح و تفصیل لزوم یا عدم لزوم اعمال این قاعده و بررسی استثناهای وارده بر آن در حمل و نقل دریایی کالا، وضعیت و ماهیت این قاعده در حقوق دریایی ایران تبیین شده، پیشنهادهایی در راستای رفع ابهامات و ایرادات موجود ارائه گردد.

Емпіричне значення механізму цивільно­правового регулювання випуску й обігу коносамента полягає в тому, що в процесі перевезення вантажу, його власник може розпоряджатися цим майном, шляхом відчуження коносамента іншій особі. Саме в такому разі розкривається правова сутність коносамента – як цінного паперу.
Особливість коносаменту як цінного паперу полягає в тому, що він, будучи об’єктом речового права, сам по собі не становить будь­якої цінності. Таку цінність мають саме ті майнові права, які засвідчені в ньому і які можуть бути реалізовані його володільцем шляхом пред’явлення коносамента.
Так, розглядаючи зміст коносамента, треба розрізняти поняття “право на коносамент ”, яке має речовий характер і об’єктом якого є, власне цей документ, і “право з коносамент а”, якому притаманний зобов’язальний характер і об’єктом якого є майно, зазначене в цьому цінному папері. Інакше кажучи, структуру правовідносин за коносаментом, з одного боку, складають відносини між вантажоперевізником і відправником вантажу. Це правовідносини мають зобов’язально­правовий характер, відповідно до яких пред’явлення коносамента тягне за собою обов’язок з зобов’язальної за коносаментом особи здійснити передачу майна, вказаного в ньому. З іншого боку, коносамент підтверджує правовідносини власності на певне майно. Ці відносини мають речовий характер.

This Article examines four regimes that regulate the carriage of goods by sea with regard to seaworthiness: (1) Common law; (2), the Hague/ Hague-Visby Rules; (3), The Hamburg Rules; and (4) and finally the Rotterdam Rules. It doesThis article not only compares the text,s but it also explains why the Rotterdam Rules approach is the most in line with current trade