Copper extraction and production

SUMMARY: Chapter 8, in Renfrew & Bahn's textbook (Archaeology: Theories, Methods, and Practice), covers what typically survives, what constitutes an "artifact", interpreting usage, obtaining materials (e.g., quarrying; mining), transporting materials, installing materials, manufacturing items, identifying function, experimental archaeology, etc., regarding stone, bone, antler, shell, leather, wood, plant, metal, faience, glass, and other materials and diverse artifacts.  In my view, this is one of the best college textbooks available, and is invaluable for students, archaeologists, and the public in general, to obtain a top notch overview of approaching and interpreting the archaeological record.  UPDATED May 2023.

В отходах пирометаллургического производства меди накоплено значительное количество отвальных шлаков. Даже при среднем содержании меди в них 0,30–0,80 %, видно, что потери металлы
составляет значительных. В этой связи задача создания  рациональной и комплексной технологии переработки шлаков и промпродуктов медного производства является весьма актуальной. В статье рассмотрен инновационный метод снижения потерь меди со шлаком. Для проведения этого исследования
использованы восстановительно-сульфидирующих комплексы (ВСК), состоящие из клинкеров цинкового производства и хвостов обогатительных фабрик АГМК. Полученные результаты  показывает, что внедрение данной технологии в промышленность позволит повысить комплексности использование сырья.

Уламкові гірські породи – осадові породи кварц-силікатного складу з уламковою структурою (за винятком тон-кодисперсних глинистих порід), що містять понад 50 % части-нок гірських порід і мінералів уламкової форми розміром від 10 мм до 0,005 мм, що виникли переважно внаслідок механічного руйнування магматичних, метаморфічних і осадових порід. Уп-родовж історії формування уламкових порід створюються сприятливі умови для виникнення в них двох генетично різних компонентів: 1) уламкових, або алотигенних мінералів, які ста-ють основою (каркасом) уламкових порід, 2) аутигенних мінералів, які містяться в міжзерновому просторі (інтерстиціях) уламкових порід і є представлені цементом або окремими мінеральними новоутвореннями.

The objective of the Directive 2006/21/EC on the management of waste from extractive industries and amending Directive 2004/35/EC (the Mining Waste Directive) is to prevent or reduce as far as possible any adverse effects on the environment or on human health which are brought about as a result of the management of waste from the extractive industries. Accordingly, the Mining Waste Directive covers the management of waste from land-based extractive industries, that is to say, the waste arising from the prospecting, extraction, treatment and storage of mineral resources and from the working of quarries. It requires that measures taken to achieve its objective are based inter alia on Best Available Techniques (BATs), as defined by Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control (IPPC), which has been codified by Directive 2008/1/EC.

Directive 2008/1/EC of 15 January 2008 concerning integrated pollution prevention and control (the IPPC Directive), whose objective is to prevent or reduce emissions in the air, provides a detailed definition of ‘best available techniques’. Directive 2008/1/EC will be repealed in January 2014 by Directive 2010/75/EU of 24 November 2010 on industrial emissions which provides for a similar definition of ‘best available techniques’.

The European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control (IPPC) Bureau, established under the framework of European Commission's Joint Research Centre (JRC), is entrusted with the task to develop reference documents on Best Available Techniques, called BREFs, through an exchange of information involving the relevant stakeholders, notably the Member States and the industry. BREFs are the main reference documents used by competent authorities in Member States when issuing operating permits for installations that represent a significant pollution potential in Europe.

A revised BREF document on “Management of Tailings and Waste-Rock in Mining Activities” was adopted in January 2009, in accordance with article 21(3) of the Mining Waste Directive. It describes BAT that can be considered as examples of “good practice” for mineral processing, tailings and the waste-rock management of ores that have the potential for a strong environmental impact. This BREF document covers fourteen different metals, including gold, that are mined and/or processed in the European Union (EU-15), the acceding countries, the candidate countries and Turkey,

Heap leaching techniques are briefly addressed in this version of the BREF document but not sufficiently described.

The objective of this document is to provide an overall review of:
• leaching process in mining practice, with special emphasis on available techniques applicable for Heap Leaching of very low grade ores that are not considered economical to treat with other BATs ,
• availability of applicable technologies by global suppliers,
• effectiveness of technologies used in Heap Leaching to control emissions for protection of the environmental media, and
• evaluation of the heap leaching process and available techniques within the context of regulatory BAT concept as a technical supplement to the existing BREF document.

Heap leaching is BAT for suitable ores because it allows the economical processing of ore that would otherwise be uneconomic under conditions that can technically achieve regulatory acceptable levels of environmental risk mitigation.

All of the materials used in heap leaching process and industry specifications of materials are available globally. Also, slope stability evaluations of stacked heap leach pads are performed using standard geotechnical engineering principles and practice. Therefore, in accordance with the definition of BAT provided by the IPPC Directive and with the objectives of the Mining Waste Directive, emphasis is given to emission minimization concepts for the Heap Leaching Technique and design specifications for engineered materials and heap stability analysis methods are not prescribed in this document.

Der Harz wurde in seinem heutigen Aussehen durch Jahrhunderte des Bergbaus geformt, was neben den reichen Gangvererzungen im Unterharz und den Steinkohlevorkommen bei Opperode vor allem auf das am südöstlichen Harzrand ausbeißende Kupferschieferflöz zurückzuführen ist.
Der größtenteils von Fichten- und Buchenwäldern bedeckte Ostharz ist eine Region mit großem historischem Potential. Sie birgt noch heute zahlreiche Bodendenkmale und Kulturlandschaftselemente, die sich im schützenden Wald obertägig erhalten haben. Diese lassen sich mit Hilfe digitaler Geländedaten, die durch eine lasergestützte Erfassung der Erdoberfläche generiert wurden, visualisieren. Neben Überresten des Altbergbaus können so auch Wüstungen, alte Äcker und Wegeverbindungen, Burgen und Erdwerke oder Meilerstellen sichtbar gemacht werden. Sie lassen sich nicht nur lagegenau verorten, sondern auch zerstörungsfrei in ihrer exakten Ausdehnung dokumentieren.

At the foot of the Ortler Mountain, two settlements developed from the Middle Bronze Age onwards near the Stilfs chalcopyrite deposit in the Vinschgau (South Tyrol). It was the beginning of a long settlement history, which lasted at least until the end of the Iron Age. The location of the settlement sites "Kaschlin" and "Weiberbödele" near the chalcopyrite deposit has long given reason to assume that the prehistoric traces of settlement as well as the historic village of Stilfs were connected with mining.
The discovery of prehistoric copper slags on the Prader Berg now provides clear evidence of Bronze Age mining in the Ortler region. On the basis of ceramic finds of the Laugen-Melaun A level, the slag heap can be dated to the 13th/12th century BC. The mining archaeological discovery led to further investigations and a research project that will start shortly. In addition to its importance for metal extraction, the entrance to the Sulden Valley at Prad and Stilfs represents a traffic-geographically important point. In this area, the path to the Stilfser Joch (Lombardy) and the Ofen Pass (Switzerland) branches off the path over the Reschen Pass (Danube-Adriatic Sea). The prehistoric artefacts in the upper Vinschgau bear witness to the extensive connections via these traffic routes. The Etruscan warrior statuette from the Suldenbach near Prad deserves special mention.

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH: The overall objectives of the University of Toronto expedition to South Sinai include tracing pharaonic routes and camps en route to the turquoise and copper mining region, investigating pharaonic and indigenous camps, mines, and their material culture assemblages in this region, and assessing Egypto-Sinaitic cross-cultural relations within this region. The 2000-2001 reconnaissance work and 2002 excavations in South Sinai focussed on Site 346, a New Kingdom anchorage and copper smelting camp beside the Red Sea, located at the northern end of El-Markha Plain and west of the mining region around Serabit el-Khadim. A topographic map was generated for Site 346 and this mound yielded a limited repertoire of pottery, copper furnaces, copper nodules, and crucible fragments, grinding stones and pounders, lithics, some faience beads, marine shells, urchin spines, and fish bones.  A surface survey revealed two contemporary, small pottery scatters (Sites 346a-b) two km to the south.  The project also investigated a circular, limestone structure (Site 345), 1.7 km to the south of 346.  In addition, the project has incorporated satellite image interpretation to isolate vegetation signatures and associated water sources within the arid environment of El-Markha Plain, thereby detecting potential archaeological sites for ground reconnaissance work. This report concentrates mainly on the results of the 2000-2001 reconnaissance, but incorporates some preliminary results from the 2002 excavations.

It is no longer possible to maintain that the ancient economy completely escapes any possibility of quantification over the long run. There are good indicators to measure development of the economy in general: atmospheric pollution by lead for the production of silver coinages, copper for the bronze, and shipwrecks for levels of trade. The convergence of these graphs clarifies an increased activity during the last centuries BC and the first three centuries AD. Of the three, the wrecks is the most spectacular with its peak in the period 200 BC-AD 200. This kind of periodization also seems to agree best with monetary affairs.

Copper and cobalt (Cu-Co) are strategic metals for the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), and nearly 20% of the country's GDP is supported by their exports. At present, the country classifies itself as the leading copper producer in Africa with an output in the region of a million tonnes and possesses nearly 60% of the world's reserves of Co; a metal exclusively exported in the form of salts or semi-finished products. Concentrators play a very important role in the growth of Cu-Co metal production, which is needed in order to meet rapidly growing global demand and to increase government revenues through mining royalties. This article reviews the major process flow sheets and reagent suites in practice at concentrators operated in the DRC for the beneficiation of Cu-Co values from various ore types. The comprehensive compilation of pertinent laboratory and industrial data is intended to provide practising specialists, metallurgists, and academics conducting research on Congolese Cu-Co ores with a single well-detailed reference source. Emphasis is placed on froth flotation as the major technique for the beneficiation of Cu-Co minerals.

Porphyry copper deposits result from the complex interactions and feedbacks of many processes. Owing to the complexity, a succinct definition that includes the essential attributes of this deposit class is elusive. Consequently, this descriptive model uses a working definition of a porphyry copper deposit. A porphyry copper deposit is
1. One wherein copper-bearing sulfides are localized in a network of fracture-controlled stockwork veinlets and as disseminated grains in the adjacent altered rock matrix;
2. Alteration and ore mineralization at 1-4 km depth are genetically related to magma reservoirs emplaced into the shallow crust (6-8+ km), predominantly intermediate to silicic in composition, in magmatic arcs above subduction zones;
3. Intrusive rock complexes that are emplaced immediately before porphyry deposit formation and that host the deposits are predominantly in the form of upright vertical cylindrical stocks and/or complexes of dikes;
4. Zones of phyllic-argillic and marginal propylitic alteration overlapping and surrounding a potassic alteration assemblage; and,
5. Copper may also be introduced during overprinting phyllic-argillic alteration events.

Lead Isotopes Analysis (LIA) is a well-established technique, that is used to determine the origin of copper in an artefact under investigation (i.e. “provenancing”), through lead isotopes ratios.
By comparing the ratios of the lead isotopes 204, 206, 207 and 208, the isotopic signature of an archaeological relic, whether it appears as an artefact, semi-finished or remnant, can be characterized in a three-dimensional space. This characterization can be compared with that obtained from samples, taken in mines or in ore fields, that were supposedly used in ancient times.
However, this technique introduces many risks that cannot be unspoken which, if not properly evaluated, can lead to conclusions even far from reality. These risks were examined and investigated by many authors.
In this paper, I'll focus only on two major risks: the lack of geographic coverage of the possible ancient ores and the possibility that, starting at least from 12th century BC, the pick-ingots have been produced from many plano-convex ingots and therefore from different copper sources.

English abstract: Since the discovery in 1860 of La Pastora, one of the most beautiful and outstanding megalithic constructions of Iberia, the Copper Age and Bronze Age site of Valencina de la Concepción – Castilleja de Guzmán has provided an unceasing series of archaeological finds of the utmost significance. Today, a hundred and fifty years after the earliest discoveries, this volume offers an up-to-date and comprehensive review of the research carried out at this site, which underlines, first and foremost, its importance as a scientific and cultural resource. Among the contributions to this volume the reader will find some of the keys to the human occupation of the lower Guadalquivir basin 5000 years ago, the process of social aggregation that gave way to the formation of the city of Seville itself. In addition, this book reflects some of the current discussions that dominate today’s scientific agenda on Iberian Copper Age (c. 3200-2200 cal BC), a period of fascinating social and cultural dynamism that laid the basis for the consolidation of social ranking, long-distance contact and exchange, as well as metallurgy and productive specialization.

Spanish abstract: Desde que en 1860 se produjera el descubrimiento de La Pastora, una de las construcciones megalíticas más bellas y singulares de España, el yacimiento de la Edad del Cobre y de la Edad del Bronce de Valencina de la Concepción – Castilleja de Guzmán no ha cesado de deparar hallazgos arqueológicos de la mayor significación. Hoy, 150 años después de los primeros descubrimientos, este volumen ofrece una puesta al día de las investigaciones que están revelando la extraordinaria importancia de este yacimiento como recurso científico y patrimonial. Entre las colaboraciones de esta obra el lector encontrará algunas de las claves de la ocupación de la desembocadura del río Guadalquivir hace 5000 años: el proceso de agregación humana que representa el origen de la misma ciudad de Sevilla. Igualmente, en las páginas de este libro encuentra reflejo el debate que en la actualidad preside el estudio de la Edad del Cobre (c. 3200-2200 antes de nuestra era), un periodo de apasionante dinamismo social y cultural en el que se consolidaron las bases de la jerarquización social, las relaciones comerciales a larga distancia, la metalurgia y la especialización productiva.

Two hundred and fifty-five anthropomorphic stelae or stelae fragments from the Middle and Final Neolithic can be counted in south-eastern France, around the Gulf of Lion, from the southern and western borders of the Massif Central to Provence and the Prealps.
Their study dates back to the end of the 19th century and these monuments fully belong to the French, European and Mediterranean prehistorical "landscape". However, as no synthesis has ever been produced since the 1970’s, a complete analytical review of the available data was required. Besides, the contribution of a digital tool such as the Reflectance Transformation Imaging had to be tested.
A new systematic typology is established thereby, composed of eight styles of stelae: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta and theta. Re-examination of finding contexts enables to clarify the chronology of these homogeneous iconographical entities which come one after another or stand along between 4600 and 2500 BC.
Internal comparisons, inspired from anthropological patterns, reveal a conceivable antagonism of two contemporaneous and neighbouring societies in the first half of the third millennium BC. The analogies observed elsewhere in Europe (especially in the south of the Iberian Peninsula) show the relevance of the anthropomorphic stelae as long-distance networks indicators.
Except their links to power and death, the nature and function of these objects still remain largely unknown. Nevertheless, they could take more part to the debates regarding the definition of regional Neolithic cultures.

ABSTRACT: El-Markha Plain is a key coastal region providing an anchorage for Egyptian expeditions traveling to the copper and turquoise mining region in South Sinai.  The University of Toronto expedition investigated a mound at Ras Budran and uncovered a late Old Kingdom, circular stone structure. It represents one of three Egyptian “forts” identified from the Early Dynastic through Old Kingdom period and augments two published Old Kingdom sites in South Sinai. It clarifies and underscores the perceived dangers in and the importance of South Sinai to Egyptian mining expeditions during this period. It displays an unusual circular design for an ancient Egyptian structure and an uncommon application of stone to a “fort”.  Its construction, occupation, possible destruction, and abandonment reflect contemporary late Old Kingdom records for Egyptian campaigns against Asiatic “Sand-dwellers” and a Bedouin massacre of an Egyptian expedition beside the Red Sea. The site illuminates multiple aspects of a period associated with the Old Kingdom’s “collapse” and the activities and cross-cultural interactions of a transitory garrison on Egypt’s eastern frontier.

Overveiw about the state of the art of Bronze Age mining in the Eastern Alps: Die alpinen Kupfererzreviere: Aspekte ihrer zeitlichen, technologischen und wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung im zweiten Jahrtausend vor Christus.
Mining and the establisment of permanent settlement inside the Alps during the Early Bronze Age: Die Besiedlungsgeschichte der Ostalpen in der Früh- und Mittelbronzezeit: Kolonisation und wirtschaftlicher Neuanfang. Teil 1
State of the art of one of the most eminent copper producing areas during the Bronze Age: Der Mitterberg als Großproduzent für Kupfer in der Bronzezeit.

La emergencia de una nueva sensibilidad política hace que el desarrollo generado por las industrias extractivas (IE) deba incorporar las demandas de las poblaciones directamente afectadas por esas actividades. La transferencia de parte de los ingresos fiscales generados por las IE a los gobiernos subnacionales, en cuyas regiones se lleva a cabo la extracción, es una estrategia empleada por los gobiernos para responder a esos reclamos. La comparación entre Perú y Bolivia ayuda a entender los factores políticos e institucionales que influyen en la elaboración de esas políticas. Se halla que las políticas fiscales y redistributivas que afectan a las IE dependen de la fortaleza relativa de los distintos actores políticos, su relación con las IE y su posición
geográfica. Es especialmente relevante la naturaleza de las élites económicas y su mayor o menor vinculación directa con la actividad extractiva.

The shipwreck codenamed ANG-003 was located in Caldeira Island, within the group of islands known as “Ilhas Primeiras”, in Angoche, Province of Nampula, Republic of Mozambique, in 2003 following information from fishermen. The nature of the artefacts observed at the site as well as the typology of the artillery reportedly recovered from there, point to an unknown Portuguese Indiaman of the second or third quarter of the 16th century. The copper ingots found at the wreck carried marks which were tentatively identified as the trademark of the Fugger family during the same time period and archaeometallurgical analyses place their origin at the mining areas of Neusohl and other ore deposits of Slovakia.

LEMERCIER O., BLAISE E., CATTIN F., CONVERTINI F., DESIDERI J., FURESTIER R., GADBOIS-LANGEVIN R., LABAUNE M. (2014) – 2500 avant notre ère : l’implantation campaniforme en France méditerranéenne, in : MERCURI L., VILLAESCUSA R.G., BERTONCELLO F. (Dir.) : Implantations humaines en milieu littoral méditerranéen : facteurs d’installation et processus d’appropriation de l’espace (Péhistoire, Antiquité, Moyen-Age), actes des XXXIVe Rencontres internationales d’Archéologie et d’Histoire d’Antibes (Antibes, 15-17 octobre 2013), Antibes : Editions APDCA, 2014, p. 191-203.

Résumé
Autour de 2 500 avant notre ère, apparaissent dans diverses régions d’Europe de petits vases à boire en céramique décorée, fréquemment associés à des parures et des armes spécifiques,
caractérisant ce qu’il est convenu d’appeler le phénomène campaniforme. En France méditerranéenne, plus de 600 points de découvertes sont connus. Dans cette zone très riche à l’échelle de l’Europe, il est possible de s’interroger sur le caractère allochtone de ce phénomène, sur ses modes d’implantation et de développement, ainsi que sur ses
relations avec les groupes du Néolithique final déjà établis dans le Sud de la France et de proposer un modèle d’implantation similaire à la colonisation grecque du littoral méditerranéen.

Mots clés : France, Méditerranée, Campaniforme, implantation, modèle.

Abstract
Around 2 500 BC, drinking beakers with a characteristic pattern appeared in diverse areas of Europe. They are frequently associated with other kinds of materials, like specific
ornaments and weapons. This set defines what is called the Bell Beaker phenomenon. In Southern France, more than 600 sites are known. In this very rich European study area, it is possible to study the nature and origin of this phenomenon, and question its potential exogenous components, its modes of establishment and development, and its relationship
with local groups that had already settled in the South of France. Consequently, a layout similar to the Greek colonization model of the Mediterranean coast is proposed.

Keywords : France, Mediterranean, Bell Beaker, Settlement, Model.

This is a Thesis on Industrial Archaeology, the first of its kind to be developed in the University of Cordoba. Its main aim is to analyze the role played by copper mining and metallurgy in the peculiar industrialization process of Cordoba, focusing on the particular case of Cerro Muriano, an area of the cordobesian mountain range located 16 km North from the city and divided into the municipal boundaries of Cordoba and Obejo (Spain). From strict meaning, the chronological range of this research goes from 1897 to 1919, when Cerro Muriano was worked by four different British companies: Cordova Exploration Company, Ltd.; Cerro Muriano Mines, Ltd.; North Cerro Muriano Copper Mines, Ltd.; and Cordoba Copper Company, Ltd. However, the study of the context (from a local to an international scale) and the connection between the case analyzed and its environment attends to a wider period: around 1850-1950, i.e. the time of Cordoba industrialization.
Mining and metallurgy brought far-reaching changes to the territory of Cerro Muriano. This Thesis answers a number of questions by applying archaeological methods to the remains of these industrial activities, combined with the study of any other sources of information. For example, how was the English exploitation of that place, how and why did it start, which one was its model, which was the situation of the Cerro Muriano mine in relation to others, how mining and metallurgy changed the landscape there, which cultural context and industrial society were generated by these activities and how the whole thing influenced on the industrialization of Cordoba.

В монографии изложены основные законы физической химии и металловедения, являющиеся основой анализа металлургических систем. Основное внимание уделено анализу изменения состояния вещества в ходе металлургического производства от исходного сырья до получения чистых металлов и их сплавов. В книге изложены теоретические основы восстановительных процессов оксидов металлов, вопросы взаимодействия в системах твердое тело – газ, твердое тело, жидкость, а также твердофазные процессы. Рассмотрены вопросы теплообмена и газодинамики в металлургических системах. Монография предназначена для студентов, магистров и докторантов, специализирующиеся в области металлургического образования. Может быть, полезна для молодых специалистов и научных работников для усовершенствования существующих технологий и создания новых.

An international conference focused on the beginnings of mining and metallurgy in the Caucasus was organised in Tbilisi in June 16th-19th 2016 under the auspices of the National Museum of Georgia. This conference, which was funded by the Agence nationale de la recherche (France) and the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Germany), aimed at discussing the intricate relationships between the emergence of mining and metallurgy, and the shaping of late prehistoric societies in southwestern Asia. The Caucasus is renowned in Near Eastern archaeology for its wealth in natural resources, in particular in metal ores: for decades, scholars have surmised a specific causal relationships between the rise of complex, hierarchical societies in the Near-East and the development of extractive metallurgy. Metallurgy, however, is only the most visible part of the story that accounts for the dramatic changes perceptible in southwestern Asia in the course of the 5th millennium BCE. Early mining, which is not restricted to metal-ore mining, certainly also had an impact in terms of economic networks, social dynamics, settlement patterns and regional integration, not only across the Caucasus, but also in the ancient Near and Middle East. Drawing on these fundamental questions, this book explores the socioeconomic , technological and environmental background that favoured the rise of systematic mining and extractive metallurgy in the Caucasus at the end of the Chalcolithic. How far was early mining linked to the spread of specific subsistence strategies such as pastoral herding? Were mined resources mainly intended for local consumption or distributed throughout the Near East, towards Anatolia, Iran or Mesopotamia? Here are some of the issues that are discussed in the present volume, which contains 21 articles written by some of the most eminent specialists in Caucasian archaeology. Un colloque international axé sur les origines de l' extraction minière et de la métallurgie dans le Caucase s' est déroulé à Tbilisi du 16 au 19 juin 2016, sous les auspices du Musée national de Géorgie. Ce colloque, financé par l' Agence nationale de la recherche (France) et la Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Allemagne), avait pour objectif d'aborder les relations entre la naissance des mines et de la métallurgie, et l' évolution des sociétés protohistoriques en Asie du Sud-Ouest. Le Caucase est connu en archéologie orientale pour sa richesse en matières premières, en particulier pour ses ressources métallifères ; pendant des décennies, les chercheurs ont présupposé l' existence d'un lien de causalité particulier entre l' émergence de sociétés complexes hiérarchisées au Proche et Moyen-Orient et le développement de la métallurgie extractive. Pourtant, la métallurgie n' est que la partie émergée d'une histoire marquée par des changements spectaculaires tout au long du V e millénaire avant notre ère. L' extraction minière, par exemple, qui ne se réduit d' ailleurs pas à l' exploitation des minerais métallifères, a certainement eu aussi un impact sur les dynamiques sociales, les structures de peuplement, l' organisation des réseaux économiques et les processus d'intégration régionale, en Orient comme dans le Caucase. Partant de ces questions fondamentales, cet ouvrage explore le contexte socioéconomique, technologique et environnemental dans lequel se sont développées la métallurgie et l'extraction minière à la fin du Chalcolithique dans le Caucase. Ainsi, dans quelle mesure les premières exploitations minières sont-elles liées à des stratégies de subsistance spécifiques, tel le pastoralisme ? Les ressources exploitées étaient-elles destinées à la seule consommation locale ? Ou bien étaient-elles aussi distribuées à travers le Proche-Orient, l' Anatolie, l'Iran ou la Mésopotamie ? Tels sont les thèmes abordés dans ce volume, qui contient 21 articles rédigés par quelques-uns des plus éminents spécialistes de l'archéologie du Caucase.

Since at least the 2nd millennium BC Cyprus was one of the main sources of copper for the Old World. This is of course a result of the island’s geology and mineral wealth. The mountain range of Troodos, which covers more than a third of the island, includes in its periphery some of the richest copper ore deposits per surface area in the world (Constantinou 1992, 332) (fig.1). The exploitation of Cyprus’ mineral wealth and other natural resources, such as the forests,formed the basis of the island’s economic prosperity from prehistoric times until late antiquity. Impressive remnants of the ancient copper industry, including immense heaps of copper slag, a waste product of the smelting process, have been recorded in 40 different locations at the foothills of the Troodos. It has been estimated that they amount to 4 million tons of copper slag, all of which was produced before the 8th c. AD (fig.1).
The extraction of copper from the Cypriot sulphidic ores must have started in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC, which corresponds to the transition from the Chalcolithic to the Bronze Age. Once the method of smelting sulphidic ores was mastered, enough copper was produced on the island to satisfy not only local needs but also the demands of the neighbouring regions. According to the written sources, Cyprus, which is called Alashiya in the texts of its neighbours, had by the beginning of the 2nd millenium BC started to export copper to the East (Knapp 2011, 250). It is however in the Late Bronze Age that production and export of Cypriot copper really takes off. Practically all excavated Late Cypriote sites have yielded artefacts related to the production of the metal (Kassianidou & Papasavvas 2012). They demonstrate new developments in smelting technology, such as the use of bellows (figs. 12, 18) and tuyeres (figs. 7, 10) which greatly improved production (Kassianidou 2011). After smelting, the copper was cast into ingots of standard shape and weight. Although different types of ingots were used in parallel during the Late Bronze Age, oxhide ingots (figs. 11, 14 19) were the most common and widely distributed. Based on Lead Isotope Analysis, all known oxhide ingots, apart from some early ingots found in Crete, were most likely produced from Cypriot copper (Gale 2011, 214-218). The importance of the copper industry for the Cypriot economy of the Late Bronze Age is shown indirectly by the need the Cypriots felt to place it under the protection of their gods. In Enkomi a male deity standing on an oxhide ingot was found (fig. 15) (Papasavvas 2011). Furthermore, on three four-sided bronze stands, the most characteristic objects of Late Cypriot metalwork (fig. 16), ingot bearers are depicted in processions with others bringing dedications to a divinity, while miniature oxhide ingots, often bearing short inscriptions, have been interpreted as votive offerings (fig. 17) (Papasavvas 2009). The aim of this paper is to present the latest data on the production and trade of Cypriot copper in the Bronze Age.

Urnfield period copper production at the fringe of the Eastern Alps. First results about nutrition and subsistence in the mining settlement of Prigglitz-Gasteil (Lower Austria)

Abstract: At Prigglitz-Gasteil (Lower Austria) an extensive mining settlement of the Urnfield period is located, where copper ore was mined, beneficiated and further processed. Since 2010 new excavations have been conducted at this site. Until now two terrain terraces with remains of timber constructions and metallurgical features have been investigated. Alongside copper production and processing, surprisingly many other activities can be evidenced in a limited area: the fabrication of miners’ tools from red deer antler, the sewing of cloths and the making of bone beads. Two thirds of the meat consumed by the miners consisted of pork which is shown to be typical for Eastern Alpine mining sites. A detailed analysis of the pig bones reveals remarkable analogies with a special butchering and meat processing technique which is only known from the prehistoric salt mine of Hallstatt where it is related with the production of salted ham. For the first time, similarities concerning food supply of salt and copper mining sites during the Urnfield period become apparent.

The paper shows how an underlying geography evidenced through a group of texts written by a community of Assyrian traders in Anatolia 4000 years ago can be approached, explored, and employed to gain some fundamental insights into the general character of ancient long-distance trade and cultural exchange.

Thanks to rich copper ore deposits in the geological formation known as the Pillow Lavas in the Troodos Foothills, Cyprus is one of the richest countries in copper per surface area in the world. Because of this mineral wealth the island played a leading role in the metals trade of the Late Bronze Age. Production and export of copper developed significantly in the Late Cypriot (1600–1050 BCE), reaching a peak in the 13th century BCE. From 1450 BCE onwards, Cypriot copper, in the shape of oxhide ingots, was exported far and wide, and according to Lead Isotope Analysis the copper used to produce the ingots was extracted from the ore deposit of Apliki.
The Apliki mine lies within Cyprus’ richest mining district, which in modern times produced more than 80% of the total copper ore concentrate that was exported from the island. In 1938 the Cyprus Mining Corporation began to exploit the Apliki deposit and the remains of a Late Bronze Age miners’ settlement came to light. The purpose of this paper is to present some of this extraordinary material from one of the most infamous, and yet little known, metallurgical sites of 13th century BCE Cyprus

Summary
There has been much said and written on the development of elites in Europe during the Bronze Age. Two works often quoted in this context should be mentioned to start with. According to Colin Renfrew (1974), leaders became necessary in increasingly complex societies and the Minoan and
Mycenaean palaces in order to promote prosperity, the exchange of goods, long-distance trade and technological progress, which itself resulted in increased agricultural
efficiency and productivity. Renfrew underlines that it was primarily the members of these new elites who were responsible for the redistribution of goods. Antonio Gilman (1981), on the other hand, opposed this “functionalistic” concept. Instead, he perceived the development
of elites as a result of prospering agricultural societies’ self-installed “protectors”. Meritorious managers against rebels? In fact, both of these theories were based on individual finds without satisfactory regional data analysis or precise chronological information (e.g. Tringham, 1974). As a
result, this mostly hypothetical discourse backed up with a selection of arbitrary ethnological examples is lacking in substance. It seems, therefore, more than questionable to apply their fundamental claims to the entire Bronze Age Europe and to the alpine region that is the subject of our work. This is a question which we will have to address in our own spatial context.