Dam Projects

With its location on the Upper Tigris Valley and its layers of the Late Chalcolithic period, Başur Höyük, Siirt is an important north Mesopotamian settlement which is being excavated within the scope of the dam project particularly like many other south-east Anatolian settlements in Turkey. The Late Chalcolithic layers represented with many phases at the mound are divided into two main cultural periods. The earliest phase is the local Late Chalcolithic period that represents the societies which used plant-tempered pottery. This period is followed by the layers of the Uruk culture of south Mesopotamian origin, which used mineral-tempered pottery. We may state that Başur Höyük is a settlement in which answers can be sought to many archaeological problems such as to what extent and how the inter-regional interaction between the Uruk culture, which had carried out colonization activities in northern Mesopotamia for a long period of time, and the local societies of northern Mesopotamia was. Its possession of a quite wide variety of pottery repertoire and other small finds in both periods is among the phenomena which make it important to study the Late Chalcolithic pottery of Başur Höyük.

Introduction
Since the foundation of the Republic of Turkey, after the Turkish
war of independence 1919-1923 the state has adopted policies to reach the “level of contemporary civilization”. However, it has been
observed that World War I and II interrupted this modernization
process demographically and economically. Whilst the 1950’s are
recognized as a period of economic growth, industrialization and
agricultural mechanization, the 1980’s were the beginning of the
emergence of liberal policies, along with globalization and urban
and rural development projects. The Southeastern Anatolia Project
(SAP), which is planned in 1970’s and developed in 1980’s,was designed to eliminate regional inequality throughout the Eastern and
Southeastern Anatolia regions. This project aims to improve industrialization and includes large-scale infrastructure investments.
Within the scope of the SAP, it is planned to build roads, educational buildings, airports, dams and hydroelectric
power stations (Kesgin and Sungur, 2010; Ökten and Çeken,
2008). The project includes the construction of 24 dams and
19 hydroelectric power stations. In 2012 it is reported that14
dams have been constructed. Further, a number of other projects, such as road building, mining, and construction of industrial and commercial centers have been accomplished in the
areas of transportation, education, and telecommunications
(Benek, 2009). As Falsafi (2010) observes, “Interpretation of the
obligations of states in investor-state arbitration dispute settlements
9
The Social and Spatial Impacts Of Large Expropriation Projects in Rural Areas
requires examination of the fundamental constitutional powers of
states in the interest of the public and wellbeing of human beings”(p.1). These projects should be implemented for national
development and the common good, which “benefit society as
a whole, in contrast to the private good of individuals and sections
of society” (Common Good, 2013). Argandona (1998) argues,
“Common good [relates to] the overall conditions of life in society
that allow different groups and their members to achieve their own
perfection more fully and more easily”(p. 1095). It could therefore
be suggested that these projects are a necessary corollary of
national development and the common good. It should also
be borne in mind that they have some environmental, political,
economic, and social consequences (Akkaya et al., 2009; Sönmez,
2012), including direct displacement, deprivation, and disturbance
of the social fabric of some sections of the society.
So far, however, there has been little discussion about the
social impacts of such large-scale development projects. It is
therefore necessary to consider the negative social impacts
of dam construction. One of the most important impacts is
“expropriation”, referring to “the power of governments to appropriate private property for public use without the owner’s consent in return for a compensation payment. Constitutional provisions in most countries require the payment of compensation
to the owner” (Eminent Domain, 2013). Furthermore, expropriation may lead to displacement of large numbers of people
and the changing of jobs. It is necessary to reconsider resettlement plans to sustain development. Resettlement plans are
important because they can protect displaced masses from
the risk of poverty, provide social mobility, and improve living standards.
With respect to this, it has been found necessary to research the
attitudes of populations who have been displaced due to development
projects. These people undergo a process of resettlement and are obliged to adapt to the new living conditions. In general, social changes
10
Fatümatü Zehra Ercan
take place gradually in society. To research these sudden changes,
studies may sometimes need to be carried out under clinical conditions. Sociological research on the social impacts and spatial outcomes
of dam expropriations would enable social scientists to observe structural changes that would otherwise remain unnoticed.
Dam projects are intended to promote basic human needs
and are implemented to provide irrigation and power generation.
However, most of these projects lead to the displacement of populations and the change of the jobs.
Empirical studies conducted in Turkey and around the
world have demonstrated that displaced populations are
victims of these development projects. They are considered
victims because they are displaced and resettled with insufficient compensation (Schutter, 2009). As the United Nations
(UN) Human Rights Guideline on Development-based
Displacement (1997) states, “All persons, groups and communities have the right to suitable resettlement which includes the right
to alternative land or housing which is safe, secure, accessible, affordable and habitable” (quoted in Schutter,2009, 7). As has often
been the case in the past, the population forced to leave their
land should be among the first beneficiaries of these projects,
not the first victims (Dao, 2010). Focusing on the social and
economic impacts of the construction of the “Çat” Dam, in
Malatya. This study contributes to the literature by discussing
the social outcomes of related future projects leading to sudden mass displacement.
Research has been conducted on the social and spatial
impacts of dam expropriation, large displacements and resettlement. For practical reasons, this study focuses on the
expropriation and resettlement observed around the Çat
Dam, located in the central eastern province of Malatya. The
study attempts to shed light on its impacts with particular attention to resettlement, education, economic conditions, gen-
11
The Social and Spatial Impacts Of Large Expropriation Projects in Rural Areas
der issues, and social change in relation to policymaking. The
study is presented in five chapters. The introductory chapter
presents a literature review of dam projects and the displacement processes in Turkey and around the world. This chapter
also includes the study’s methodology. The second chapter
concentrates on displacements with particular attention to
those caused by dam construction, and discusses some general problems related to resettlement. In this respect, some empirical studies on the resettlement process and the outcomes
of various dam projects around world are presented. Further,
the risks of poverty and risk management are discussed in
detail. The reconstruction (IRR) model of Michel Cernea and
Thayer Scudder’s theory of the patterns of resettlement process are explained. In the third chapter, the experiences of
the displaced populations are presented with an overview of
the geographical, economic, social, and cultural structures of
expropriated villages within the Çat Dam project in Malatya.
The problems that emerged from expropriation and the distribution of compensation will also be taken up in this chapter.
The fourth chapter reports the results of an empirical survey.
Following an overview of Malatya, the village of Tohma, settled by the government, Sütlüce and Tecde neighborhoods,
those neighborhoods having received compensation and being resettled by their choice, and the economic, cultural and
social conditions of those settled are summarized. The condition of the resettled populations is assessed and interpreted
in the light of Cernea and Scudder’s theories on resettlement
risks and the state of the displaced populations.