Written records relating to the Arsacid period in Iran (c. 240 BC to 226 AD) being relatively few, it is exceed¬ingly important for any knowledge about that time to study the iconography of extant Parthian coinage. The coins of the...
moreWritten records relating to the Arsacid period in Iran (c. 240 BC to 226 AD) being relatively few, it is exceed¬ingly important for any knowledge about that time to study the iconography of extant Parthian coinage. The coins of the Arsacids (as well as of their vassals) constitute an important source of knowledge on the Parthian empire which is all the more valuable as it originated from Iran itself . Much of Iranian history, particularly for the Parthian period, is ba¬sed on numismatic evidence. Yet, numismatic research into the Ar¬sa¬cid period is still unsatisfactory. One point that deser¬ves attention is the development of the Arsacid crown; it is best reconstructed using numismatic evidence . For the Parthians, the ruler’s tiara became an important vehicle for religious symbols expressive of royal ideology . The origin of the tiara as royal headgear and the timing of its introduction have a significance of their own in the history of Arsacid political ideology. Moreover, it is important to distinguish between the functions of the tiara and of the dia¬dem. All these aspects are vital in reconstruc¬ting Arsacid political ideology, the origin and nature of which are com¬pa¬ra¬tively obscure and give rise to many controversies . Following what was then a universally accepted practice, the Arsacids drew abundantly from a rich store of religious beliefs and symbols to spread their political propaganda . The Parthian period was a time of great religious syncretism. Various cults and beliefs influenced one another in a mixture of Iranian, Greek, and Semitic populations, each in itself being in no way consistent . As a result, it is exceedingly difficult to interpret the iconography of coins and other relics featuring religious symbols . The Arsacids themselves were Zoroastrians, yet they did not try to make that religion absolutely dominant. The religious aspect in Arsacid ideology is difficult to analyze. Iranian religions of the Parthian era are highly obscure, which forces the re¬searcher to reach for comparative material to the more fa¬miliar neighboring regions (e.g., Armenia and the Kushan state).
The present article attempts to reconstruct some as¬pects of the origin and development of the Arsacid royal headgear in connection with the Parthian conception of royal authority which was a set of concepts to justify and emphasize the special nature of the Arsacid rule. A major source for any such analysis should properly be the largely neglected numismatic material.
Royal headdress as we know it from coins of most Arsacid rulers starting from Mithradates II was composed of an elon¬ga¬ted domed tiara and a diadem. Apparently each constituent part of the crown served different functions. It is not easy to determine exactly what was the significance of the diadem and the tiara in the ideology of Arsacid kingship. Even for the relatively well recorded Sasanian period, this problem has not been plausibly answered.
The Arsacids often appear in a diadem alone, but never - at least not on coins - in a tiara alone. Written records describing crowning ceremonies of the Arsacids or their vas¬sals usually speak only of the diadem. Plutarch of Cheronea mentions a privilege of the Sren family, who crowned Arsa¬cids with a diadem . Tacitus describes the crowning of Tiri¬dates with a diadem by Vologases I, which made him ruler of Armenia . Josephus Flavius writes of usurper Cinnamus, who handed in the royal diadem to Artabanus II , and of Helen crowning her son Monobazos of Adiabene with a diadem . Parthamasiris, the Arsacid king of Armenia, faces Trajan in a diadem and usurper Parthamaspates was made king when Trajan placed a diadem on his head . Nero crowned Tiridates with a diadem to make him king of Ar¬menia . Arsacids usually wore one diadem, but Artabanus IV used two . Ancient sources men¬tio¬ned above seem to suggest that handing a diadem equaled con¬ferring power over a land.
On the reverses of many Arsacid coins there appears a woman’s figure similar to the Hellenistic Tyche who presents a diadem to the king . She might likely also be identified - what with the time’s religious syncretism - as a personifica¬tion of the royal farn (kvarnah) . Farn as PHARRO is well known from Kushan coins, where it appears in scenes of inves¬ti¬ture . It is not implausible that the diadem was not only an sign of royal dignity but, in particular, it symbolized the farn .
In Iran, the royal glory of the farn - the key to understanding Iranian royal traditions - was treated as an emanation of the Sun or heavenly fire . The nature of this notion is best rendered by Ammianus Marcellinus’ account of fire from heaven that was conferred on kings of Iran . The notion of king’s glory of the farn combined with sacred fire was in all likelihood in existence under the Achaeme¬nids ; it is also well documented for the early Sasanian period . With the Arsacids themselves, the special Mithra worship seems to have involved the farn and king’s fire .
Studies of religious beliefs in ancient Iran have permitted a better understanding of the “cosmic” dimension in Arsacid power which is also manifested in tiara symbolism and titulature that quotes divine provenance, although this pro¬blem involves many obscure aspects . Ammianus Marellinus wrote of a cult of Arsaces as a deity; from this resulted the peculiar worship that the Arsacids received in their count¬ry . In his account, Arsaces was placed among the stars after he died and from then on kings of Iran called themselves Solis fratres et Lunae . Nevertheless, we need to bear in mind that Ammianus wrote a century and a half after the fall of the Arsacids.
Any reconstruction of how the Arsacid royal ideology developed is a particularly arduous task for we are dealing with a tangle of completely different traditions . A new dynasty drew abundantly from Hellenistic notions . It also had strong ties with nomadic traditions . A more or less conscious reference to the Achaemenid period is discernible already under Arsaces I and II in their use of the so-called “satrapal headgear” and the title krny . The later Arsacids also made references to the Achaemenid period . Decisive for the Arsacid royal ideology were the measures adopted by Mithra¬¬¬dates II: he introduced on coins the title “king of kings” and the tiara. The use by the Arsacids of a tiara made to imitate Median ceremonial headgear of the Achaemenid period fits into the Parthian dynasty’s tradition of recalling old-Persian heritage.
Numismatic evidence and other iconographic and writ¬ten sources substantiate the conclusion that the Arsacids were involved in building a complex and multi-faceted royal ideology. It lent legitimacy to their claims to hegemony throughout the Near and Middle East, while within Parthia it gave them an elevated and privileged sovereign position vis-a-vis their vassals and made them sole rightful rulers of the empire.
As a constituent of the royal crown, the tiara is cer¬tified on coins of many Arsacids starting from Mithradates II. Its use always involved political ideology with many reli¬gious symbols in its repertory ; besides, it often ser¬ved to emphasize king’s singular exploits, which is obvious¬ly true for Mithradates II. Placed on the throne by nomads, Sinatruces decorated his tiara with designs borrowed from nomadic traditions of Central Asia. The true founder of a new Arsacid line, reformer and restorer of Iranian tradition, Vologases I introduced the tall tiara onto coins of the Younger Arsacids. He was then followed by successive rulers of the Parthian empire. Phraates III and Pacorus II adapted the tiaras of their fathers to accentuate their dynastic links. In choosing Sinatruces’ tiara, the Indo-Parthian Gondopha¬res made a clear political statement. These examples serve to illustrate the claim that the tiara was used in connection with the propaganda and political ideology of the Arsacid period.
Under the older Arsacids, vassal rulers of Elymais, Persis, or Charace¬ne commonly used diadems alone; more rarely - especially in Persis - did they don crowns different from the Parthian tiara. This situation changed somewhat in the first and se¬cond centuries AD. Parthian-style tiaras appear on coins of most Persid rulers at the time (they imitate Mithradates II’s crown), recurrently for some Elymaean rulers, and sporadically in Characene.
As opposed to the diadem, the tiara was probably not directly involved in the farn, but instead it was inten¬ded (al¬though realities may have gone amiss) to convey the special nature of the power of the Arsacids as great kings of kings, those who stood higher than local rulers and princes. Much is to be gathered on this from the circumstances in which the tiara was introduced on coins: it was done by Mithradates II after he had successfully restored Parthia’s power in Western and Central Asia and undertaken thoroughly to reform Arsacid political ideology. This is in line with practices known to have existed in the Near East and Central Asia for centu¬ries . The tiara was a vehicle of important propaganda sta¬te¬ments in politi¬cal ideology and its individual nature often reflected the poli¬ti¬cal program of a Parthian ruler.
