Dogon

En août 1992, le rituel d'intronisation du nouvel hogon d'Arou avait lieu1. Etalé sur plusieurs semaines le rituel consiste, à consacrer un descendant de la tribu des Arou comme représentant du dieu Amma et comme responsable de la prospérité et du maintien de l'ordre sur terre.
Quelles que soient les traductions proposées par les ethnologues2, pour définir le statut du hogon: prêtre, haut dignitaire, prince, chef sacré, nombre d’études s'accordent sur l'étendue de ses pouvoirs. Il s’agit, en effet, d’une charge qui confère au hogon d’Arou de lourdes responsabilités concernant entre autre la prospérité du territoire, tant du point de vue des récoltes- maîtrise de la pluie, protection contre les invasions de prédateurs- que du point de vue de sa population- protection contre les épidémies et expansion des naissances. Mais, le prestige de cette charge, la reconnaissance publique générale qui y est attachée n’entraîne pas une accumulation de richesses ou la possession de biens à valeur marchande.

Jean Popineau, peintre, dessinateur, sculpteur, imprimeur, restaurateur de tableaux et historien français (Paris 1929 - Beaune 1980).

Jean Popineau commence à dessiner et à peindre en 1948. Son style, inspiré d'abord par les grands peintres (Rembrandt pour le clair-obscur, Van Gogh pour l'utilisation de la couleur, Daumier pour le recours à la peinture en pâte épaisse, Manessier pour les harmonies colorées) devient très original par la suite, en mêlant les arts premiers (masques Dogons, masques japonais ou art médiéval) à des sujets religieux, des portraits ou des nus. Popineau écrit dès 1948 : "Aucune peinture ne s'approche de mon idéal, il faut que je l'invente moi-même". "Pour moi, un artiste est avant toutes choses un homme dont le cœur rit et pleure avec les choses qui l'entourent. Un homme qui a une âme qui vibre avec la nature".
Sa peinture est caractérisée par les fonds souvent non figuratifs ou parfois même absents, des animaux tirés du bestiaire médiéval fantastique ou des personnages, parfois issus de l'Ancien Testament, aux traits géométriques. Ces visages, inspirés des masques Dogons, que Popineau a découverts lorsqu'il vivait au Mali, ont des traits simplifiés à l'extrême, touchant à l'essence même des sentiments. On trouve aussi des paysages inspirés par le village familial de Roberval (Oise) ou les villages médiévaux du Massif Central (Conques, Garennac...). La diversité des techniques employées (gouaches, encre au pinceau, plume, huile, sculpture sur bois ou sur pierre, meubles) accompagne la diversité des styles, allant du figuratif le plus réaliste à l'abstraction pure. La production de Popineau est abondante et variée : 271 dessins, 114 peintures, deux statues, deux lits et deux commodes en bois sculpté et orné de peintures.
Parallèlement, Popineau poursuit une carrière d'imprimeur puis de restaurateur de tableaux dans les Hauts-de-Seine. Il contribue également à une meilleure connaissance des mythes indo-européens par ses articles, inédits pour la plupart, et consacrés aux mythes printaniers celtiques (Épona, Rhiannon, Hippios...).

Институт востоковедения РАН, Москва, Россия ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4288-6167; pkutsenkov@ivran.ru
Abstract: In the article based on field researches of 2015 and 2016 in Bandiagara Highlands (villages
Endé, Bagourou, Kani-Bonzon, Tintan, Semari and others) the author discusses the impact of the
traditional political institutions on the political culture of the Republic of Mali. The author notes that in
Mali at the level of local self-government exists a kind of “dual power”: in parallel with the republican
authorities are active traditional chiefs and village councils, which are able to solve the very complex
economic problems that the villages are constantly facing. According to the Malian Constitution, they are
entrusted with the functions of local government. Thus, in the Dogon Country (as well as throughout the
Republic of Mali), modern administrative boundaries cut the traditional cultural and historical ties, making
it difficult to solve problems of vital importance to the Dogon villages. Institute of traditional chiefs
compensates for this shortcoming because of their indisputable authority, which they enjoy among the
population and among the Republican administration: traditional chefs realize the historically established
ties between the villages. Especially brightly positive role of traditional political culture is visible in the example of the “engagement” to the system of djamu and/or joking kinship relations of Tuareg and
Arabs who are involved to the conflict in the north of Mali.
Keywords: Mali, Dogon, traditional chefs, djamu, joking kinship relations.
Резюме: Статья основана на полевых исследованиях 2015–2016 гг. Автор исследует воздействие традиционных институтов на политическую культуру Республики Мали. В Мали на уровне ме-стного самоуправления существует своеобразное " двоевластие " : параллельно с республиканскими властями действуют традиционные вожди и деревенские советы. На них, согласно малийской конституции, и возложены функции местного самоуправления. Так, в Стране догонов современные ад-министративные границы разрезают традиционные культурно-исторические связи, что затрудняет решение проблем, жизненно важных для деревень догонов. Институт традиционных вождей компенсирует этот недостаток благодаря тому непререкаемому авторитету, которым они пользуются и среди населения, и среди республиканской администрации: именно через вождей осущест-вляются традиционные связи между деревнями. Особенно же ярко положительная роль традици-онной политической культуры видна на примере " втягивания " туарегов и арабов, вовлеченных в конфликт на севере страны, в систему отношений шуточного родства и/или джаму.
Ключевые слова: Мали, догоны, традиционные вожди, джаму, шуточное родство.

The phrase "As above, so below" is attributed to the Egyptian god of wisdom named Thoth. This echoes the biblical expression “on earth as it is in heaven.” Many diverse ancient cultures have erected sacred cities, pyramids, standing stones, or temples in order to mirror the stars. In particular the constellation Orion has been repeatedly projected as a talismanic pattern on numerous landscapes around the world. This book describes the sky-ground templates of Egypt, the American Southwest, Mexico, Nazca, the UK, Europe, Syria, Zimbabwe, Nigeria, and other regions. It also discusses the celestial rituals of the Mithras cult, the Age of Taurus, the Sirius cosmology of the Dogon, and South African rock art. This essential archaeo-astronomy primer expands the star correlation theory to encompass the entire globe. Packed with nearly 225 photos, drawings, diagrams, maps, and star charts. “As above, so below. The parallels Gary David has found between the ancient Egyptian sky-ground system involving the pyramids of Giza and the constellation of Orion, and a similar project to build heaven on earth by the Hopi of Arizona, are eerie, compelling and deeply thought-provoking.” –Graham Hancock, author of Fingerprints of the Gods “Gary David’s work is a treasure of enormous importance.” –William Henry, author of Lost Secrets of the Watchers “The correlation Mr. David makes between the Hopi and Egyptian ‘sky-view’ is most interesting.” –Robert Bauval, author of The Orion Mystery “…a must-read for pre-Columbian aficionados and aspiring anthropologists alike.” –Ross Hamilton, author of Star Mounds From the INTRODUCTION: This book is a survey of the archaeo-astronomy of various cultures around the globe. How did ancient people conceptualize the heavens? What was their notion of the cosmos? How did their sacred ceremonies or ritual enactments bring them closer to the omnipotent or at least very powerful celestial beings? What structures, temples, or standing stones did they erect to create models of the sky realm? By its very nature this book is extensive rather than intensive, allowing the reader to pursue further areas of special cultural interest. In essence, it is a primer for the concept of sky-ground mirrors—the terra firmament, so to speak. Well-known constellation correlations, such as the Orion-Giza schema, join newly discovered sidereal correspondences, such as those in Syria and Nigeria. Ancient people comprehended the language of the stars much better than we do today, despite our Hubble Space Telescope and Very Large Array. If we can translate the encoded messages from the celestial dimension to understand what these time-traveling pinpoints of light are endeavoring to tell us, then we will realize the complexity and depths of our past knowledge of a truly living cosmos. We will ultimately find that spirit and matter are a single continuum extending far into our future—mirror reflecting mirror down the sacred portal that leads to Orion. From "Mirrors of Orion: Star Knowledge of the Ancient World"

This paper traces the links between the cultures of the Dogon, Igbo and Beta Israel, mythologically tied to the Sirius star system and all emerging from Nubia and ancient pre-dynastic Egypt. Their spiritual purposes are reflected in the Egyptian teachings, to bring Heaven and Earth together. We may think of it today as balancing the divine and human elements of our being in a cooperative, harmonious expression of love and light-both within us and with those around us .

The priestly origins of these groups ultimately trace back to the oldest astronomically aligned structure yet discovered anywhere on Earth, the astro-ceremonial site of Nabta Playa. Established in the Stone Age in what is now the western Egyptian Sahara desert, it is likely situated in what the Igbo of Nigeria consider their first cradleland.

Africa's astronomical heritage is not locked in silent stones; it exists in still-living and exceedingly rich, pre-scientific myths of the constellations, tools for expressing hidden knowledge and power. By using ancient stellar symbolism, claims of heavenly authority can be substantiated. The actions of the direct heirs appear in line with the ancient Egyptian tenet of linked dualities.
The Dogon of Mali and the Igbo of Nigeria present their knowledge overtly but coded in the form of dramatic masked dance rituals. The Beta Israel of Ethiopia covertly and at odds with Old Testament biblical narrative, screen their Sirius ritual with Torah liturgy.

Note: The author focuses on tracing the Sirius star system for continuity in writing this paper, but is aware that the placement of Nabta Playa menhirs were set to track other star systems movements and helical risings as well. Details can be found in Thomas Brophy's, The Origin Map.

his paper investigates the ancient origins of global stepped pyramids with connected underground tunnels, utilizing an advanced energy photography scanning system that captures photons from other dimensions. Incredibly, the scanning system goes so far as to pick up energy patterns of pyramids that no longer exist except as photos, such as the Nsude Pyramids1.

Following West African creation myths, we are able to trace the links between step pyramids that originated in West Africa with later step pyramids in Egypt and the Americas. The same holds true for the tunnels or underground halls consistently associated with these pyramids.

Ancient Pygmy myths and codes contain important truths, but we cannot experience those truths if to us they are 'just' stories or mores of the endangered 'first people' who still exist. They need to be felt as real. This calls for a view of the Pygmy descendants as stewards of healing wisdom. African Pygmy ancestors prefigured environmental activism in their codes and their direct descendants as identified by DNA, are actually the surviving roots of humanity's racial, religious and linguistic origins, to be acknowledged and treated with respect for their great contributions. This paper examines the influence of millenniums-old Pygmy cosmology and moral directives, foundations of cosmic serpent myths and rituals found among indigenous cultures spanning the world. These myths and rituals also emphasize the significence of a parallel underground world from which animals and humans emerged affer a deluge. The Pygmy cultural inheritance is also the basis for multiple Egyptian myths, which in turn, has influenced many biblical stories that are accepted in the West.

Funerary pseudo-vessels are repositories of ancestral souls; they carry not only messages from the living to the dead, but also provisions – both spiritual and material – for the deceased. Jenné (Djenné) globular terracotta pseudo-vessels (13-16th centuries CE) are snake-ornamented spheroids which modern Dogon informants have interpreted as rice and millet granaries. One specimen was indeed found to contain rice grains and boiled millet, suggesting that the globular pots may have been grave goods that contained food offerings for use in the afterlife.

This chapter addresses the understudied area of sign language fieldwork, taking into account issues that may arise in fieldwork on sign languages outside a context of deaf 1 education and in multilingual and endangered settings. It discusses fieldwork for the purpose of description as well as for that of documentation. The chapter describes practical, interpersonal, and ethical issues in the field that pertain to collaboration with research assistants, consultants, and the larger

This paper focuses on the historical and cosmological roots of the Osu caste system of the Igbo in Nigeria and the subsequent corruption of their societal standing through colonization. It argues that present day stigmatization of the Osu may be attributed to a complex spiritual history stemming from a mythic covenant between Chukwu, the creator and Eri, the archetypal ancestor of the Nri-Igbo people. This mythic covenant which affirms the divine origin of the Nri community, legitimizes the special rights and privileges of the Osuji, literally, 'God's servant', in addition to sanctioning the role of the Osu as " living sacrifices " informs the existent tension between Diala, the 'free-born' and Osu as exemplified by the mortal fear of Osu spiritual powers by the Diala and the prohibition of marriage between the two. Annual reenactment of the myth of Ahiajoku at New Yam masquerades serves to complicate the meaning of Osu sacrifice against the backdrop of a " civilizing " mission which insists that Jesus, the Christ, is the only living sacrifice.

Die Kenntnisse, die wir über die Religion bei den Dogon haben, sind durch die Darstellung, die Marcel Griaule und Germaine Dieterlen gegeben haben, überlagert, verzerrt.
Nietzsches Interpretation der Ökonomie traditioneller Gesellschaften und der Entstehung von Religion in Begriffen von Schuld, Schuldner und Gläubiger hilft uns einen neuen Blick auf die Genealogie der Religion bei den Dogon zu werfen.
Die Untersuchung der Genealogie der Religion bei den Dogon fügt der Bestätigung der These der Herkunft von Religion aus der Ahnenverehrung durch die Ergebnisse archäologischer Untersuchungen über neolithische Religionen ein weiteres Indiz hinzu.
Bei der Anwendung der Thesen Nietzsches auf die Entstehung von Religion bei den Dogon wird gleichzeitig sichtbar, dass auch Nietzsches Konzeption noch auf dem Baum der christlichen Religion gewachsen ist.
Im Ergebnis gewinnen wir:
1) weitere Indizien für die Hypothese der Herkunft von Religion aus der Ahnenverehrung;
2) Ausgangspunkte für die Infragestellung oder mindestens Ergänzung bisheriger Hypothesen über die Entstehung und Bedeutung des Menschenopfers;
3) Ansätze einer Kritik der Konzeption Nietzsches.

The Nilo-Saharan languages are spread from Morocco to Central Tanzania, and are Africa’s most widespread and internally diverse phylum. The fragmentary geography of Nilo-Saharan makes it more than likely that it was once more widespread in the areas that now lie between existing branches and that both individual languages and whole subfamilies have been assimilated. The paper proposes that a Nilo-Saharan substrate can be detected in Bangime, an isolate language spoken on the Dogon Plateau in Mali. A series of table are presented showing Bangime cognates with other branches of Nilo-Saharan. There is also a small set of words which show similarities to Dogon rather than Bangime. It is suggested that there was an independent branch of Nilo-Saharan present on the Plateau which was assimilated following the expansion of Bangime and Dogon.

The intent of this paper is to investigate the connection between the Visoko Bosnia votive pyramid and other Old Europe votive pyramids from the same era to the Bosnian Pyramids/Ravne Tunnels, as well as to explore, through significant energy photo captures, the relevance of the creation myth of the Dogon people of Mali, Africa applied to these votives. 

Photo energy captures of the votive pyramids by Julia Lincoln have revealed a path of cosmic interaction which are shared with corresponding interpretations where possible. These interpretations include an emerging theme of connection of the Visoko votive pyramid with the Mayan Popul Vuh legends of the Hero Twins, which came as a complete surprise for the author.  Video captures focus on the pulsing morphic energy fields that affect the votive images or are affected by the votive images.

Descriptions of Niger-Congo languages consistently remark on Dogon’s lack of noun classes as evidence for its outlier status (Hepburn-Gray 2020, Creissels 2019, Dimmendaal 2008; 2011, Bendor-Samuel et al. 1989). On the other hand, as Güldemann (2018) notes based on Heath's (2015) description of Najamba, this one Dogon language shows clear evidence of a relatively robust noun class system. Unpublished data from Kindige are provided here following a recent presentation (to be uploaded separately) on computer-assisted approaches to noun class detection among Dogon languages as a group. Please note that these data are very preliminary with many gaps that require confirmation of transcriptions, especially with respect to tonal melodies.

The development of religious extremism is obviously not the only cause of violence in Central Mali. Conflicts have many causes, which combine differently in different regions. In this blog, I argue that more attention should be paid to the local factors that can potentially explain why ethnic militias develop in this part of Mali. The recent history of Central Mali shows that periods of contraction resulting from the withdrawal of nomadic and sedentary groups are followed by periods of trade or agricultural expansion.

The Nilo-Saharan languages are spread from Morocco to Central Tanzania, and are Africa's most widespread and internally diverse phylum. The fragmentary geography of Nilo-Saharan makes it more than likely that it was once more widespread in the areas that now lie between existing branches and that both individual languages and whole subfamilies have been assimilated. The paper proposes that a Nilo-Saharan substrate can be detected in Bangime, an isolate language spoken on the Dogon Plateau in Mali. A series of table are presented showing Bangime cognates with other branches of Nilo-Saharan. There is also a small set of words which show similarities to Dogon rather than Bangime. It is suggested that there was an independent branch of Nilo-Saharan present on the Plateau which was assimilated following the expansion of Bangime and Dogon.

Zusammenfassung
In den religiösen Überlieferungen der Dogon erscheinen zwei unterschiedliche Versionen von Schöpfungsmythen: Im Rahmen des „Weltelternmythos“ ist der Geschlechterkonflikt der wesentliche Motor des kosmogonischen Geschehens. Einsamkeit, Begierde und Hochmut erzeugen Streit und Aggression zwischen den kosmischen Mächten. Die Welt gerät in eine Krise, ist erschöpft, und kann sich erst allmählich von den Unbilden erholen. Die andere Kosmogonie ist bestimmt von der göttlichen Perfektion des Zweigeschlechts. Amma, in dem einen Mythos noch männlicher Himmelsgott, erschafft jetzt als eine Art „Nous Poiētikós“ die Welt sowie das bisexuelle Nommo-Wesen. Doch auch in dieser Schöpfungsgeschichte wird der geplante Ablauf durch Störungen unterbrochen: Welten werden erschaffen und wieder zerstört; ein Trickster durchkreuzt die Pläne Gottes. Aus diesen Krisen führt ein kosmisches Opfer, das die Welt erneuert und lebenswert macht. Zu Teilbereichen dieser Opfermythik sowie zu bestimmten kosmologischen Konzeptionen offenbaren sich interessante Parallelen in den Mythen indoeuropäischer Kulturen.

Summary
There are two different versions of cosmogonies in the religious traditions of the Dogon: In the myth of Father Heaven and Mother Earth the gender conflict is the driving force of cosmogonic progress. Loneliness, lust and arrogance produce quarrel and aggression between the cosmic powers. The world has slid into crisis and exhaustion and can only gradually recover from its troubles. The other myth is determined by the principle of the divine perfection of bisexuality. Amma, although male sky god in a different myth, has now created the world and the bisexual Nommo as “Nous Poiētikós”. However, in this genesis too the course of events is interrupted by disturbances: Worlds are created and destroyed again; a trickster thwarts God's plans. A cosmic sacrifice leads the world out of crisis, rebuilds it and makes it worth living. With regard to some parts of this myth of sacrifice as well as certain cosmological conceptions, interesting parallels are revealed in the myths of Indo-European cultures.

, peintre, dessinateur, sculpteur, imprimeur, restaurateur de tableaux et historien français (Paris 1929-Beaune 1980) (voir http://galeriejeanpopineau.tumblr.com/bio) a puisé une partie de son inspiration dans son séjour au Soudan français (actuel Mali) en 1950-1951. Il a en outre effectué un véritable reportage ethnographique sur les Maliens et en particulier les Dogons. Accompagné de photographies et de dessins, ce reportage apporte une précieuse vision sur un état de la civilisation africaine au milieu du XXe siècle, mais aussi un regard aigu et parfois même critique sur la colonisation. Jean Popineau; commence à dessiner et à peindre en 1948. Son style, inspiré d'abord par les grands peintres (Rembrandt pour le clair-obscur, Van Gogh pour l'utilisation de la couleur, Daumier pour le recours à la peinture en pâte épaisse, Manessier pour les harmonies colorées) devient très original par la suite, en mêlant les arts premiers (masques Dogons, masques japonais ou art médiéval) à des sujets religieux, des portraits ou des nus. Sa peinture est caractérisée par les fonds souvent non figuratifs ou parfois même absents, avec des personnages, parfois issus de l'Ancien Testament, aux traits géométriques. Ces visages, inspirés des masques Dogons, que Popineau a découverts lorsqu'il vivait au Mali, ont des traits simplifiés à l'extrême, touchant à l'essence même des sentiments.

"Numerous African art objects collected in the course of colonial or ethnological expeditions during the 20th century are partially or completely covered with a so-called “patina”. These patinas have been formed during religious and ritual ceremonies, where different substances have been spread out at the surface of the objects. The anthropomorphic statuettes from the Dogon culture are well-known examples of this kind of practice. A better understanding of the chemical composition of these patinas could explain details of the ceremonial practices realized throughout the centuries. An important challenge is to extract unequivocal information about the original constituents of these patinas, and the techniques used for their application on ritual objects.
The Dogon statuary can be divided into three periods. The oldest one, before 1350 A.D., is called the Tellem period, according to the name of the people who lived in this area before the arrival of the Dogon. The most recent, after 1650 A.D., is the Dogon period. These two periods are separated by an intermediary period, where the attribution to the Tellem or to the Dogon cultures is difficult. During our study, we have worked on the patina of 12 Dogon artefacts from these three different periods. In this paper, we present the results obtained for two representative objects, one of the Tellem period and one of the Dogon period. The aim is to access the chemical composition of the patinas and to see if they can be compared to ethnological reports, as is often done in the literature on ethnological studies.

Chemical imaging techniques, based on the combination of microscopy and spectroscopy, are well suited to study both the composition and the spatial organization of heterogeneous complex mixtures of organic and inorganic matter. Time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS), followed by scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDS), and Synchrotron radiation-based Fourier transform infrared microscopy (SR-µFTIR) have been applied to non-destructive analyses of micro-samples of the patinas of several Dogon statuettes. A very careful preparation, using ultramicrotomy on embedded samples, allowed us to perform successively all these measurements on a single fragment. Comparison and superposition of the different chemical images lead us to identify minerals (clays, quartz and calcium carbonate), and different organic products (proteins, starch, lipids), as well as to map their spatial distribution.
The patina of the most recent statuettes presents a stratigraphy which can be related to successive uses of the objects for ritual purposes, and the results are in agreement with the ethnological reports. For the Tellem objects, the significant quantity of minerals and the lack of stratigraphy suggest that the patina was deposited according to a different recipe. This difference suggests the existence of a diversity of rituals that are more extensive than that described by the ethnologists.

Keywords: African Art / Dogon / Tellem / ritual patina / Time-of-flight secondary ions Mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) /Imaging mass spectrometry / Fourier transform Infrared Microscopy (µFTIR) / Synchrotron radiation / Scanning Electron Microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX)"

Bondu-so (Dogon; Mali) vowel harmony exhibits both typologi-cally and theoretically interesting properties. The language's vocalic system displays surface patterns that implicate a ten-vowel system with an underlying [ATR] contrast at three vowel heights that is not immediately apparent given only mid vowels maintain an [ATR] contrast on the surface. The current paper presents previously unaccounted for data that show alternations associated with Bondu-so vowel harmony correlate not only with the [ATR] specification of a given root vowel, but also with properties of the root-final consonant. We appeal to a combination of featural and prosodic licensing to analyze these outcomes and do so in a modified version of the Parallel Structures Model of feature geometry. The PSM framework has been employed in studies of consonant assimilation and consonant-vowel interaction, but to our knowledge, the current paper is the first to extend it specifically to the analysis of vowel harmony.

[this version is the authors' accepted manuscript; please seek permission before citing]

https://www.matthes-seitz-berlin.de/buch/phantom-afrika.html?lid=2

https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/buecher/rezensionen/sachbuch/michel-leiris-phantom-afrika-erschient-in-einer-exzellenten-neuen-ausgabe-18043867.html

https://jungle.world/artikel/2022/29/verstrickt-die-verstrickung

https://www.deutschlandfunk.de/michel-leiris-phantom-afrika-dlf-9c88f3dd-100.html

Throughout history, studies on the evolution dynamics of the landscapes of West Africa very often offered catastrophic descriptions. The article, within the dogon country (Mali) example, analyses this trend, through an examination of the concepts and interests that such descriptions of desertification and degradation entailed. We analyse how this narration of constant deterioration is created by cultural filters which are not grounded in objective realities during the colonial and post colonial periods. This narration was strongly endorsed by the colonial powers to subjugate and deprive the local populations of their natural resources. In the post-colonial era things don’t appear to be any different, for economical and/or political purposes Le cas d’étude du pays dogon (Mali) sert ici à questionner les représentations catastrophistes dans la littérature sur les dynamiques d’évolution des milieux et paysages en Afrique de l’ouest, fréquemment qualifiées de désertification, et les fondements inappropriés de leur appréhension. Il ne s’agit pas alors de nier la réalité matérielle de phénomènes de dégradation et de leurs incidences sur les populations, mais de remettre en lumière des processus de transformation, tout en changeant le regard porté sur eux, et participer ainsi à repenser les programmes dits de restauration et protection des milieux et écosystèmes, qui, par leurs pratiques simplificatrices, participent à accroitre à terme la vulnérabilité des systèmes socio-écologiques qu’ils veulent soutenir