History of Science--especially marine sciences

Tens of billions of dollars are spent on manned and unmanned missions prob- ing deeper into space, while 95% of Earth's oceans remain unexplored. The more intensive focus on space exploration is a historically recent phenomenon. For millennia until the mid-20th century, space and ocean exploration pro- ceeded roughly at the same pace, driven by military and commercial interests as well as simple curiosity. Both date back to early civilization when star-gazers scanned the skies, and sailors and free-divers scoured the seas. Since the 1960s, however, the trajectories of exploration diverged dramatically. Cold War-inspired geopolitical-military imperatives propelled govern- ment funding of space research to an extraordinary level, while ocean exploration stagnated in comparison. Moreover, although the Cold War ended more than 20 years ago, the disparity in research efforts remains vast despite evidence that accelerating changes in our marine ecosystems directly threatens our wellbeing. This thesis reviews the history of space and ocean exploration through the Cold War to the present. It also dispels persistent misconceptions that led to the disparity in resources allocated between space and ocean exploration and argues for prioritizing ocean research.

According to Polybius (IV, 38), goods exported from the Black Sea included salted fish, suggesting that fishing played an important role in the colonisation process along the Pontic shores, possibly from a very early date (Dupont 2007). However, in addition to the question of the containers used for this trade, raised by J. Lund (2005) and V. Gabrielsen (2005), there is also the issue of eventual discrepancies between sources and archaeological data. Perhaps due to the hasardous preservation of archaeological structures, or simply to a geographic imbalance in research, studies have until now revealed evidence of fish drying and salting mainly in the northern Pontic region, during a period that came after the testimony of Polybius. Nonetheless, careful analysis of ancient sources reveals the full range of complex factors involved in fishing in a region where species were zoned and subject to seasonal migration. A dichotomy between northern and southern Black Sea coasts, in addition to the distinctive characteristics of the deltas punctuating the north and northwest shores, may have had an impact on the resources produced, as enlightened by the Franco-Romanian archaeological mission around Orgame at the settlements of the Golovita lagoon (Baralis et al. 2017). Varied local resources, such as highly migratory species, may indeed explain different fishing management strategies, which in turn would have shaped local and regional exchange networks, including those stretching over greater distances to connect Pontic colonies with the Aegean world. Some fifteen years after the very promising symposium held at the University of Aarhus (2003), it is time to re-examine this key issue for the understanding of the colonial process in the Pontic region, particularly in light of the recent synthesis by T. Bekker-Nielsen (2016) and the latest studies carried out in the northern Black Sea region and Danube delta. The goal of this symposium is to shed light on the latest data, with a special focus on regional specificities resulting from the characteristics of species exploited within the perimeters of each site, in accordance with the aims of ichthyofaunal studies. Such research does sometimes produce results that contradict textual and epigraphic data, opening up new avenues for the analysis of local networks, where the participation of local populations has not always been taken into account (Gavriljuk 2005). In the framework of the research programme on the Greek colonisation in the Black Sea area (Musée du Louvre -Centre Camille Jullian, CNRS-Aix-Marseille University), we would like to bring together ichthyofaunal analyses, studies or reinterpretation of production structures and publication of archaeological material linked to fish exploitation and trade, all too often neglected and more often than not left unpublished. Through these various contributions, we wish to enrich the debate around fish-related trade and its potential role in Greek colonial process in the Black Sea and the Straights.

This essay provides an overview of recent trends in the historiography of marine environmental history, a sub-field of environmental history which has grown tremendously in scope and size over the last c. 15 years. The object of marine environmental history is the changing relationship between human society and natural marine resources. Within this broad topic, several trends and objectives are discernable. The essay argue that the so-called material marine environmental history has its main focus on trying to reconstruct the presence, development and environmental impact of past fisheries and whaling operations. This ambition often entails a reconstruction also of how marine life has changed over time. The time frame rages from Paleolithicum to the present era. The field of marine environmental history also includes a more culturally oriented environmental history, which mainly has come to more closely research the development of individual fisheries and the practices, thoughts and ideas of marine life in the sea. Past conflicts between fishermen, managers and scientists are often at the forefront, while in depth studies of the evolvement of marine science and its societal impact, especially through management, also feature prominently. The essay further points to future opportunities, where only little research has been undertaken so far. This includes studies on seafood and consumption as well as aquaculture.

Hayreddin Barbarossa is the biggest admiral of Turkish and Islamic history. Barbarossa' victory over the crusader navy has not been passed on to any other admiral.
As it is known, Hayreddin Barbarossa has written the war stories with the order of Suleiman the Magnificent. The name of this book is “Gazavat-ı Hayreddin.” This book contains objective information about religious, political and military conflicts with Spain and the Habsburg Empires. On the other hand, in this book there is information on the invitation of Hayreddin Barbarossa to Algeria, economic, social, cultural and religious status of Algeria at that time, and power struggles.
In this study, the role and importance of Algeria in the maritime strategy of Hayreddin Barbarossa will be evaluated in the context of the information given in the mentioned book.

Astaxanthin, a naturally occurring carotenoid pigment possessing strong antioxidant property has been detected to play a vital role in the
protection against lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage of LDL cholesterol, cell membrane, cells and tissues. It is available from several
biological sources particularly the microalgal species Haematococcus pluvialis, but the salt tolerant mangrove vegetation present in the deltaic
lobe of Indian Sundarbans has been documented as one of the most potential sources of astaxanthin. This paper documents the accumulation of astaxanthin in six species of mangroves (Avicennia officinalis, Avicennia alba, Avicennia marina, Sonneratia apetala, Aegiceros corniculatum and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza) at ten different stations having different environmental conditions in the Hooghly-Matla estuarine complex of Indian Sundarbans. Although these six species share the same brackish water media, but significant variation in the leaf astaxanthin level confirms the concept of species-specificity and effects of various physico-chemical variables on mangrove astaxanthin.

In Western culture, oceans have traditionally been perceived as timeless, separate from society and practically boundless in resources and absorptive capacity. As a result, the entangled histories of people and marine environments have largely been neglected in historical research. This is changing with the development of marine environmental history together with increasing recognition of oceans’ vulnerability and importance in earth systems. Against this background, we review the current state of historical knowledge of how different actors within Swedish society have perceived and impacted the Baltic Sea environment, as well as discovered and responded to marine environmental change. We find that this environmental history, as distinct from other forms of historical research, has so far received limited attention. While the environmental histories of terrestrial resources in Sweden – including forests, agriculture, minerals and energy – have been thoroughly studied, there is little comparative knowledge about the formation and development of the major scientific institutions and public agencies involved in Baltic Sea governance. In light of this, we discuss how knowledge about Sweden’s marine environmental history can be improved, and the importance this may have for the future sustainability of the Baltic Sea.

Book review by Vera Schwach:

Bo Poulsen, Global Marine Science and Carlsberg. The Golden Connections of Johannes Schmidt (1877–1933), (Brill) Leiden/Boston, 2016, 524 pages, (illustrated, references and with an index).

By a historical coincidence, the celebrated brewery, Carlsberg, helped promote marine science during the period from around 1900 to 1930. The key actor in cajoling support from the Danish brewery and organizing scientific expeditions was the zoologist Johannes Schmidt. In this recently published biography, Poulsen studies how Schmidt managed to coordinate the efforts of a private foundation, public fisheries investigations in Denmark, and the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES). In doing so, he gives a profound analysis of how private and public means were successfully linked in the service of science and national honour. Schmidt launched twenty-six ocean expeditions but is most famous for his discovery of the breeding grounds of the Atlantic eel in the Sargasso Sea. Poulson’s book adds to the overall history of marine science, as it highlights the importance of collaborations between marine scientists from different countries and examines the numerous connections between science, the economy, and foreign policy. This finely written book provides historians with hitherto little-known information about the national Danish scene, and at the same time enriches the international field of the history of oceanography.

This chapter shows how historians’ methodologies and approaches are being used to reconstruct marine ecological phenomena of the past. In terms of the use of history in historical marine ecology, a number of examples are presented of how past species abundance and spatial aggregation as well as long term catch rates has been investigated through the use of past paper documents, including photographs.
Equally important, and more frequently, historians are answering anthropogenic questions evolving around individual fishermen, fishing fleets, consumers, managers and marine scientists. Listing all relevant historical scholarship, which can be termed marine environmental history are beyond the scope of this chapter. What is mainly in focus here, is historical research, where the methodologies have been used to infer knowledge on past marine resource use.

Proud of new book review in new issue of International Journal of Maritime History, written by Vera Schwach​, so I share the conclusion:

"Poulsen's book enriches the English-speaking world with the most valuable insight into the intentions and efforts of Denmark prior to World War II. It has a great value in the way the book enlightens the role of the ocean as a shaping force in human history. To be acquainted with Poulsen's narrative, is to gain insight into the importance of the sea, the marine science, and how Johannes Schmidt​ conciously embedded marine knowledge as a part of Danish self-understanding. Poulsen's Global Marine Science and Carlsberg is a most welcome addition to deepen our understanding of the history of marine science in the twentieth century"

Danish marine scientist, Johannes Schmidt was a pioneer when it comes to popularizing deep-sea marine research through the use of mass media. When Schmidt headed the Carlsberg Foundation’s Oceanographical Expedition Round the World, 1928-1930, he brought along a film camera, documenting the surveys conducted onboard, as well as encounters with local populations round the World.

This silent film consists of c. 20 different sequences, and it is now available at Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4ZVx261JH1E
There is a very instructive introduction to the fishing gear, as it is being deployed in the sea, although this is supplemented by camera shots from what is clearly an aquarium, where the functioning of the water sampler is shown in action. As the Dana moves into the Pacific Ocean the focus of the film also changes. In the sections from the Pacific and Indian Oceans the film includes captions describing the local inhabitants of the Polynesian islands and Indonesia.

This Danish version was ready by December 1930. Schmidt later produced different versions aimed at French and English audiences.

The life and career of Johannes Schmidt is at the center of this new monograph: Global Marine Science and Carlsberg – The Golden Connections of Johannes Schmidt, 1877-1933, (Leiden: Brill, 2016) written by Associate Professor, Bo Poulsen, Aalborg University:

http://www.brill.com/products/book/global-marine-science-and-carlsberg-golden-connections-johannes-schmidt-1877-1933

By accident, the world-famous brewery Carlsberg became a central force in global marine science during the first three decades of the 20th century. Within a core group of scientists and managers, Johannes Schmidt (1877-1933) was the key figure combining the efforts of the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES), the Danish state and several private companies. Launching 26 oceangoing expeditions Schmidt made landmark discoveries such as the breeding ground for the Atlantic eel in the Sargasso Sea. The scientific frontier was pushed literally kilometres into the deep sea and across the World’s oceans. While the formal North Atlantic Empire of the small state of Denmark was in decline, an informal empire of science was erected instead.

The coastal and estuarine zone of West Bengal is noted for its rich biodiversity owing to the presence of Sundarbans mangrove ecosystem.
However, due to intense industrialization and urbanization, many of the pockets have become ecologically sensitive. The present paper is an
attempt to evaluate the Ecologically Sensitive Zone (ESZ) through enumeration of Aquatic Health Index (AHI). In the present programme, three stations in and around Indian Sundarbans namely Canning, Junput and Sagar Island were selected and the aquatic health index value of these stations varied as per the order Sagar Island > Canning > Junput. The lower value of the index reflects deteriorated condition of the coastal water due to excessive industrial, agricultural and domestic run-off. The high values of the index are the indicators of congenial coastal environment.

I dette temanummers indledende artikel argumenterer Hanne Sanders for at sekularisering i 1700-tallet kan ses som en moderniseringsproces, hvor gudsforholdet i stigende grad opfattes som en individuel tro snarere end et givent kulturelt og vidensmæssigt forhold. Sanders understreger, at sekulariseringen er en vigtig proces i sig selv og ikke blot en enstrenget vej fra fortid til nutid. Erik Pontoppidans søslanger og 1700-tallets øvrige perspektiver på naturen repræsenterer i høj grad en sekulariseringsproces. Den naturvidenskabelige revolution skubber naturen ind imellem Gud og menneske som et særligt erkendelsesniveau. Det afføder en række fundamentale spørgsmål om Guds eksistens i naturen, og forestillinger om verden som skabt, hvilket gør 1700-tallets sekularisering til en vigtig proces i sig selv.
Men det er også en moderniseringsproces frem mod i dag. Man kan sige, at når Pontoppidan og naturhistorikere som Carl von Linne inspireres af fysiko­teologien til at søge rationelt efter en guddommelig plan med naturen, er de på en måde med til at undergrave selv samme teori. For hvad med det der ikke passer ind i det store system? Og hvad sker der i et rationalt opbygget system om naturens indretning, når man fjerner Gud fra ligningen? Så er det, der står tilbage, en moderne, sekulariseret teori om naturens indretning. Teologi er blevet til økologi.
I følge den amerikanske geograf, Clarence Glacken ledte 1700-tallets sekularisering af klimateorierne frem mod 1800-tallets mere omfattende teorier om naturens orden hos Lamarck, der revolutionerede arvelighedslæren og Darwin, der kombinerede den med forestillingen om de stærkeste individers overlevelse (Glacken 1967, 620). Dermed er ikke bare Gud, men også oral og etik,  Holberg vægtede så højt, taget ud af ligningen om menneskets sammenhæng med de fysiske omgivelser. Synet på naturen er atomiseret, og de helhedsbetragtninger om verdens skabelse, der var en vigtig drivkraft bag igangsættelsen af projekter som udgivelsen af Den Danske Atlas, eller Carl von Linnés ensartning af dyrearternes klassifikation, er ikke en mulighed længere.

Podcast with the full length public defense of my Higher Doctorate 5 May 2017.
Half hour presentation of some of the research results followed by four hours of examination in front of the live audience. The examiners are Professor Harriet Ritvo (MIT), Professor Vera Schwach (NIFU, Oslo) and  Professor Mogens Rüdiger (Aalborg University)

https://youtu.be/U0lkGHf_Jk0

100-året for overdragelsen af de Vestindiske Øer
Det er 100 år siden overdragelsen af de tidligere Dansk Vestindiske Øer. Men det er nu ikke meget, det har fyldt i den danske bevidsthed. Derfor har De Vestindiske Øer givet os en gave - nemlig tre skulpturer, magen til nogen, de selv har stående på øerne. De synes nemlig, vi burde være lidt mere bevidste om vores fortid som kolonimagt. Lonnie Willis, der er formand for St. Johns historiske selskab på De Vestindiske Øer, håber på, at "gaven kan sætte gang i dialogen om vores fælles historie". Og det er ikke bare historien om slaveriet, vores sorte samvittighed har taget med i glemmebogen. Her på P1 Eftermiddag vil vi gerne bidrage til indsatsen med at komme rundt om de glemte kapitler i historiebogen, og i dag lukker vi op for et af dem. Vi skal høre om en af de grupper, som øerne var rigtig vigtige for - nemlig de danske havforskere. Til at sætte os ind i det har vi lektor Bo Poulsen, der har skrevet en ny bog om havforskeren Johannes Schmidt. Han var en af de forskere, der var stærkt imod salget af øerne - og i øvrigt noget af en stjerne i sin tid. Medvirkende: Bo Poulsen; forfatter og lektor i kultur og globale studier.

Link to interview with Danish radio interview with Channel 1's "P1 Eftermiddag," 4 November 2016: : http://www.dr.dk/radio/ondemand/p1/p1-eftermiddag-2016-11-04#!/00:36:39