Insect Behaviour

#LINK: http://www.researchgate.net/publication/232990708 - Nest‐building behaviour was studied in Xylocopa violacea, with particular attention to that exhibited in the construction of each cell, from the formation of the pollen paste to the construction of the diaphragm. Seven inside characteristics of 28 nests excavated in dried Arundo donax canes were determined. The cell length ranged from 14 to 20 mm. The diaphragms separating the cells were 2 mm thick in the middle, and 4–5 mm at the edge. In 37 additional nests, only data on some characteristics were taken: (a) colour of the pollen paste; (b) cane internode used for nesting. X. violacea is univoltine and solitary, and as in all the other Xylocopa species, female average fecundity is very low (7.43 eggs per nest), despite considerable maternal investment. Univoltine Xylocopa species are less fertile than multivoltine Xylocopa species because of the one to three sup plementary generations per year.
______________________________________________
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236334738
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256457322
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257137913
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/263203818
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256485808
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257337087
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256463429
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256526773
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256485795
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257825570
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256697682

The fynbos of South Africa is renowned for its high richness of plant species, many of which are insect- pollinated. We conducted a visual survey of arthropod activity to examine how environmental factors influence activity patterns across the biome. We estimated the activity of moving medium- to large-sized Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera using an abundance-weighted presence score. Broken stick regression analysis shows that insect activity increased with ambient air temperatures to between 22 and 30 °C and then stabilized in the case of Hymenoptera, or decreased for Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. There was also a clear negative impact of wind speed on arthropod activity. Insect activity across the biome was poorly explained by landscape temperature and rainfall variables, and was instead  best explained by flower availability. A summer-autumn survey observed greater insect activity with no within-month variation, while the transition from winter to spring for the winter-spring survey saw more insect activity associated with the later months. More detailed studies of activity in the fynbos are needed at the species level, as predicted climate change impacts on temperature suggest likely consequences for  plant-pollinator interactions, agricultural pest species, and arthropod-predator interactions.

Son yıllarda, dünya çapında nedeni açıklanamayan koloni kayıpları yaşanmaktadır. Bal arısı kolonilerinin giderek azalması sebebiyle, potansiyel nedenleri araştırmak için birçok çalışma gerçekleştirilmiştir. Meydana gelen kayıpların ana nedenlerinden birisi de insektisitlerdir. Dünya genelinde tarım alanlarında zararlı böceklerle mücadele için kullanılan insektisitler, sadece zararlıları değil aynı zamanda doğrudan veya dolaylı olarak bal arıları gibi yararlı böcekleri de etkilemektedir. Özellikle insektisitlerin kullanıldığı yerlerde, bal arısı kayıpları daha yaygındır ve bu alanlarda insektisitlere maruz kalan arıların bağışıklık sistemleri zayıflamakta; yiyecek arama davranışında, koku alma ve öğrenme yeteneğinde bozukluklar meydana gelmektedir. Ayrıca başta bal olmak üzere bal mumu, polen ve arı ekmeği (perga) gibi arı ürünlerinde kalıntılar bırakmaktadır. Büyük ekolojik tehdit oluşturan bu kayıplarla baş edebilmek için dünya çapında etkin ve sürdürülebilir çözüm yolları aranmaktadır. Bu derleme, insektisitlerin bal arısı davranış ve fizyolojisine etkilerini inceleyerek mevcut durumu ortaya koymayı amaçlamaktadır.

Once considered only a human behavior, reports of tool use by a variety of animals have accumulated. Likewise,
various definitions of tool use have also amassed. Although some researchers argue that understanding the evolutionary
drivers of tool use is more important than identifying and describing these behaviors, the central issue of defining what
constitutes tool use has not been fully addressed. Here we analyze prominent definitions of tool use and review the
application of these definitions in scientific and educational literature. We demonstrate that many behaviors recently
described as tool use do not meet criteria for prevalent definitions, while other neglected behaviors may constitute a
form of tool use. These examples show how the use of inconsistent definitions of tool use in research can result in
different conclusions from the same observations. Our aim is to demonstrate that a universally acceptable definition of
tool use based on traditional, evolutionary, and operational understanding of behavior is needed. The rationale is that
this review will stimulate the consistent and explicit use of specific terminology in tool use research. This would help
define specific examples of each natural observation from a common measuring stick, allowing better comparative
studies and classification of these unique behaviors.

Bibliographies are lists which convey idenfication information of different publications like books,
papers and articles on specific subjects in a certain order. They are prepared with the intention to provide
those who conduct studies in a certain field with the related source material in its entirety. They make it
possible to quickly review previous work on the subject being studied. They also provide an opportunity to
make more realistic, effective and less time consuming plans in reaching the target.
The first comprehensive bibliography on entomology and agricultural zoology in Turkey was
prepared by Prof. Dr. Feyzi Önder, Prof. Dr. Yusuf Karsavuran, Dr. E. Pervin Önder, Dr. Aynur Önuçar and
Dr. Ertaç Tutkun within the study framework of Turkish Entomology Association. It was printed in 1982 by the
General Directorate of Plant Protection and Quarantine under the name of “Bibliography of Entomology
and Agricultural Zoology of Turkey (Fauna, Pest Control, Pests of Plants, Methods) (1595-1978)”. The
second bibliography in this field was prepared by Prof. Dr. Feyzi Önder, Prof. Dr. Yusuf Karsavuran, Dr. E.
Pervin Önder, Dr. Ertaç Tutkun and Prof. Dr. Serdar Tezcan and was published by TURDOK, Tübitak-
Turkish Scientific and Technical Documentation Center in 1986 under the name of “Bibliography of
Entomology and Agricultural Zoology of Turkey (1979-1983)”. Bibliographical information of 4416
publications are available in the first of these bibliographies and there are 1361 of them in the second
bibliography. Bibliographical information of a total of 5777 publications are classified by topics and can be
found in these two volumes.
In the 30 years since 1983 there are numerous new research institutes and universities opened in
Turkey. As a consequence, new researchers were bred and have conducted and finished projects in the
fields of entomology and agricultural zoology. Additionally, technical developments in printing techniques
resulted with many new journals and periodicals. And, also, the number and frequency of scientific meetings
increased. All these have played a role in the considerably increased number of publications. Advancements
in the areas of communication and information technologies had marked influence on, especially, the second
half of the last 30-year period. They effected the production speed of information as well as the speed of
reaching this information. While some of the produced information was instantaneously attainable, some was
harder to be reached due to the huge amount of information output.
In the preparation phase of the book called “650 Entomologists, Acarologists and Nematologists from
Turkey with Their Brief Life Histories” written by Prof. Dr. Serdar Tezcan and Dr. Füsun Tezcan which was
published by the Entomological Society of Turkey, scientists who conducted studies in these topics were
contacted. Along with their biographical information, information concerning their publications as of
December 31, 2011 was also tried to be gathered.
Within the scope of the studies which lasted approximately seven months, authors were requested to
send in their work from their publication lists which were in line with the concept of this publication. Those
which were present in previous bibliographies were sorted out and the remaining which belonged to the 28-
year period between 1984-2011 were compiled. They were standardized to the best that it could and have
been listed alphabetically by the author last names. Those publications which belonged to a period before
1984 but not found in previous bibliographies were also included in this compilation. It should be noted that
X
this study which features 10823 publications does not contain all literature published between 1984-2011.
Some works of our colleagues could not be included in this study because they did not tend to share their
publication lists despite they were accessed. Furthermore, the publications which belonged to foreign
researchers could only be included if they were co-produced with a local colleague. Unfortunately, their other
studies could not be included. It should also be noted that, differing from previous ones, the entries in this
book are not classified according to their topics.
The contents of this study is subject to become out of date quickly due to the rapid output rate of
information today. For this reason, this book has been printed in a limited number and has been distributed
to libraries and documentation centers. In order to facilitate and spread the utilization of the book, an e-book
format of it is posted in the electronic library in the website of the Entomological Society of Turkey
(http://www.entomoloji.org.tr/). This will make it available free of charge for those local and foreign
people who wish to make use of it. The e-book can be scanned or bibliographical information can be
extracted by writing either the author of the publication, title or name of the journal after clicking on the
related file.
The pdf files of the two volumes of Bibliography of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology of
Turkey, within the scope of a graduation thesis written in 2013 in the Department of Plant Protection of Ege
University, Faculty of Agriculture, has been posted in the abovementioned website with the intention to
facilitate the scanning of publications prior to 1984. We would like to point out that this will enable the user to
make use of the old publications by using the same method.
It is technologically easy to access information today; however, it may be harder to find it in a short
period of time due to the increased speed of output of information. We are wishing that this bibliographical
reference we have prepared will further contribute to the production of new knowledge today. We are
thinking that the target audience who would make use of this reference book is comprised of researchers in
the fields of biology, agriculture, forestry, veterinary, medicine, environmental sciences and standing on the
top of the list are our young colleagues who will study in the fields of entomology, acarology and nematology.
We would like to extend our gratitutes to the President of the Entomological Society of Turkey, Prof.
Dr. Enver Durmuşoğlu and to the members of the Board of Directors for their support by assuming the
printing of this study and posting its e-book form in their website which will make it possible to reach the
target audience. We would like to thank to all our colleagues, dear families and colleagues of our deceased
colleagues who have made this book possible by sending in information. We also would like to extend our
cordial thanks to Mr. Olcay Sütüven and his valued colleagues for their dedicated and meticulous work in
materializing the printing of this book.
March 2013, Bornova
Serdar TEZCAN-Füsun TEZCAN-Nilay GÜLPERÇİN

"Brower explores the way philosophers were inspired by entomological social systems and communication to reflect on human psyche, social behavior, community organization, communication, and inter-individual relationships. His essay rehearses the swarms of insects embedded in contemporary philosophy and literary theory, not only showing how many of the major concepts (or philosophemes) in continental philosophy – sexuality, politics, thinking, time, interdependence, and language – draw lessons from the world of insects, but also illustrating again how the insect world spurred human reflection."

Die mögliche Rolle der antennalen Cuticularporen beim Sexualverhalten von Cyaneolytta sp. (Coleoptera: Meloidae) Ölkäfer (Col: Meloidae) gehören zu den Insekten mit medizinischer Bedeutung. Cantharidin, das im gesamten Körper (v.a. in den Sexualorganen beider Geschlechter) der Käfer zu finden ist, ver-ursacht Blasen auf der Haut. Die mögliche Rolle des Cantharidins im Sexualverhalten der Ölkäfer ist von besonderem wissenschaftlichem Interesse. Cyaneolytta sp. wurde in Karen, Kenia, gesam-melt. Nach der Sektion wurden die Insektenkompartimente hydrolysiert und mittels quantitativer GC-MS chemisch analysiert. Um Poren der Kutikula und andere äußere Merkmale zu untersuchen, wurde ein Rasterelektronenmikroskop verwendet. Für Dünnschnitte der inneren Gewebe wurden Mikrotomschnitte angefertigt. Statistische Analysen wurden mit dem Softwarepaket Statistica durchgeführt. In den Antennen von Cyaneolytta sp. Péringuey, 1909 finden sich extrem hohe Cantha-ridinmengen. Die Daten zeigen eine deutliche Korrelation zwischen der Dichte der Kutikularporen und dem Cantharidingehalt der Antennenglieder Scapus und Pedicellus der Cyaneolytta-Männchen. Es existieren zahlreiche kanalartige Strukturen, die sich von der Hämolymphe der Antennen zur Oberfläche erstrecken, wo sich die Kutikularporen befinden. Betrachtet man den Cantharidingehalt der Antennensegmente, so enthalten die Glieder der Männchen viel größere Mengen als die der Weibchen. Auch besitzen die Kutikularporen der Weibchen eine deutlich geringere Dichte auf den Antennensegmenten. Die kanalartigen Strukturen auf den ersten beiden Antennensegmenten der Weibchen könnten uni-oder multizelluläre Tubuli sein, die das in der Hämolymphe zirkulierende Cantharidin an die Oberfläche bringen, aber die Poren auf den Antennen der Weibchen müssen eine andere Funktion haben. Während des Balzverhaltens berühren sich beide Geschlechter mit den Antennen, wobei die cantharidinhaltigen Poren in direkten Kontakt mit den weiblichen Antennen gelangen. Es wird vermutet, dass Cantharidin an die Oberfläche der Antennen der Männchen abge-geben wird. Demnach könnte der porenhaltige Bereich der männlichen Antennen eine Struktur sein, die Cantharidin abgibt, während der porenhaltige Bereich der weiblichen Antennen ein Rezeptorfeld darstellen könnte, dessen Chemorezeptoren einen bevorzugten Geschlechtspartner erkennen. Damit wurden weitere Hinweise für die Hypothese gesammelt, dass Cantharidin eine Rolle bei der sexuellen Selektion im Nahbereich spielt.

BACKGROUND: Trichogramma pretiosum Riley is an important egg parasitoid and biological
control agent of caterpillar pests. We studied acute toxicity of 20 pesticides (14 insecticides/miticides, 3 fungicides and 3 herbicides) exposed to recommended field rates. Egg,
larval, and pupal stages of the parasitoid in their hosts were dipped in formulated solutions of
the pesticides and evaluated 10 d later for percentage of host eggs with holes, number of
parasitoids emerged per egg with holes, and stage-specific mortality of immature as well as
adult wasps within the host eggs.
RESULTS: Seven insecticides (buprofezin, chlorantraniliprole, spirotetramat, flonicamid,
flubendiamide) and miticides (spiromesifen, cyflumetofen), one herbicide (nicosulfuron), and
three fungicides (myclobutanil, pyraclostrobin, trifloxystrobin+tebuconazole) caused no
significant mortality to immature stages or pre-emergent adult parasitoids relative to controls.
On the other hand, seven insecticides/miticides (abamectin, acetamiprid, dinotefuran, fipronil,
novaluron, spinetoram, tolfenpyrad) adversely affected immature and pre-emergent adult T. pretiosum, with tolfenpyrad being particularly lethal. Two herbicides had moderate (glufosinate ammonium) to severe (s-metolachlor) acute lethal effects on the immature parasitoids.
CONCLUSIONS: This study corroborates earlier findings with adult T. pretiosum. Over half of the pesticides – and all of the fungicides – tested in the current study would appear to be
compatible with the use of T. pretiosum in integrated pest management programs, with respect to acute parasitoid mortality.

Animals, particularly insects, are the most diverse organisms on earth. On top of that, they are indispensable assets of nature; as part of the food chain, and pollinators.

Butterflies are perhaps one of the most visible insects in the environment. The planet has an estimated 20,000 species of butterflies, where 800 of these can be found in the Philippines. The province of Cebu has around 200 butterfly species. However, due to anthropogenic factors, the number declined continually.

This paper focuses on the works of Professor Julian Jumalon, one of the country’s pioneer Lepidopterists, and on his contribution to butterfly taxonomy.

The predator, Brumus suturalis (Fab.) is the generalist predator, during checking the feeding ability it was found the voracious predator of whitefly on cotton in Sindh-Pakistan. A research was conducted to determine the feeding ability of this predator on Cotton Whitefly, Bemisia Tabaci (Gennadius) (Homoptera: Aleyrodidae) in Laboratory and Field. The laboratory results revealed that B. suturalis was voracious feeder of cotton whitefly. The fourth instar devoured maximum mean number (72.22 ± 2.75) of whiteflies /day/larva followed by third (61.91 ± 2.59), second (24.88 ± 0.44) and first instar (12.38 ± 0.56) and the adult females devoured more number of whiteflies (149.37  8.26) than male (118.48  7.41) per day under laboratory conditions (26+2oC). The field results revealed that, fourth instar devoured more mean number (12.46+ 0.64) of whiteflies/day/larva followed by third (11.47  0.42), second (7.50  0.45) and first instar (3.60  0.29) and the adult females consumed more mean number (14.93  0.83) than male (14.60  0.32) whiteflies per day.

Callosobruchus maculatus (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae, Bruchinae) is the major pest of stored cowpeas in West Africa. Biological control using its egg parasitoid Uscana lariophaga Stef. (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae) is currently under investigation but faces limitations due mainly to the difficulty of mass production. Research was conducted under laboratory conditions to evaluate the suitability of five wild legume seeds for Callosobruchus maculatus Fab. and its egg parasitoid rearing in comparison to two varieties of Vigna unguiculata, (KXV 61-1 and Local Moussa) used as control host plants. The seeds of the wild legumes physically described using texture, weight, size and color were different from cowpea seeds. The analysis of C. maculatus oviposition in no-choice experiments showed that eggs were laid on all the legume seeds tested. However, the wrinkled cowpea seeds were more infested (77.50±2.89 eggs) than the wild legumes smooth seeds, the lowest mean number of eggs (9.15±0.98) being observed on A. gourmaensis flat seeds. Regarding the reproductive potential of U. lariophaga, the eggs of C. maculatus laid on all the five wild legumes may be parasitized and allow the development of the progeny of the parasitoid. Based on the intrinsic rates of natural increase, three wild legume species (A. nilotica, A. gourmaensis and A. macrostachya) allowed a development of U. lariophaga equivalent to that obtained with the seeds of the cowpea varieties used. Our results provide a basis for the development of a method of mass production of the egg parasitoid U. lariophaga using the most promising wild legumes on which future research is expected to intensify.

Monitoring feeding behaviors of insects whose piercing–sucking mouthparts are inserted into plant tissue is often done by making the insect part of an electronic circuit, using a technique called Electrical Penetration Graph, or electropenetrography (both abbreviated EPG). Fluctuating voltage signals in the circuit are graphed, and resulting waveforms are interpreted by a researcher as specific stylet activities. After measurement of waveforms, data consist of a list of different behaviors and associated durations. These data are further processed to yield hundreds of variables that are compiled and statistically analyzed prior to publication. The goal of this study was to develop a program to make this process more efficient for studies of aphids and related species, given the large quantity of data expected to be generated. Herein, the three major existing programs that perform this function are reviewed. The oldest program (Backus 1.0) both compiles data and calculates a SAS-based statistical analysis; however it only works with the original, recorded variables and is not tailored to aphid studies. The other programs (EPG Calc and the Sarria Excel® workbook) compile a more diverse suite of derived variables suitable for aphids than does Backus 1.0; however, they do not include statistical analyses. A new program (Ebert 1.0) introduced herein uses SAS to calculate the diverse suite of derived variables for aphids, and also provides statistical analysis via powerful mixed-model ANOVA using a single software platform, similar to the Backus program. The code is open source, so that any researcher can adapt this program to deal with behavioral idiosyncrasies of a particular study insect. The new program will be especially valuable for large experiments with many insect subjects.

The Backus 1.0 system for classifying variables required some modification in order to deal with all the derived variables for aphids. The new classification system has five levels: Cohort, Insect, Probe, Waveform, and Event. Within each of these levels, variables can be sequential or non-sequential, and these are further subdivided into conditional and non-conditional. These changes will facilitate design of more complex experiments in the future, and the ultimate adaptation of this analysis technique designed around aphids for use with other organisms. There is supplemental material included with the manuscript to assist with understanding the nature of data generated using EPG methods, and the complex task of extracting knowledge from a vast quantity of data generated by these experiments.

Industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa), has been proposed as a new crop that might be of interest to organic farmers in the North Carolina and other states in the United States. However, little is known about how organic farmers view this crop. We conducted a survey among North Carolina certified organic growers to ascertain their knowledge of, and willingness to adopt, industrial hemp. Contact information was obtained from a database of certified organic farmers in North Carolina and the growers were contacted by email and directed to complete an online questionnaire. Growers were asked a wide range of questions about farm characteristics, technology adoption, interest toward industrial hemp, and policy issues regarding hemp adoption. A total of 245 farmers were contacted; 64 started the survey and 35 responded to all questions. Our results indicate that 85% of North Carolina organic growers are interested in growing hemp on their farms and the majority wanted to learn more about the crop production practices, adapted cultivars, and legality of growing it. Seventy-five percent expressed interest in being certified growers while 52% wanted to grow industrial hemp primarily for cannabidiol (CBD) oil. Most (65%) respondents indicate they aspired to be among the first farmers in their area to grow and sell hemp. Growers who have tried new crops or new farming technology in the last three years were more likely to adopt industrial hemp production. These findings will help decision-makers understand the critical concerns of growers who are willing to adopt industrial hemp as an alternative income-generating enterprise.

Although the Neotropical territorially dominant arboreal ant Azteca chartifex Forel is very aggressive towards any intruder, its populous colonies tolerate the close presence of the fierce polistine wasp Polybia rejecta (F.). In French Guiana, 83.33% of the 48 P. rejecta nests recorded were found side by side with those of A. chartifex. This nesting association results in mutual protection from predators (i.e., the wasps protected from army ants; the ants protected from birds). We conducted field studies, laboratory-based behavioral experiments and chemical analyses to elucidate the mechanisms allowing the persistence of this association. Due to differences in the cuticular profiles of the two species, we eliminated the possibility of chemical mimicry. Also, analyses of the carton nests did not reveal traces of marking on the envelopes. Because ant forager flows were not perturbed by extracts from the wasps' Dufour's and venom glands, we rejected any hypothetical action of repulsive chemicals. Nevertheless, we noted that the wasps " scraped " the surface of the upper part of their nest envelope using their mandibles, likely removing the ants' scent trails, and an experiment showed that ant foragers were perturbed by the removal of their scent trails. This leads us to use the term " erasure hypothesis. " Thus, this nesting association persists thanks to a relative tolerance by the ants towards wasp presence and the behavior of the wasps that allows them to " contain " their associated ants through the elimination of their scent trails, direct attacks, " wing-buzzing " behavior and ejecting the ants.

An experiment was conducted to test the efficacy of grease and emamectin benzoate in a randomized complete block design with five replications to reduce fall armyworm, Spodoptera frugiperda (J.E. Smith) larvae load from a maize field in the winter seasons of 2020 and 2021 in Sarlahi, Nepal. Standard agronomic package of practices followed for crop proper growth and development, and plant spacing maintained at 20 × 60 cm 2 with a plot size of 390 m 2. The treatments were applied when the maize crop was at knee height and larvae damaged nearly 5-8% of the total plants. Emamectin benzoate sprayed at 0.4 g/liter of water and grease of about 0.15 g applied to the maize whorl or tip of a drooping leaf that touched the soil. A significant reduction in larval infestation was observed after 7-days of treatment applications. Fall armyworm larvae were found dead in the chemicalsprayed plots, but they were absent in the grease-applied fields. No crop damage was observed among the grease-treated plants, which might be due to restrictions in the movement of larvae on the maize crop. The armyworm larvae might get irritated, feel insecure, and move far away from the test plots searching for food materials. Thus, an eco-friendly material like grease can be used as an agroecological method for managing fall armyworm larvae among small-scale land-holding maize farmers.

Group predation promotes foraging efficiency because it increases the size of prey that can be killed and improves hunting success compared to solitary predation. However, group predation may increase competition among group members during feeding. Earlier studies have focused on the advantages of group predation, but little is known about the costs and benefits of group predation for individual members of the group. Here, we show that the costs and benefits of group predation for individuals of the predatory stink bug Andrallus spinidens vary with prey size in laboratory experiments. We found that when A. spini-dens fed on small prey, group predation did not significantly increase foraging efficiency but did increase competition for food among group members. In contrast, when prey was large, group predation promoted foraging efficiency, and competition over food was not detected. Our results suggest that group predation by A. spinidens nymphs is advantageous for individual members because it enables each member to hunt larger prey that could not be hunted alone. However, when group size was large or prey size was small, group predation increased competition among group members.

| Studies were conducted in the laboratory to assess the effects of Helicoverpa armigera nu-cleopolyhedrovirus (HaNPV) applied to eggs of Sitotroga cerealella Olive, on emergence of and para-sitism by female Trichogramma chilonis (Ishii) emerged from HaNPV-treated host eggs. The percent emergence (mean) of tiny parasitoid from host eggs treated during egg, larval and pupal stages with the virus at field dose (x), 2x dose, and 0.5x dose ranged from 83.2-87.3%, 87.1-91.6%, and 83.7-89.7%, respectively, relative to control eggs treated with water. The parasitism rates by female parasitic wasps emerged from host eggs treated at x dose when parasitoid was during egg, larval, and pupal stages were 21.6, 26.5, and 25.1%, respectively; the 2x dose resulted in parasitism (mean) of 23.1, 27.6, and 26.1 when parasitoids were treated in egg, larval, and pupal stages, respectively, while, 0.5x dose led to 21.0, 25.9, 27.7, mean parasitism, respectively. The percent reduction in both emergence (mean) and parasitism (mean) relative to the controls was less than 10% for all doses and life stages treated, indicated that HaNPV is harmless (E< 30%) to the emergence as well as parasitism efficiency of T. chilonis emerged from treated host eggs.

A study was conducted in Entomology laboratory at Nuclear Institute of Food and Agriculture, Peshawar, Pakistan during 2011 to assess the toxicity of fifteen (15) pesticides, on parasitism by Trichogramma chilonis (Ishii) for which eggs were treated with pesticides The mean parasitism based on square root transformed values for field dose was for two most highly toxic Spiromesifen (2.406) and Abamectin (2.606), while moderately toxicity was shown by Spinetoram (2.932), Fiproni (l3.177), Acetamiprid (3.549), Heloxyfop-P-Methyl (4.206), and Myclubutanil (4.493). The 2X dose results showed that harmful pesticides were Spiromesifen (1.173), Fipronil (1.260), Abamectin (2.211) and Spinetoram (2.278), while Acetamiprid (2.932), Heloxyfop-P-Methyl (3.974), Myclubutanil (4.061), mixture of Trifloxystrobin and Tebuconazole, Spirotetramat (4.072) were moderately toxic. The 0.5X concentration results indicated that Abamectin (2.682) was harmful to parasitism, while Spinetoram (2.739), Spiromesifen (2.880), Fipronil (4.527) and Myclubutanil (4.537) were found to be slightly harmful to parasitism by T. chilonis.

Microbial insecticides are effective, environmental friendly and are widely used worldwide to control insect pests. Nucleopolyhedroviruses and granuloviruses belonging to family Bac-uloviridae are widely used for control of caterpillar pests on wide varieties of crops and vegetables. The selected baculoviruses (BVs) were evaluated for oviposition preference by Trichogramma chilo-nis (Ishii) of virus treated and untreated (water: control) host eggs (Sitotroga cerealella Olivier), which revealed no significant difference among the used concentrations regarding oviposition preference. All the used concentrations of Helicoverpa armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus (HaNPV), Spo-doptera exigua nucleopolyhedrovirus (SeMNPV) and Cydia pomonella granulovirus (CpGV) including 12.5Â, 6.25Â, 2.5Â, 1.25Â and 0.625Â were harmless (E > 30%) for parasitism by T. chi-lonis as comparison of virus treated and untreated control eggs showed similar parasitism i.e., 615% reduction over control in parasitism. Thus it was concluded that all three types of bac-uloviruses were compatible with the parasitism by T. chilonis at all treated concentrations.

RESUMEN Se describe el comportamiento de los adultos de Eiphosoma vitticolle Cresson (Hymenoptera: 1 chneumonidae), durante la alimentación, cortejo, cópula y oviposición. Los parásitos provenían de una cría masiva mantenida en cámara climática a 24,5 t 1 .CC, H.R. de 76,0 ± 10,0% y un fotoperíodo con luz articifial de 12 horas, de 6 am a 6 pm. Se estableció que E. vitticoOe, no se alimenta sobre los fluidos corporales de su hospedero Spodoptera frugiperda (Smith). La cópula tiene una duración de 1:24 ± 0,53 minutos. La oviposición se realiza de preferencia en la parte media del cuerpo del hospedero a nivel de la pleura, no observándose efecto paralizante en los hospederos. Por el comportamiento de los adultos, durante la alimentación, cortejo, cópula y oviposición, se puede afirmar que los parásitos reciben "estimulación kairomonal", que posiblemente pueda ser por medio de quimioreceptores localizados en las antenas. ABSTRACT Adult behavior oí Eiphosoma vitticolle Cresson (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) is described during feeding, courtship, copulation and oviposición. Parasites were reared in thc laboralory at24.5 ± 1 .(PC; 76.0 ± 10.0% R.H. and 12 : 12 h photoperiod (6 am-6 pm). E. vitticolle dees not feed from corporal fluids of its host. Copulation lasted 1:24 t 0.53 minutes. Oviposilion takes place preferentially in thc pleura at the central part of the host s body, without any observable paralyzing effect. Adult during feeding, courtship, copulation and oviposition seems tobe affected by "kairomonal stimulation" possibly recetved bychemoreceptorslocated in the antennae.

In a northern Sardinia cork oak stand the development of Malacosoma neustrium larvae, starting from egg hatch, was studied in order to verify the number of larval instars, characterise the nests built during the different instars and show a possible periodicity of their daily activity. The data obtained by direct open field observations (n. 16 cork oak trees infested with 22 egg masses) and laboratory rearing (25°C; RH=60%) using cork oak leaves as food source for larvae, were analysed. In the selected area, temperature, relative humidity, global radiation (MJ/m2) and rainfall (hourly and daily average data) were recorded. The insect completed 5 instars both in the field and in the laboratory; each instar was properly defined by using head capsule (cps) and frass (frs) measurements (H,p,=559.05; Hr,,=541.43; d.f.=4, P<0,05; Kruskal-Wallis's test). Up to 3rd instar, the larvae showed aggregation behaviour both in searching for food and in building the characteristic silk shelters. First instar larvae, hatched from the same egg masses, built various refuges around the young buds they eat but they completed the first moult in only one of them. In contrast, both 2nd and 3rd instar larvae generally built only one nest, of a more complicated structure, offering also an inside refuge to the colony. Fourth instar larvae maintained aggregation behaviour for a short while and showed a premature inclination to scatter in the canopy. In ali observed cases, fourth instar larvae did not build nests but spun only some tents on primary branches and at their junctions, which were used as a stand to rest and moult. Fifth instar larvae did not show any aggregation behaviour and in some cases, they left the host tree to search for food. Direct observations of larval activity revealed that the larvae, up to 4th instar, are not active between midnight and 3.00 a.m. whereas they eat intensively at dawn (between 6.00 and 8.00 a.m.) and at sunset (between 7.00 and 9.00 p.m.). During the last instar, the larvae seemed continuously engaged in foraging activity except for a short interval in the course of the day.

The effects of lower doses including 0.4x, 0.2x, 0.08x, 0.04x, and 0.02x field recommended dose (x) of insecticide fipronil on the emergence of Trichogramma chilonis (Ishii) from the treated larval and pupal stages of parasitoid within the host eggs of Sitotroga cerealella Olivier, and parasitism of the previously treated host eggs (S. cerealella) by females T. chilonis were assessed under laboratory conditions. Both 0.4x and 0.2x doses of fipronil led to complete failure of emergence, while the remaining three doses demonstrated ≤ 25.61% emergence in the larval treatment. However, pupal treatment indicated comparatively less toxicity to the parasitoids, i.e., the 0.4x dose showed 3.40%, while 0.2x and 0.08% doses revealed emergence 29.05 and 39.65%, respectively. The lowermost doses including 0.04x and 0.02x showed emergence 61.81 and 73.51%, respectively when host eggs were treated at pupal stage of parasitoid. Fipronil also affected parasitism of the previously treated host eggs of S. cerealella, and led to increase in parasitism capacity when dose shifted from high rate toward lower rate: demonstrated increase in mean parasitism ranging from 5 to 10.7.

Fossil records have proved that Modern Mesozoic (Era of Reptiles-252 to 66 million years ago) and Cenozoic (64-65 million years ago) insect fauna have been evolved from Paleozoic insects. There are about 35 macroscopic phyla of kingdom animalia, arthropods have greatest diversity range with highest number of species and this caused the terrestrial animals group to expand their taxonomy branch. 1st insect was evolved 479 million years ago. 1st flying insect evolved approximately 402 million years ago. The most recent insect fossil was found in Washington State on 24th January 2014. This fossil is 50 million years old one.

►✉◀ See also these papers:
➽X. violacea Sociality & Evolution - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/236334738
➽X.violacea Sexual Biology - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258088835
➽X.violacea Nesting Biology - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232990708
➽X.violacea Foraging Biology - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256546876
➽X.violacea Dimorphism - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257138153
➽Xylocopini Systematics & Collections - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256461358
➽Cacyreus marshalli - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235791727
➽Rosalia & Osmoderma - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235637273
➽Saga pedo - https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256455314
➽➽➽ BIBLIOGRAPHY
GLOBAL BIBLIOGRAPHY ☑ http://www.researchgate.net/publication/256485308
Xylocopini ADDENDA II ☑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256457317
Italian Bibliography ☑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235331396
Italian Distribution ☑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256461362
COSTA Bibliography ☑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235331412
Hymenoptera of Campania ☑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235637346
Formicidae of Campania ☑ https://www.researchgate.net/publication/256486142
********************************************************************************
☑ OBJECTIVES & LIMITS - This volume represents an attempt to draw up an exhaustive bibliographical list regarding (directly and not) all the species of the three genera belonging to Xylocopini tribe (Insecta: Hymenoptera: Apoidea: Apidae: Xylocopinae): Xylocopa Latreille, 1802; Lestis Lepeletier & Serville, 1828; Proxylocopa Hedicke, 1938. Foundamental references are reported also for the most important species associated with Xylocopini species, as Chaetodactylidae mites (Acari) and Horiini Meloidae (Coleoptera). The aim of this wide bibliographical list is to make available and/or to accede easily to anyone who is interested in biology, systematics, biogeography about these species, to all bibliographical references dealing to this tribe, from those more recent to the old. The division in disciplines results particularly useful because every researcher is usually interested in a few and exact research field. So, the main purpose is to supply a necessary and sufficient information in order to find a possible bibliographical reference and then, to have right informations in order to know the main contents of reference itself, if the complete title is not available. This list is certainly incomplete, but the absent bibliographical references in this contribution are:
1) very difficult to find;
2) not yetpublished on examined data bases;
3) not included for my negligence;
4) they received scant ot nothing scientific spreading;
5) I have not been way of consulting them yet. Since this list is surely lacking in some references, so I reserve for me to publish at least a second part, to complete this list.
☑ DATA BASES - To get bibliographical references on the genera Xylocopa, Lestis, Proxylocopa, the data bases listed in Table I were consulted. The only data base consulted incompletely was (6), of wich the volumes I-XV are absent in the specialized libraries consulted on this subject: University of Bari, Bologna, Naples, Pisa, Portici, Rome (I, II, III); Apiculture Institute of Milan, Rome, Turin. But this is not remarkable because references in (6) relative to Xylocopini species are decreasing considerably since 1970 and under.
All the papers, notes, contributions, messages, abstracts, symposia, seminars, congress, books, guide, etc., wich comprise informations about at least one Xylocopini species or about the tribe in general (also very short quotations) were reported in this list. Moreover the bibliography reported behind every bibliographical reference directly consulted, was reported too. Some theses regarding Xylocopini species or including informations about them were reported.
General texts of zoology, ecology, biology, botany, natural history and entomology which comprise informations about Xylocopini species were reported.
☑ LIST ORGANIZZATION - All bibliographical references were classified according to informative substance of their title, if they are not consulted directly; otherwise, if they are consulted directly, they are classified on the ground of the principal contents of the text. For every biological discipline in wich the bibliographical references were classified, the organization was carried out alphanumerically. General texts of zoology, ecology, biology, botany, entomology, hymenopterology and natural history ones, were all placed in the section: general books. In this bibliographical list is also reported the bibliography of C. G. Dalla Torre (1896) - Catalogus Hymenopterorum X - regarding different Xylocopini species; these references are lacking in title and in contents; they just report the species quoted or examined in the paper; for this reason, all bibliographical references of wich it was not possible to find their complete title, were placed in a special section: historical bibliography cited in Dalla Torre C.G. (1896).
☑ BIBLIOGRAPHICAL REFERENCES - The complete bibliographical references are quoted as follows: author's surname and initial letters of his name; date of publication; complete title of reference; magazine; volume number; first and last page of the reference. The books are quoted as follows: author's surname and initial of his name; date of publication; complete title of the book; publisher; publisher town; total pages; in some cases it make a reference to the exact pages in which the informations about species of Xylocopini are reported, enclosing within brackets genus and pages. The bibliographical references of which the complete title is not available, but the exact bibliographical position is known, are quoted as follows:
author's surname and initial letters of his name if it is known; date of publication; brief contents of the informations about species subject of the text or quoted; magazine; volume number; pages and/or figure and/or tables where the informations of Xylocopini species are reported.
☑ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS: The realization of this volume was possible thanks to the contribution of many authors who are all thanked sincerely for their irreplaceable help in the obtainment of the bibliography: Alcock J. (Tempe, Arizona), Anzenberger G. (Zurigo), Banaszak J. (Polonia), Cagnolaro L., (Società Scienze Naturali Italiana - Milano), Camargo J.M.F. (Ribeirao, Brasile), Camillo E. (Ribeirao, Brasile), Campadelli G. (Bologna), Comba L. (Roma), Cunha R.A. (Brasile), Daly H.V. (Essig Museum, Berkeley), Frankie G.W. (California), Eardley
C. D. (Pretoria, Sudafrica), Eisikowitch D. (Ramat-Aviv, Isdraele), Gilliam M. (Tucson, Arizona), Herrera C.M. (Sevilla, Spagna), Houston T. (Western Australia), Intoppa F. (Roma), Jackson G.C. (Porto Rico), Lefeber V. (Maastricht, Olanda), Mazzone F., (Portici), McMullen C.K. (West Liberty, West Virginia), Michener C.D. (Lawrence, Kansas), Minckley R.L. (Auburn, Alabama), Monizio R. (Roma), Navarro L. (Galicia, Spagna), Nicolson S.W. (Cape Town, Sudafrica), Nuzzaci P. (Bari), Orion T. (Isdraele), O’Toole C. (Oxford), Pagliano G. (Torino), Pantaleoni R. (Sassari), Parente F. and Iuliani L. (Guardia Sanframondi, BN, Italy), Piazza M.G. (Roma), Rainieri V. (Doria Museum, Genova), Roig-Alsina A. (Buenos Aires), Sakagami S.F. (Sapporo, Giappone), Sanchez-Ortiz F.J. (Spagna), Schedl W. (Innsbruck, Austria), Terzo M. (Mons, Belgio), Torres F. (Salamanca, Spagna), Tremblay E. (Portici, Napoli), Tybirk K. (Risskov, Danimarca), Watmough R.H. (Pretoria, Sudafrica). Many thanks are also due to: Ascione F. (Library of Zoological Institute of Naples); Faller E., Fiorito G. and Misasi L. (Library of Zoological Station Anton Dohrn of Naples); Priore R., Retillo F. and Iorio G. (Library of Entomological & Zoological Institute of Royal Agronomic University of Portici); thanks also to the personnel of the following institute: Library of Institute of Agricultural Zoology Section of Apiculture of Rome; Library of Agronomic University of Bari; Library of Royal Accademy of Phisical, Mathematical and Natural Sciences of Naples.
Many thanks are paprticularly due to A. Vicidomini (Nocera Inferiore), V. Nobile (Catania), M. De Benedictis (Bosco Reale), M. G. Piazza and Intoppa F. (Roma), F. Finotti (Rovereto) for administrative support.
☑ TABLE I: Data bases used for the bibliography.
CODE DATA-BASES FROM-TO
1 BIOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS 1927-1996
2 CURRENT CONTENTS IN LIFE SCIENCES 1958-1996
3 CURRENT CONTENTS IN AGRICULTURAL, BIOLOGICAL & ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES 1969-1996
4 ZOOLOGICAL RECORDS 1864-1996
5 ENTOMOLOGY ABSTRACTS 1969-1996
6 APICULTURAL ABSTRACTS 1966-1996
7 REVIEW OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY SERIE A 1913-1996
8 HORTICULTURAL ABSTRACTS 1931-1996
9 FIELD CROP ABSTRACTS 1948-1996
10 REVIEW OF APPLIED ENTOMOLOGY SERIE B 1913-1996
11 PLANT BREEDING ABSTRACTS 1930-1996

Group predation promotes foraging efficiency because it increases the size of prey that can be killed and improves hunting success compared to solitary predation. However, group predation may increase competition among group members during feeding. Earlier studies have focused on the advantages of group predation, but little is known about the costs and benefits of group predation for individual members of the group. Here, we show that the costs and benefits of group predation for individuals of the predatory stink bug Andrallus spinidens vary with prey size in laboratory experiments. We found that when A. spinidens fed on small prey, group predation did not significantly increase foraging efficiency but did increase competition for food among group members. In contrast, when prey was large, group predation promoted foraging efficiency, and competition over food was not detected. Our results suggest that group predation by A. spinidens nymphs is advantageous for individual members b...

This study gives out the identification of insect faunal waves colonizing decomposing carrions of rabbits and guinea pigs treated with certain drug agent (tramadol) in Cairo, Egypt. Each of six rabbits and six guinea pigs is divided into 2 groups, where the first was killed by tramadol and the second group was killed by asphyxia as a control experiment. Generally, decomposition process was observed to have a slower rate in winter. Reaching to the skeletal stage was delayed in tramadolintoxicated carcasses in comparing to the control carcasses. A total of 12966 arthropod individuals (Immature stages and adults) were collected. In concern of class Insecta, 67 species belonging to 6 Insecta orders and 2 Arachnida orders, 37 families and 51 genera were identified from this study during winter and summer seasons. Significantly lower numbers of immatures were observed and collected in the present study from the treated carcasses. The proportions of adult insects were also significantly different in control carcasses when compared with tramadol intoxicated ones in both winter and summer season for both rabbits and guinea pigs. This study provides background for the influence of tramadol on the colonizing wave of arthropod fauna which is of relevance to forensic science. We can conclude that drugs and toxins present in a decomposing body may alter the rate of insect invasion of that body.