Indo-European Languages

The Homeric epics, but also some later texts contain numerous expressions that are based on the idea of loosening or dissolving the body or its parts. This paper focuses on the Homeric formula 'the knees and the dear heart were loosened' (λύτο γούνατα καὶ φίλον ἦτορ), which is mainly used for overwhelming emotions, and argues for two interrelated main points: first, the formula describes experiences in which a character loses control over his or her life; second, from a cognitivist perspective, the focus on the physiological symptoms can stimulate recipients to form an intense imagination of these experiences. Comparable expressions of dissolving can be also found in early Greek lyric, where the compound 'limb-loosening' (λυσιμελής) and the metaphor of melting are regularly applied love or desire, another experience of loss of control. To some degree even the Hebrew Bible provides similar cases, especially in the Psalms and the Lamentations.

J'établis l'étymologie des noms des saisons en PIE; pour deux d'entre elles, je montre que ce nom désigne la position du soleil au zénith. A noter que tous ces noms sont des noms verbaux résultatifs médio-passifs dont j'ai expliqué le mode de formation dans ma "Grammaire" et divers articles disponibles ici.

Taking inspiration from the biological taxonomy of mammals, this paper explores the diversification of the Indo-European language family through a zoographical lens. It investigates shared innovations of phonology, morphology, and semantics in zoonyms across language branches. The aim is to uncover evidence for early splits within the family tree. The study primarily centers on Anatolian versus Core Indo-European and features an extensive discussion of *h₂ŕ̥tk̑o- ‘bear’ (Hittite ḫartakka ) vs. *h₂ŕ̥k̑þo- (Vedic ŕ̥kṣa , Greek ἄρκτος, Latin ursus, etc.), *h₁ék̑u- ‘horse’ (Hittite */ekkus/, Luwian /azzu-/) vs. *h₁ék̑u̯o- (Vedic áśva-, Latin equus, Tocharian B yakwe, etc.), and *u̯ĺ̥kʷo- ‘lion’ (Luwian walwa/i-) vs. *u̯ĺ̥kʷo- ‘wolf’ (Vedic vŕ̥ka-, Lithuanian vil̃kas, Tocharian B walkwe, etc.). Thorough analysis of these examples will determine their relevance within the proposed scenarios.

https://www.stockholmuniversitypress.se/site/books/e/10.16993/bcn/

I propose that those CāC instances contain PIE *ō which in my view was an open vowel and consequently hyper-Doricisms do not exist.
In order to explain the existing medial ā vs. ō distribution in Greek, excluding the legitimate cases with *eh₂, *eh₃ and *oH, I propose that the vowel quality depends on syllable structure, stress and surrounding phonemes.
If we want to stick with the traditional reconstruction, it is intellectually honest to ask why the reconstructed *eh2 has a great degree of correlation with a contiguous plain velar consonant.

The Hittite ḫi-conjugation is described as basically incompatible with the Gaeco-Aryan verbal system and consequently as reconstructionally insolvable. There might, however, be no ḫi-conjugation at all. There might be just an upgrading vowel -ó- in the „strong“ alternant which is always tightly combined with the stative endings („combining theory“; here below: "TEN").

Only one sixteenth of the Hittite verbal area (6,25 %) is concerned: not the stative section, nor the mi-verbs, nor the middle of the ḫi-verbs, nor the plural of the active of the ḫi-verbs (which keeps the original endings, especially the far-beyond-doubt-attested 3pl ending énti, untouched).

Ergo, the conclusive refutation of the nine traditional ḫi-conjugation theories may run as follows:

One: énti is not a 3-pl-perfect ending („perfect theory“; e.g. Eichner).

Two: énti is not a 3-pl-middle ending („middle theory“; e.g. Rosenkranz).

Three: énti is not a 3-pl-perfect-middle ending („perfect-middle theory“; e.g. Meid).

Four: énti is not a 3-pl-middle-déclassé ending („middle-déclassé-theory“; e.g. Neu).

Five: énti is not a nominal ending („nominal theory“; e.g. Cowgill).

Six: énti is not a 3-pl-thematic ending („thematic theory“; e.g. Couvreur, Pedersen, Watkins).

Seven: énti is not a 3-pl-h2e-conjugation ending („h2e-conjugation theroy"; Jasanoff).

Eight: énti is not a 3-pl-inactive ending („inactive theory“, Gamkrelidze-Ivanov).

Nine: énti is not a 3-pl-voice-opposition ending („ voice-opposition theory“, Sarah Rose, Memorial University St. John’s, Newfoundland).

TEN: Does not exist, because there is no ḫi-conjugation. In other words, énti solely is an athematic 3-plural-indicative-present-active ending. Or, in short: there are, to be sure, ḫi-verbs in Anatolian, but there is no ḫi-conjugation.

This study examines the effects of Hausa tone on the spoken English of undergraduate students and postgraduate
students in northern Nigeria. In multilingual Nigeria, Hausa is one of the three major languages. Like in other
languages of the world, tone in English and Hausa concerns non-segmental sounds. The theoretical anchorage of
this study is Classical Phonemics. The findings of this study are instructive: Hausa tone has negative effects on the
spoken English of undergraduate students and postgraduate students in northern Nigeria; the effects range from the
segmental phonemes to the suprasegmental phonemes; some vowels are interchanged or wrongly pronounced; short
vowels are produced as long and some unstressed syllables are unduly stressed; there are instances of substitution of
some consonants with others; English words are unduly stressed; there is a sharp contrast between the ideal tune
and what students produce; there are instances of weak and strong forms other than schwa; and there is no
productive relationship between tone and stress in the students’ spoken English.

This is a revised version of an earlier draft, the Germanic and Tocharian sections have been reworked:

Purposes of this draft:

1) To show that PIE ē was not a morphological ablaut grade.
2) To show that PIE tautosyllabic non final *ōi̯ surfaces as *ē in every branch.

Is there such a thing as "Indo-European languages". Although I have written so much and in so much detail about this, people seem to still attribute to me views that are exactly the opposite of what I have written. So this article, with this explicit title, is only to direct the reader to the two articles where I have dealt in detail with this subject.

Ἡ δὲ ανεξετάστη βία οὐ βιωτὴ ανθρώπῳ.  I make some gentle of the nomenklatura's attempts at analyzing these words and propose that the former comes from a cpd referring to male POTENCY and the latter to the idea of man as one of a detachments of gods sent to EARTH to GO AROUND SYSTEMATICALLY (as it were, professionally) in pursuit of food for the other gods.

This paper surveys the previous interpretations of NPhryg. (-)τετικμενος and argues in favor of a translation 'condemned' and derivation from PIE *dei̯ḱ- (Ved. diś-, Gk. δείκνυμι, Lat. dīcere), against the equation with Old Irish tongid, ·toing ‘swears’. The proposed root connection finds support in the new etymological solution offered for Hitt. tekri- 'derogation, condemnation' < *do/ei̯ḱ-ri-. The third piece of evidence for the root *dei̯ḱ- used to express the idea of censure comes from PGmc. *teihan 'to accuse'. The source of the semantics is sought in Indo-European poetic language; it is argued that the PIE root *dei̯ḱ- could be employed in verbal contexts related not just to praise (Nikolaev 2012), but also to blame.

This paper discusses the formal relationship between Hittite ḫišša- c., Vedic īṣā́- f. < *h₂ihₓséh₂  ‘shaft (of a cart)’ and the s-stem *h₂éi̯hₓ-os > Slovene ojẹ̑ n., gen. sg. ojẹ̑sa ‘shaft (of a cart)’. It is claimed that the underlying root *√h₂ei̯hₓ ‘pull, move (a vehicle)’ accounts for substantives such as Lith. íena f. ‘shaft’ and PGmc. *airō- f. ‘oar’ and can also be seen as the basis of the two Vedic verbs áyate ‘speeds’ and ī́yate ‘speeds (on a chariot)’, the discussion of which constitutes the main body of this paper. Finally, *√h₂ei̯hₓ is further specified as *√h₂ei̯h₂ and equated with the root that underlies Ved. yā́ti ‘rides, moves, travels’, Lith. jóju, OCS jadǫ, Toch. B iyaṃ.

Greek adjectives in -ης (-ᾱς) such as ὑβριστής ‘violent, wanton’ are generally considered a secondary type, originating in an adjectivization of masculine substantives that became predominantly used in apposition. While this is certainly the preferred analysis for a former agent noun such as ὑβριστής (: ὑβρίζω ‘wax wanton, run riot’), there is a second type of adjectives in -ης that behave (in meaning and function) just like the the- matic adjectives they are seemingly derived from. Compare αἰχμητής ‘having a spear, spearlike, warlike’ (: *αἰχμητός ‘id.’), ἐτησίαι ἄνεμοι ‘the Etesian winds’ (: ἐτήσιος ‘yearly, annual’), ἀργεστής ‘bright’ (: *ἀργεστός ‘id.’), all of which are traditionally interpreted as substantivizations of the underlying adjectives. After introducing nine features to help determine whether a given noun can indeed be considered adjectival, this paper discusses the second type of adjectives in -ης (-ᾱς) and proposes an analysis as former “weak adjectives.”

When we think of the feminine gender in Indo-European and about how it manifests in the languages, we are faced with a paradox. On the one hand, feminine adjectival agreement with the ending *-eh₂- for thematic adjectives can be reconstructed quite safely for (at least) post-Anatolian Indo-European based on the ubiquitous pattern Gk. καλὴ κόρη, Ved. priyā́ kanyā̀ , Lat. puella pulchra ‘pretty girl’, etc. On the other hand, however, Ancient Greek exhibits thematic adjectives “of two endings” that have the masculine set of endings throughout the paradigm when agreeing with both masculine and feminine substantives (e.g. nom. sg. ἡ νῆττα ἥμερος ‘the tame duck’), which cannot easily be explained as secondary. This suggests that the agreement pattern with *-eh₂- for the feminine adjective is a rather recent development that had not been fully generalized and grammaticalized when the languages split up. This paper sets out to investigate the origin of these agreement forms in *-eh₂-, arguing for a revised version of the recently endorsed “weak adjective hypothesis”.

The meaning of Lith. mãžas ‘small, little’ and Latv. mazs ‘id.’ (compare also OPruss. massais ‘less’) has long puzzled scholars of Baltic and Indo-European linguistics. Etymologically speaking, there can be no doubt that Lith. mãžas and Latv. mazs belong to the root PIE *√meǵ ‘big, large’. But how are we supposed to understand the diametrically opposed meaning?

§1. The paper aims to discuss the two Caland roots *√dleu̯k '(be/become/make) sweet' and *√meu̯k '(be/become/make) slimy', which are prominently represented through verbal and nominal formations, especially in Latin and Greek. Initially, the concept of a "Caland root" will be explained in the light of recent research.

§2. Concerning *√meu̯k, it will be argued that the prevailing doctrine, considering it as a verbal root meaning 'unbind, strip off', should be replaced by two (at least synchronically) distinct roots ('unbind, strip off' in Vedic muñcáti 'releases, frees', Lithuanian munkù, mùkti 'to free oneself, escape', Old Church Slavonic pro-mъče sę 'to spread (rumor)' vs. 'slimy' in Greek μύσσομαι, Latin ēmungō 'to blow the nose'). The Latin evidence – and notably the findings of modern Romance languages – actually support the hypothesis that *√meu̯k 'slimy' is a central and inherited element of the Caland system, which is suggested independently by the semantic correspondence of the Latin and Greek derivatives.

§3. The proposal of a root *√dleu̯k, on the other hand, not only sensibly connects the two adjectives Greek γλυκύς and Latin dulcis, but also provides a new etymological basis for the substantives Latin luxus m. 'excess, luxury', which will be further discussed in terms of its word formation, and the rare lucuns, -untis 'a sweet pastry', a singular relic of a word formation type not otherwise attested in Latin in this form within the Caland continuum.

The aim of this contribution is to demonstrate that the form μᾶλα ‘sheep’ in Theocritus is not (as is commonly assumed) a hyperdorism, but rather points to an inner-Greek substantivization of an adjective μᾱλός, attested in Theocritus (as an epithet of a goat) and as (Att.-Ion.) μηλός ‘tame’ in the Etymologicum Magnum. Inducing a discussion of the development of the cluster *dm- in Greek, I will propose to reconstruct this adjective as *dm̥h₂-ló- (from *√demh₂ ‘tame, subdue’).

Starting from a discussion of the name Ἑλένη and the root *√su̯elh₁ ‘to glow with heat’, this paper investigates the outcome of accented *CŔ̥HC sequences in Greek. Most of the cases on record involve *CŔ̥h₂C, resulting in Gk. CάRαC. In theory, this sequence could either represent a PGk. *CáRaC or a PGk. *Cə́RaC, which has led to two opposing views in the literature as to what the outcome of *CŔ̥h₁C and *CŔ̥h₃C would be, viz. either CέRεC and CόRοC, or CάRεC and CάRοC, respectively. Based on the examples Ion. ἀλέη f. ‘heat’ and Gk. (non-Att.) γάνεα n. pl. ‘female genitals’, I intend to show that the latter is the more likely assumption.

The reconstruction of the PIE word for ‘shoulder’ has placed scholars of Latin and Indo-European linguistics in a dilemma that has been widely accepted with- out major protest, and that to my knowledge remains unsolved. For Lat. umerus, -ī m. cannot continue the pre-form *(H)ómso- that is reconstructed on the basis of all the other branches in which this etymon is preserved, but rather has to go back to *(H)omeso- vel sim.

Семененко А.А. Проблема проникновения псевдолингвистики в системы учреждений школьного образования и подготовки педагогических кадров (на примере пропаганды синташтинского «арийского» «языка» в высших учебных заведениях и школьных музеях  Челябинска) // Партнёрство семьи и образовательной организации в вопросах воспитания и образования ребенка: проблемы, задачи, перспективы: материалы Всероссийской научно-практической конференции (АНО ДПО «Институт повышения квалификации и профессиональной переподготовки», 20 марта 2024г.) / ред. колл.: Т.Ю. Хабарова, Н.С. Махина, Д.Н. Припутневич, М.Н. Гребенникова. — Воронеж: Воронежский государственный педагогический университет, 2024. — С. 423—426.

The article attempts to understand the purpose of applique on Neolithic ceramic vessels of Mesopotamia, the foothills of the Taurus and Zagros and connect them with economic activity or art. First known
applique on the vessels connected with the foothills of the Taurus and Zagros and date back to the beginning of the 7th millennium BCE. They have strictly functional purpose (handles on vessels for cooking or hanging them). In the middle of 7th millennium BCE applique—household marks or symbols, as well as zoomorphic ones and anthropomorphic images appear. The latter are predominantly associated with Northern Mesopotamia and  Protohassuna culture. Zoomorphic and anthropomorphic relief images on vessels find close analogies
in small figurines of both contemporary and previous times – early Pottery – late Pre-pottery Neolithic. At the same time, the species composition of the depicted animals of this time differs from those
that were reproduced in the early Pre-Pottery Neolithic. But anthropomorphic images can be traced back to the art of the earliest Neolithic period.

This paper examines the properties of alleged “disagreement”, illustrated in (i), as well as in topic doubling. In order to explain the observed phenomenon, the feature set-up of the four non-plural 3rd person pronouns is examined. It is argued that Swedish has two instances ...

Cartoons are drawings that are message-laden, whether or not they are comic. Thematic concerns in cartoons
(economic recession, corruption, poverty, oppression, moral decadence, bad leadership, etc.) are conveyed via
varied contextual structures including political, domestic and religious domains. Across genres, cartoons are
veritable means of communication deployed by creative artists. This study is a speech act analysis of cartoons
gathered from a school wall. A speech act analysis of the use of verbal and non-verbal communication (as in
semiotics) investigates the pragmatic underpinnings for explaining “what gets said”, “how it is said” and “why it is
said”. Two theoretical frameworks underpin this study: Bach and Harnish’s (1979) Speech Act Theory as well as
Acheoah’s (2015) Pragma-crafting Theory. While the latter provides the study speech act taxonomy, the former
facilitates the identification and explanation of the pragmatic nuances in verbal and non-verbal communication
evident in the data. Conclusively, the study observes that: cartoons rely on both verbal and non-verbal
communication; the messages in cartoons are conveyed via contextualization; the use of speech acts in cartoons is
a reflection of the artist’s (henceforth “cartoonist”) pragmatics-driven communicative intentions; and cartoon
messages are interpreted by exploring cartoonist-audience shared knowledge.

Lat. ēst ‚(s)he eats' reconstructs Lat. pēs ‚foot'; Greek πώς πούς ‚foot' reconstruct Armen. owtem ‚I eat'; Greek πόδα ‚foot (Acsg)' reconstructs Hitt. lāk-i ‚(s)he lays'. Traditional reconstructions of  ‚foot' deploy a pieced-together reconstruct mixed up with -o- and -e-ablaut forms in the same paradigm while the reconstruct given here offers an all-of-one-piece paradigm which obeys the sound rules throughout the paradigms in the individual languages.

A través de métodos etimológicos, este estudio ha identificado seis etimologías (étimos) que tienen en común (sino-germánicas) las lenguas siníticas y las romances:【犬, 飯, 管, 滿, 挽, 全】. Estos étimos forman una correspondencia de rima. Este cambio sonoro regular valida el vínculo
etimológico en cuestión. El étimo【犬】para ‘can’ ha sido identificado en las lenguas siníticas, romances, germánicas, bálticas, celtas, griegas, el armenio, indoiranias, tocarias, tibeto-birmanas y fino-bálticas. El étimo【飯】para ‘pan’ ha sido identificado en las lenguas siníticas, romances, el
griego antiguo y el armenio. El étimo【管】para ‘caño’ ha sido identificado en lenguas sínticas, romances, el griego antiguo, el albanés, el acadio y otras lenguas afroasiáticas. El étimo【滿】para ‘manar’ se encuentra identificado en las lenguas siníticas y romances. El étimo【挽】para ‘mano’ ha sido identificado en las lenguas siníticas, romances, germánicas, el irlandés antiguo y el hitita. El étimo【全】para ‘sano’ ha sido identificado en lenguas siníticas, romances, germánicas y el albanés.
De acuerdo con la lingüística occidental, el lexema protoindoeuropeo ḱuōn ‘perro’ y las etimologías de palabras latinas panis ‘pan’, canna ‘caña’, mānāre ‘manar’, manus ‘mano’, sanus ‘sano’ se han identificado recientemente en las lenguas siníticas. / Using etymological methods, this study has identified six Sinitic and Romance shared (~ Sino-Germanic) etymologies (etyma):【犬, 飯, 管, 滿, 挽, 全】. These six etyma form a rhyme correspondence. This regular sound change validates the etymological connection in question. The etymon【犬】for ‘dog’ has been identified in Sinitic, Romance, Germanic, Baltic, Celtic, Hellenic, Armenian, Indo-Iranian, Tocharian, Tibeto-Burman and Finnic. The etymon【飯】for
‘food’ has been identified in Sinitic, Romance, Ancient Greek and Armenian. The etymon【管】for ‘cane’ has been identified in Sinitic, Romance, Ancient Greek, Albanian, Akkadian and other Semito-Hamitic languages. The etymon【滿】for ‘overflow’ has been identified in Sinitic and Romance. The etymon【挽】for ‘arm’ has been identified in Sinitic, Romance, Germanic, Old Irish and Hittite. The etymon【全】for ‘sane’ has been identified in Sinitic, Romance, Germanic, and Albanian. In words of Western linguistics, the Proto-Indo-European root ḱuōn ‘dog’ and the
etymologies of Latin words panis ‘pan’, canna ‘caña’, mānāre ‘manar’, manus ‘mano’, sanus ‘sano’ are newly identified in Sinitic.