Ottoman-British Relations

İngiltere’nin Osmanlı Devleti ile ilk diplomatik ilişkileri 16. Yüzyılda başlar. Kraliçe Elizabet, William Harborne’u 1582 yılında Türkiye elçisi olarak atadı. İngiltere ve Osmanlı Devleti arasında başlayan siyasi ilişkilerin temel amacı İspanya’nın Akdeniz’de büyüyen gücüne karşı mücadele edebilmekti. İki ülke arasında başlayan siyasi ilişkiler aynı zamanda ticari anlaşmalarla da kuvvetlendirildi. 1620-1683 yılları arasında iki ülkenin ticari ilişkileri en parlak dönemini yaşadı.
16. Yüzyılda başlayan siyasi ilişkide belirleyici olan Osmanlı Devleti idi. Bu durum 17. Yüzyılın sonuna kadar devam etti. 1683 Viyana kuşatmasının başarısızlıkla sonuçlanması ve Osmanlı Devleti’ne karşı Rusya, Avusturya, Polonya ve Venedik’in oluşturduğu Kutsal ittifak karşısında yapmış olduğu savaşın sona erdirilmesinde İngiltere arabulucu rol oynadı. Osmanlı Devleti’nin güç kaybetmeye başlaması ile İngiltere ve Osmanlı Devleti arasındaki siyasi-ticari ilişkilerde üstünlüğü İngiltere almaya başladı.
1787-1792 Osmanlı Rus savaşı sonucunda Rusya’nın Karadeniz’de iyice güçlenmesi, İngiltere’yi harekete geçirdi. 1791 yılında İngiltere parlamentosunda yapılan bir görüşmede başbakan William Pitt, İngiltere dış politikasının temel ilkelerinden birinin Osmanlı Devleti’nin toprak bütünlüğünü sağlamak olduğunu, Rusya’ya karşı Osmanlı Devleti’ni korumak için her türlü önlemi alacaklarını söyledi. İngiltere’nin 1791 yılında başlattığı Osmanlı Devleti’ni koruma politikası, kırılmalar yaşansa da 1875 yılına kadar devam etti.
Türkiye’de yayınlanan döneme ilişkin tarih kitaplarında veya ders kitaplarında İngiltere’nin Osmanlı Devleti’ni koruma politikasını ne zaman terk ettiğine dair verilen bilgiler gerçeklerle uyuşmamaktadır. Genel kabul, Osmanlı Devleti’nin 1877-78 savaşından büyük bir yenilgi ile çıkması üzerine İngiltere’nin politika değiştirerek, çok güçsüzleşen Osmanlı Devleti’ni korumak yerine onu parçalamaya karar verdiği şeklindedir. Bu görüş gerçekleri yansıtmamaktadır. İngiltere, Osmanlı Devleti’ni Rusya’ya karşı koruma politikasını 1876 yılında terk etmiş, İngiltere’nin politika değişikliği nedeniyle Rusya Osmanlı Devleti’ne savaş açma cesareti bulabilmiştir. 
Tebliğde İngiltere’nin Osmanlı Devleti’ni koruma politikasını terk etmesine dair verilen bilgilerin tarihi sürece uygun olmadığı, Osmanlı ve İngiliz kaynakları incelenerek ortaya konacaktır.

Great Britain, England, Protection Policy towards Ottoman Empire

1894 Sason ayaklanması, İngiltere'de Liberal Parti tarafından büyük bir ajitasyona dönüştürüldü. Ermenilerin katledildiğine dair propagandalar yapılmaya başlandı. Bu kara propagandaların gerçek dışı olduğu Sir Ashmead Bartlett tarafından dile getirildi. Tebliğ Bartlett'in kara propagandaya karşısındaki düşüncelerini anlatmaktadır.

Ermeni İsyanları, Ermeni Ayaklanmaları, Armenian, Sason, Sasun, Ottoman Empire, İngiltere, England, Britain

Abstract  This article examines the hitherto unexamined Ottoman Turkish text of the Capitulations granted to the British in 1641. As well as containing the articles governing Ottoman-British trade and diplomatic jurisdiction, the Capitulations con- tained a historical narrative that provided a formal record of diplomatic encounters and practices. By emphasising the importance of bringing tributary gifts and royal letters as a precondition for receiving the friendship of the sultans, the inclusion of the historical narrative within the treaty text presented an Ottoman worldview that saw the sultan at the top of a hierarchy of monarchical power, but also created a layered narrative of precedent that strengthened the rhetoric of alliance through an ancient friendship. In examining the text of the Ottoman Turkish and English versions of this treaty, including full translations of the historical narratives in an appendix, this article makes the case for viewing the Ottoman Capitulations not just as historical treaties, but as historical texts.


Keywords: Capitulations, Ahdname, Ottoman-British relations, historical narrative, diplomacy



Bu makale şimdiye kadar incelenmemiş 1641 yılında İngilizlere verilen ahdname-i hümayunun Osmanlıca metn ini incelenmektedir. Osmanlı-İngiliz tica-reti ve diplomatik nüfuz alanlarını düzenleyen maddeleri içermenin yanısıra, kapi-tülasyonlar diplomatik karşılaşmaların ve uygulamaların resmi kaydını ortaya koyan bir anlatıyı da barındırmaktaydı. Sultan'ın dostluğundan yararlanmak için hediyeler ve kraldan mektup getirmenin öneminin altını çizmek suretiyle, tarihsel anlatının ahdname metnine dahil edilmesi, Sultan'ı saltanat hiyerarşisinin tepesinde konum-landıran Osmanlı dünya görüşünü göstermekle kalmamakta, aynı zamanda kadim dostluk yoluyla ittifak retoriğini güçlendiren katmanlı bir öncelik anlatısı yaratmak-tadır. Tarihsel anlatıların tam tercümelerini zeylde vermek suretiyle bu ahdnamenin Osmanlıca ve Türkçe versiyonlarını inceleyen makalemiz, Osmanlı ahdnamelerini sadece tarihsel antlaşmalar değil, aynı zamanda tarihsel metinler olarak da görmek gerektiğini savunmaktadır.



Anahtar Kelimeler: Kapitülasyonlar, Ahdname, Osmanlı-İngiliz ilişkileri, tarihsel anlatılar, diplomasi

The British Embassy in Istanbul was unique among other diplomatic missions in the long eighteenth century in being financed by a private commercial monopoly, the Levant Company. In this detailed study, Michael Talbot shows how the intimate relation between commercial interest and diplomatic practice played out across the period, from the arrival of an ambassador from the restored British crown in 1661 to the sudden evacuation of his successor and the outbreak of the first British-Ottoman War in 1807. Using a rich variety of sources in English, Ottoman Turkish and Italian, some of them never before examined, including legal documents, financial ledgers and first-hand accounts from participants, he reconstructs the detail of diplomatic practice in rituals of gift-giving and hospitality within the Ottoman court; examines the at times very different meanings that they held for the British and Ottoman participants; and traces the ways in which the declining fortunes of the Levant Company directly affected the ability of the embassy to perform effectively within Ottoman conventions, at a time when rising levels of British violence in and around the Ottoman realm marked the journey towards British imperialism in the region.

ÖZET
XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında ticari gayelerle tesis edilen Osmanlı-İngiliz ilişkileri, 1580 yılında bahşedilen ahidnâmenin yürürlüğe girmesi ile birlikte resmi bir hüviyet kazandı. Ayrıca Osmanlı ülkesinde yürütülecek faaliyetlerin bir kumpanya aracılığı ile idare edilmesine de karar verildi. İstanbul’da daimî olarak bulunan İngiliz büyükelçiler, kumpanya bünyesinde hareket eden tüccarları temsilen ticari meselelere dâhil oldular ve kraliyet adına diplomatik faaliyetleri idame ettirerek mevcut ilişkilerin sürekliliğini temin ettiler. Büyükelçilik makamına atfedilen bu iki farklı vazife nedeniyle, temsilcilerin zaman zaman belirli bir göreve yoğunlaşmaları kaçınılmaz oldu. Fakat büyükelçilerin faaliyetlerini şekillendiren en önemli etkenler; dönemlerinin mevcut şartlarıydı. XVI. yüzyılın sonlarında, temsilciler İspanya Savaşı çerçevesinde hareket ederken; XVII. yüzyılın ikinci çeyreğine kadar Boğdan ve Eflak’ta yaşanan gelişmelerle ilgilendiler. Yüzyılın ortaları ise her iki ülkede de iç karışıklıklar, isyanlar ve savaşlarla geçti. Bu süre zarfında İngilizler, iç savaşın etkileriyle kendi toplulukları içinde bir ayrışma yaşarken; 1645’te başlayan Girit Savaşı ile birlikte Osmanlılar ve Venedikliler arasında bir denge siyaseti izlemeyi tercih ettiler. Daha sonra cereyan eden restorasyon süreci, İngilizlerin Akdeniz’de daha etkin olmalarını gerektirdi ve İstanbul’daki büyükelçinin faaliyetleri, Garp Ocakları ile uzlaşmanın sağlanması yönünde yoğunlaştı. Yüzyılın sonlarına doğru yine tarafların çıkarları çerçevesinde elçilerin arabulucu rolleri ön plana çıktı. İlişkilerin tesis edildiği ilk yıllarda Edward Barton’un İspanya meselesine dair giriştiği diplomatik çabalar, söz konusu tarihlerde Lord Paget tarafından Osmanlı Devleti ve Mukaddes İttifak arasında çıkan savaş için tekrarlandı. Bahsedilen zaman aralığında büyükelçiler, farklı sorunlara benzer çözüm yolları aradılar ve bu temsilcilerin faaliyetleri; hükümdarların dış politikaları, savaşlar ve isyanlar gibi çok sayıda unsur tarafından etkilendi. Bu tez, bahsedildiği üzere Osmanlı- İngiliz diplomatik münasebetlerinin asıl aktörleri olan İngiliz büyükelçilerinin diplomatik faaliyetlerine ışık tutmayı amaçlarken; zikredilen etkenleri göz önünde bulundurarak taraflar arasındaki ilişkilerde yaşanan değişimlere de cevaplar aramayı hedeflemektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Akdeniz, Diplomasi, Levant Kumpanyası, Osmanlı Devleti, İngiltere.

ABSTRACT
The Ottoman-British relations, which were established for commercial purposes at the end of the 16th century, gained an official identity with the entry into force of the ahidnâme dated 1580. It was also decided that the activities to be carried out in the Ottoman country would be managed within a company. The British ambassadors, who were permanently in Istanbul, were involved in commercial matters on behalf of the merchants acting within the company, and they ensured the continuity of the existing relations by maintaining diplomatic activities on behalf of the royal. Due to these two different duties attributed to the embassy, it was inevitable for the representatives to concentrate on a specific task from time to time. However, the most important factors shaping the activities of ambassadors were the current conditions. At the end of the 16th century, while the representatives were acting in the framework of the Spanish War, they were interested in the developments in Moldavia and Wallachia until the second quarter of the 17th century. The middle of the century passed with internal turmoil, rebellions and wars in both countries. During this time, while the British was experiencing a disintegration within their own communities with the effects of the civil war, they preferred to follow a policy of balance between the Ottoman and Venetian government following the breakout of the Cretan War. The restoration process, which started later, required the British to be more active in the Mediterranean, and the activities of the ambassador in Istanbul intensified towards reconciliation with the North African Regencies. Towards the end of the century, the mediator role of the ambassadors came to the fore within the framework of the interests of the parties. In the first years of the relations, the diplomatic efforts of Edward Barton on the Spanish issue were repeated by Lord Paget for the war between the Ottoman State and the Holy Alliance. In the mentioned time period, ambassadors sought similar solutions to different problems, and the activities of these representatives, as well as the foreign policies of the rulers were influenced by many factors such as wars and rebellions. While this thesis aims to shed light on the diplomatic activities of the British ambassadors, who are the main actors of the Ottoman-British diplomatic relations, with new archival sources, it also aims to seek answers to the changes in the relations between the parties, taking into account the factors mentioned above.

Keywords: Mediterranean, Diplomacy, Levant Company, Ottoman Empire, England

This short article, written the week of the Scottish independence referendum, discusses links between Muslims in Scotland / Scottish Muslims and the Ottoman Empire at the start of the 20th century. In particular, it examines the story of Yahya en-Nasr Parkinson, a convert to Islam from Ayrshire who wrote poems and articles about Islam and the Caliphate in particular, including a poem that was presented to Sultan Abdülhamid II. To read more, please click the link to Tozsuz Evrak.

Access to the Ottoman sultans was highly regulated in terms of both space and ceremonial. This was particularly true in the case of ambassadors arriving from foreign states to present their credentials at the centre of imperial life, Topkapı Palace. Using the example of British ambassadors in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries, this paper will examine how the Ottoman state used these audience ceremonies to convey an imperial Weltanschauung. The Ottoman court was not simply the administrative epicentre of a trans-continental, multi-ethnic, multi-linguistic, and multi-confessional polity, but served as a space in which the notion of a universal monarchy could be played out to Ottoman elites, foreign representatives, and the inhabitants of Istanbul. Ambassadors were used as spectators and as participants in a number of events designed to impress upon them the wealth and might of the Ottoman Empire, and to place the ambassadors, as representatives of their governments, in a set position within the hierarchy of the Ottoman understanding of the political world.

This article examines the body of takrirs ¬– written representations – from the British ambassadors in Istanbul to the Ottoman government in the mid- and late eighteenth century, aiming to place these diplomatic representations within the wider Ottoman petitionary framework, and to illustrate the role of the ambassador in providing consular functions. It discusses the form and linguistic style of these documents, before analysing the two main types of cases found. The first concerns the freedom of movement and freedom from harassment requested by British travellers on land and at sea, in accordance with the rules of the Capitulations and custom. The second group of cases dealt with more complex legal disputes between British merchants and Ottoman subjects and officials involving the Capitulations and other sorts of legal practices. Examining these documents permits a view of the practice of diplomacy, and demonstrates how text and custom combined through the fluid interpretation of the Capitulations in order to regulate the rights and freedoms of British merchants through the Ottoman petitionary system.

Bu makale, 18. yüzyılın ortalarında ve sonlarında İngiliz elçisi tarafından Osmanlı hükümetine sunulan takrirleri, bunları Osmanlı dilekçe sistemi çerçevesinde incelemek ve elçinin konsolosluk görevlerine ışık tutmak amacıyla inceleyecektir. Bu belgelerin şekil ve dili değerlendirildikten sonra, iki tip vaka analiz edilecektir. İlk gruptaki vakalar kapitülasyonlar ve diplomatik gelenekler uyarınca İngiliz tüccarlar ve seyyahlar tarafından talep edilen karada ve denizde seyahat özgürlüğü ve mal güvenliğini konu almaktadır. İkinci grup ise kapitülasyonlar ile diğer hukuki uygulamalara konu olan  ve İngiliz ve Osmanlı tabileri arasında gerçekleşen daha karmaşık davaları içermektedir. Bu belgelerin incelenmesi diplomasinin uygulamasını görmemize imkan sağlamanın yanısıra, metin ve geleneğin, kapitulasyonların esnek bir yorumu üzerinden İngiliz tüccarlarının hak ve özgürlüklerini Osmanlı dilekçe sistemi üzerinden nasıl düzenlendiğini göstermektedir.

Gift-giving was a crucial part of the regulation and practice of relations between European ambassadors and Ottoman state officials in Istanbul. Although largely dominated by textiles, timepieces played a crucial role in gift-giving practices on a number of levels. Taking the example of the British embassy in Istan-bul in the eighteenth century and examining the detailed financial records of that institution, this article considers the significance of watches and clocks gifted by the British to different Ottoman officials on different occasions. By considering timepieces as social gifts to build individual relationships, as ceremonial gifts conforming to Ottoman expectations and practices, and as objects used to stimulate commercial interest, this article emphasises the importance of financial records and material objects as sources for reconstructing the practice of diplomacy, and demonstrates the shifting role of time pieces in British-Ottoman relations in the eighteenth century.

Öz
18. yüzyılda İngiltere'nin Haleb-Londra hattında gerçekleştirilen Doğu Akdeniz ticareti İskenderun'daki, İngiliz liman temsilcisi tarafından organize edilmiştir. Liman temsilcisi, limandaki İngiliz gemilerinin yükleme ve boşaltma işleri, İskenderun-Haleb arasında karşılıklı mal transferi ve limandaki altı İngiliz deposunun idaresi başta olmak üzere ticari organizasyonun tüm aşamalarından sorumlu idi. Temsilci ayrıca, gemiye yüklenen malların gemi kaptanına teslimini belgelendiren konşimentoları (bill of lading) düzenleyerek bu belgeleri ve gemi manifestolarının birer kopyasını da Haleb konsolosluğu ile Londra'ya göndermekle yükümlüydü. Bu makalede; 1704-1706 yılları arasındaki İskenderun limanından mal yükleyerek Londra'ya beş sefer gerçekleştiren dört İngiliz gemisi için düzenlenen ve muhtemelen İngiltere'nin İskenderun liman temsilcisi Walter More tarafından muhafaza edilmiş konşimento kayıtları esas alınarak, yaklaşık iki yıllık bir dönem için İskenderun limanından Londra'ya yapılan İngiliz ithalatı üzerine bir inceleme yapılmıştır. İngiliz Milli Arşivi'nde (The National Archives), SP (State Papers) kolleksiyonunda 110/171 numaralı defterde topluca ciltlenmiş olarak muhafaza edilen 269 adet konşimento bu çalışmanın ana kaynağını teşkil etmektedir. Konşimentoların her biri malı gönderen tüccar adına ayrı ayrı düzenlenmiştir. Bu kayıtlardan 1704-1706 yılları arasında İngiliz tüccarlar tarafından İskenderun limanından Londra'ya ithal edilen emtia türü ve toplam emtia miktarı tespit edilmiştir.

Abstract
British Trade in the Eastern Mediterranean: British Mercantile Fleet between Scanderoon-London Line (1704-1706) In the 18 th century, British Levant commercial activities on Aleppo-London were organized by Scanderoon factor marine. Factor marines were responsible for all stages of the commercial organization primarily managing six English warehouses belonging to the Levant Company in the port and activities of uploading and unloading English ships on the port, transferring goods mutually between Scanderoon and Aleppo. The factor marine was also responsible for sending the copy of ship manifestos and other documents relating the trade to the Aleppo...
http://www.journals.istanbul.edu.tr/iuavid/article/view/5000186139

It analyzes the flows of commodities, routes and channels of infromation that linked the maritime mediterranean world of the ottoman empire in the 1700s and its links to Western and Atlantic Mediterranean economies and markets.
It also shows the fuinctioning and impact of an open coastal waters policy carried out by the Ottoman Empire at the time which allowed flags of all nations to participate in its maritime carrying trade.

The English Empire was a rising mercantilist star at the late 16 th century. English
merchants were traveling through the world to market their infamous English cloth,
wool, tin and gunpowder in return of Oriental luxuries as well as miscellaneous needs of
the Crown. The political atmosphere of the Continental Europe as well as the
Mediterranean Basin was making Eastern Mediterranean a center of utmost attraction
for English merchants. Especially when reciprocity of English and Ottoman demands
are considered in terms of English proto-mercantilism and Ottoman provisionism, the
picture gets more and more curious. Through this paper, I am going to evaluate some
picked instances of existing studies of the subject by comparing and contrasting them.

Using archival documents in the Ottoman archives related to British travellers in the Ottoman empire who were travelling under the protection of the capitulations, this article examines the yol emri (travel permit) issued to travellers by the Ottoman state and focuses specifically on the case of Edward Wortley Montagu. In so doing it seeks to highlight the importance of Ottoman archival sources for an understanding of the diplomatic and commercial relations between Britain and the Ottoman empire, an importance that is often overshadowed by a heavy reliance on British sources.

Relations between Scotland and the Ottoman Empire have not received very much attention in the historiography, but Scots had long played a key role in the British Levant trade throughout the eighteenth century and earlier. In the nineteenth century, direct contacts increased with a growing Ottoman commercial presence in the major Scottish ports. Beyond commerce, the work of missionaries from a variety of Scottish churches throughout the Ottoman realms in the nineteenth century, particularly in Palestine, has been the subject of a fair amount of historical interest. However, another fascinating aspect of relations, which has received only limited attention, is the presence of Muslims in Scotland, and particularly Scottish converts to Islam. Using documents from the Ottoman and various British archives to examine the activities of Indian Muslims residing in Scottish cities, and in particular the literary output of a Scottish convert to Islam, Yahya an-Nasr Parkinson, this paper will consider the contribution of Muslims in Scotland to the Ottoman discourse of Islamic unity in the later nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and how loyalty to the sultan-caliph on a religious level sat alongside a British imperial identity.

Much has been written about the wave of Pan-Islamism through the years of the 18 th century, but an inquiry into why a consul of the Ottoman Empire decided to visit Qadian-a small town of the undivided Punjab-is an issue that asks for a bit of detail. The Ottoman vice-consul Hüseyin Kâmi visited Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad (hereafter Hazrat Ahmad)-who claimed to be Messiah and Mahdi-in the spring of 1897 by travelling to the tiny hamlet of Qadian in the Punjab. What could have taken him there is the scope of this article.

During the second half of the 19th century a heavy transformation of the urban layout of Constantinople was promoted by the Ottoman government; in order to fulfil this plan several monuments of the byzantine and ottoman past were sacrificed to the altar of modernisation. Among the foreign community resident in Istanbul scholars and amateurs mobilized to preserve the memories of the city's glorious past; in particular Charles George Curtis, canon of the Crimean Memorial Church, together with his sister Mary Adelaide Walker, collected their sketches illustrating late roman and byzantine dilapidated monuments of the city and published them in two litographed album, each with English and French text; notwithstanding the relevant information about churches, palaces, fortifications, reliefs and architectural sculpture nowadays mostly disappeared, the two albums, titled Broken Bits of Byzantium and Restes de la Reine des villes, had a very limited circulation and were known only to a restricted group of scholars. Only recently a group of Italian scholars, leaded by Claudia Barsanti and of which the author is part, began to work to a complete edition of the drawings. In this paper, after pinpointing the two brothers in the context of late ottoman Constantinople cultural milieu, l illustrate the general features of the two albums and give some samples of the contribution that the drawings of the two albums can bring to the knowledge of the topography and architecture of the Queen of the Cities.

The use of the term 'diplomacy' in the early modern relations is perhaps problematic. Rather, following the example of Franç ois de Callières, it is perhaps better to think of these interactions in terms of negotiations and négociateurs. Using the example of Ottoman-British relations in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, this paper will examine how the key notion of 'friendship' (dostluk in Ottoman Turkish) can be used to examine how relations were formed, formulated, and maintained. The Ottoman court used a variety of practices, from particular phrases in written treaties, to gift-giving, to audience ceremonial, in order to explain and enforce its version of friendship upon foreign states sending ambassadors to the Abode of Felicity. Ottoman attitudes towards friendship and its maintenance can be found in the text of the imperial Capitulations (ahdname-i hü mayun), which provide narratives and explanations for certain practices and ideas, particularly through the use of historical narrative within the text highlighting the events of individual embassies. The British ambassador in Istanbul thus performed a variety of functions, but above all from the Ottoman perspective, he was there to maintain royal friendship through a series of constant negotiations, cultural and performative. His personal skill working within a particular geopolitical context might see new articles added to the Capitulations, but this was only possible through the performance of friendship by gift-giving, participation in formal audiences, and the reading of royal letters. This paper will therefore propose the utility of a comparative assessment of the idea of 'friendship' and the performance of friendship in early modern diplomacy, using specific examples from Ottoman-British relations to consider macro developments in friendly-or less-than-friendly-relations between European and non-European powers. Crucially, the constant negotiation of ideas and rhetoric, spatial barriers, and geopolitical relations were a central part of this performance and this friendship.

The capitulations were one of the most central and long lasting problematiques of the history of the Ottoman economy, which covers a great span of Ottoman history from the very inception of notable a international trade on the Ottoman Mediterranean till the aftermath of dissolution of the Empire.
Vast majority of the existing studies are either specified with seperate and isolated perspective of either law or commerce and/or stuck with the extensions of the declinist paradigm by depicting the capitulations as a totally harmful practice and a stigma on the state authority/“sovereignty”.
Through this paper, I am intended to define the capitulations, to dwell on their historical venture, to remark their impact and to tackle with the misconceptions regarding them.

İngiliz Levant Company üyesi tüccarlar İngiliz konsoloslarının himayesi altında İskenderun’da birer liman temsilcisi/konsolos
vekili bulundurarak limandaki ticari faaliyetlerini organize etmişlerdir. Liman temsilcisi limandaki İngiliz
gemilerinin yükleme ve boşaltma işleri, İskenderun-Halep arasında karşılıklı mal transferi ve limanda mevcut Levant Company’ye
ait 6 İngiliz deposunun idaresi başta olmak üzere ticari organizasyonun tüm aşamalarından sorumlu idi. Temsilci
ithalat aşamasında malların gemiye yüklenmesi ve gemi kaptanına teslimi, gemi manifestolarını Halep konsolosluğu ile
Londra’ya birer kopyasının göndermekle yükümlüydü.
Bu bildiride 1704-1076 yılları arasında İskenderun limanından mal yükleyen gemilere ait İngiltere’nin İskenderun
liman temsilcisi Walter More tarafından tutulmuş İngiliz ticaret filosundan toplam 8 gemiye ait konşimento (bill of
lading) kayıtları esas alınarak yaklaşık iki yıllık bir dönem için İskenderun limanından Londra’ya yapılan ithalat ile ilgili bir
mikro inceleme yapılacaktır. Hâlihazırda İngiliz Ulusal Arşivi’nde (The National Archives) bulunan konşimento kayıtları
bu bildirinin birincil kaynağını teşkil etmektedir. Konşimentolar deniz ticareti organizasyonunda gemiye yüklenen malın
gemi kaptanına limandan teslimi ve gönderildiği yerde hangi tüccara teslim edileceğini göstermesi için düzenlenen nakliye
belgeleridir. Belgeler her bir birim mal ve tüccar adına ayrı ayrı düzenlenmiştir. Bu kayıtlarda gemi ve kaptan adı, malı
Halep’ten gönderen ve Londra’daki alıcısı olan tüccarların adları, malın cinsi ve ağırlık cinsinden miktarı gibi bilgiler içermektedir.
Farklı tüccarlar adına toplam 385 birim mal kaydını bulunmaktadır.
Bu kayıtların farklı korelâsyonlar içinde çapraz okunma yöntemiyle 1704-1706 yıllarında İskenderun’dan gerçekleştirilen
İngiliz ihracatının mal, bir gemiye yüklenen mal miktarı, gemi ve
toplam mal dağılımı gibi çeşitli sayısal verilere ulaşılması ve bunların yorumlanması hedeflenmiştir.

British Levant Company organized the commercial activities in Scanderoon by keeping a factor marine and
vice-consulate under the protection of Aleppo consulates. Factor marines were responsible for all stages of the commercial
organization primarily managing six English warehouses belonging to the Levant Company in the port and activities of
uploading and unloading English ships on the port, transferring goods mutually between Scanderoon and Aleppo. The factor
marine was also responsible for sending copy of ship manifestos and other documents relating the trade to the Aleppo
consulate and London.
In this paper, there will be a micro-examination of import activities from Scanderoon port to London, according
to the bills of loading records belonging to 8 British ships. These are the bills of loading having been sent to London by
Scanderoon factor marine Walter More between 1704-1076. These primary documents have been kept today at the National
Archives in London. These bills of loading are the documents that show us senders’ and purchasers’ names and kinds of
the commodities. These documents are arranged separately for each kind of commodities and each merchant. Names of
the ship and captain, kind and quantity of the commodities are also recorded in these documents. There are a total of 385
bills of loading records between 1704 and 1706. Based on these records, total British export from Scanderoon to London,
and export according to the quantity of commodities and each merchant’s share in the export will be studied for the years
between 1704 and 1706.

This chapter investigates the impact of British privateering on Ottoman maritime territoriality from 1690 to 1790 to examine the discourse concerning rule over the sea on the part of the Ottoman state. It examines the theoretical framework found in European and Islamic traditions of maritime territoriality, and then demonstrates the Ottoman response to violations by British privateers, showing that the Ottoman Empire was able to assert legal authority over the waters it claimed.

This one-day international roundtable exploring the practice of European-Ottoman diplomacy in the early modern period will be held at the University of St Andrews on 24 June 2014.

The roundtable will seek to address questions of commercial, social, and intelligence networks and interests and their role in diplomatic practice, as well as the material and ideological logistics of diplomatic encounters. It will also explore the sources available to historians of early modern Ottoman-European diplomacy, and their methodological issues. The fundamental purpose of this roundtable is to provide an intimate space for vigorous discussion of the context and historiography of Ottoman-European diplomacy.

II. Abdülhamid döneminde muhacir meselesi Osmanlı Devleti’ni meşgul eden önemli
sorunlardan biriydi. Osmanlı topraklarına göç edenlerden bir kısmını da Afgan
muhacirleri oluşturmaktaydı. II. Abdülhamid döneminde Afgan göçlerinin başlıca
sebepleri arasında 1878’de başlayan İkinci Afgan-İngiliz Savaşı, Abdurrahman Han’ın
iktidara gelmesinden sonra iç siyasette izlediği sert politika ile İngiltere ve Rusya’nın
bölge üzerindeki rekabeti sonrasında Afganistan’da huzursuzluğun arttırması gibi
etkenleri sıralayabiliriz. Osmanlı Devleti başta Irak, Suriye ve Hicaz olmak üzere
çeşitli bölgelere yerleştirilen Afgan muhacirlere elinden gelen yardımı göstermeğe
çalışmıştı. Fakat İngiltere, Afganistan’ın bir kısım topraklarının doğrudan kendi
kontrolleri altında olduğunu ve Afgan Emirinin dış politikada kendilerine bağlı
bulunduğunu ileri sürerek Osmanlı topraklarına göç etmiş olan Afganların İngiltere
tâbiiyetinde ve himayesinde olduklarını iddia etmekteydi. Osmanlı Devleti ise Afgan
muhacirleri kendi himayesinde ve Hilafet kurumunun koruması altında kabul etmiş ve
Osmanlı tâbiiyetine geçmek isteyen Afgan muhacirlere kolaylık sağlamıştı.

This paper examined the idea of friendship in the Capitulations granted by the Ottoman state to the British in 1641. In particular, it examined how narrative tropes of friendship, combined with gift-giving and ceremonial, present an opportunity to consider the Ottoman conception of diplomatic practice, as well as the linguistic constructs within treaty texts.

The distinction between the "diplomatic" and "consular" functions of early modern embassies was not always apparent. With merchants the main species of subject abroad, and commercial interest a crucial factor in bilateral relations, it is perhaps problematic to separate commerce and politics in diplomatic practice. The case study of the British embassy in Istanbul, which was run by the Levant Company between 1580 and 1804, provides an opportunity to examine how an overtly political ambassador charged with diplomatic agendas also served as an agent and protector of merchants. Using financial records and petitions from the British and Ottoman archives, this paper will explore the intimate link between commercial interest and diplomacy in British-Ottoman relations, focusing particularly on the involvement of the ambassador in commercial disputes. In the Ottoman Archives in Istanbul, I found a large numbers of takrîrs, petitionary documents dictated by the ambassador and translated into Ottoman Turkish and presented to the Ottoman government. These takrîrs demonstrate that the ambassador was frequently required to act in a large number of often mundane commercial disputes. The frequency of this involvement is also attested by the embassy accounts, which provide great detail into the ambassadors' daily activities. This involvement is not apparent in the diplomatic correspondence, and this therefore also raises important historiographical questions as to how we approach diplomatic history.