Sol Invictus

This study examines some of the most characteristic forms of the newly-established customs, which relate to urban parishes' religious festivals and excursions. Over and above their cultural aspects, the identification and study of these customs presents pastoral dimensions, as they constitute characteristic cases of observances and rituals that priests are confronted with on a daily basis and to which, on occasion, they contribute decisively in terms of their formation and establishment. Because of this, their study presents a broader social and cultural interest, as they constitute contemporary expressions of existing human feelings and aspirations, but enriched with forms of modernist daily life. ____________________________________________________________________________

In AD 274/275 the imperial mint of Serdica issued a highly unusual series of aureliani with a 'deo et domino' legend, assigning to the roman emperor Aurelian (AD 270–275) the title “god and master”. The coins are well known to scholars of Roman antiquity, but the series has never been properly analyzed. This paper provides the first comprehensive and systematic investigation of the coins: A detailed technical examination (production scheme, die analysis etc.) lays the basis for a historical (re)appraisal. The paper shows that (a) the quantities of coins minted were significantly higher than expected, (b) the coins imitate characteristic features of Roman provincial coinage, and (c) they were produced for a ceremonial occasion of public largesse in the presence of the Emperor. These insights have broader implications for our understanding of the increasing tendency towards deification of the Roman emperors.

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Eusebios, Constantinus császár (306-337) életrajzírója, valamint Lactantius, a „keresztény Cicero” egyaránt elbeszélték a Milvius hídon 312-ben Constantinus és Maxentius között megvívott döntő csata előtti isteni eredetű császári látomást. A látomásban szereplő „Έν τούτω νίκα”,  tehát az „E jelben győzni fogsz” jelmondat azóta szállóigévé vált, hiszen a pogányságot leküzdő kereszténység diadalát jelképezi. A Iulianus császár (361-363) nevével fémjelzett rövid pogány restaurációval kapcsolatban a későókor utolsó régi vallást támogató történetírója, a görög Zósimos nemcsak erős szimpátiával viseltetett, hanem egy Eusebioséhoz és Lactantiuséhoz kísértetiesen hasonló történetet is elbeszélt Historia Nova című, Anastasios bizánci császár uralkodási idejére (491-518) keltezhető munkájában. A történetben az ariánus keresztény II. Constantius és a pogány neoplatonista Iulianus rivalizálásáról olvashatunk, amikor a Napisten egy látomásban megjelenik és győzelmet ígér a régi vallást követő lázadónak. A két csodás történeten keresztül bepillanthatunk a IV. század sajátos, átmeneti vallási légkörébe, amikor az ókor és a középkor határán két világnézet állt szemben egymással. A látomásokat elemezve választ kaphatunk azokra a kérdésekre is, hogy milyen hasonlóságok, illetve különbségek jellemezték a későókor henoteista pogány, illetve keresztény képzeteit, továbbá miképp vélekedtek egymás metafizikai elképzeléseiről és vallásgyakorlatáról az ősi görög-római hit, valamint a korakereszténység legfontosabb szerzői.

La figura del sol ha despertado en todas las culturas una fuerte concepción cósmica y ontológica. Se ha tratado de un cuerpo visible, majestuoso, estable, predictible y ha inspirado la concepción del hombre sobre su realidad circundante. Es fundamental no separar las concepciones astrológicas y astronómicas  de la concepción filosófica al analizar sistemas filosóficos y religiosos antiguos. Las asociaciones entre el sol y la monarquía son demasiado tentadoras en el análisis (sobre todo cuando se ve el concepto de “Invictus” como algo militar). Sin embargo hay que tomar precauciones en su análisis.
En el marco del paganismo tardío, hacia el siglo III y IV se denota una especial predilección por el culto al Sol Invicto por sobre los demás dioses. Aquella divinidad de origen oriental (sirio) que se convirtió en un culto cívico, y fue promovida particularmente por soldados, está atestiguada en las fuentes numismáticas y literarias. Esta presencia constante del sol y la figura imperial fue muchas veces identificada con la asimilación entre el dios y el emperador al mismo grado divino y natural. ¿Acaso estamos evidenciando un alejamiento y deterioro de la figura del emperador y por ello esta necesidad del reforzamiento en su figura con la del Sol Invictus?, ¿se trata de una innovación religiosa?

The figure of the sun has awakened in all cultures strong cosmic and ontological conception . It has been a visible body , majestic , stable, predictable and has inspired the conception of man about his surrounding reality. It is essential not to separate the astrological and astronomical conceptions of philosophical conception to analyze ancient philosophical and religious systems. Associations between the sun and the monarchy are too tempting in the analysis ( especially when the concept of " Invictus " is seen as military ) . However care must be taken in its analysis.
Under the late paganism, to the III and IV century a special predilection for the cult of Sol Invictus over the other gods is denoted . That divinity of oriental origin ( Syrian ) that became a civic cult , and was promoted particularly by soldiers , is attested in the numismatic and literary sources . This constant presence of the sun and the imperial figure was often identified with the assimilation between God and the emperor at the same divine and natural grade. Are we there showing a departure and deterioration of the emperor and so this need of reinforcement in the figure and the Sol Invictus ?, is a religious innovation ?

The paper examines the final years of the Roman sun god Sol invictus in imperial representation, c. 310 to 325 AD. The cessation of explicit references to Sol marks a decisive step in the Christianisation of the Roman monarchy. A close analysis of Sol imagery in the Constantinian coinage allows for a reassessment of this process. The minting patterns make it necessary to differentiate between billon and gold coinage: In the billon coinage, references to Sol invictus were ended abruptly in the course of a currency reform in the year 318 AD (no new Sol coins were minted, and the reform drove out from circulation the existing Sol billon coinage quickly). On the gold coinage, however, Sol survived up until 325 AD. The different patterns imply an awareness on the part of the central administration of the diverging functions of billon and gold coinage as media of imperial representation. The paper shows how the termination of Sol invictus was operated with care and counterbalanced by innovations in other fields of imperial representation, such as the ruler portrait.

The article focuses on the author's research on the chronographical background of the Zodiac Mosaic Calendar in Synagogue at Hammath-Tiberias. He researched to find the origin of mosaic decoration, the twelve zodiac sign, the four seasons, and Helios, which was found in synagogues in two parts of Palestine, Galilee and Judah. The chronograph of the mosaic art was extensively debated. The author further studied the history of Palestine Jews in the 4th century. Most of the work was done during the period of Hillel II.
The author concludes that the mosaic from the Stratum IIa synagogue with the Zodiac Calendar was executed in the time of Hillel II, who said to have died around 365 CE. He proposes the new date of the execution of the Zodiac Mosaic from Hammat-Tiberia (Stratum IIa) after the earthquake in 363, that is, in 364 or 365.