Tapir

Narváez Romero C. 2013. Analysis of seasonality and relative abundance of spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus), andean fox (Lycalopex culpaeus) and mountain tapir (Tapirus pinchaque) on the moors of the Podocarpus National Park. Biology bachelor Thesis. Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja. Loja. 76. http://dspace.utpl.edu.ec/handle/123456789/6421

In the western mountain range of National Park Podocarpus and Sabanilla knot in ecosystems over 2400 m south of Ecuador, for 12 months, we evaluated the presence of spectacled bear, andean fox and mountain tapir, three large South American mammals are potentially recognized as "umbrella species", because they have important ecological functions and spacious home range.
By register of seven different field signals used to document the occurrence, relative abundance indices and distribucion frequency, for which we used observation transects signs.
We found 1002 records of the three species in the entire area traversed by the observation units, of which 50.11% belong to bears, 38.42% to foxes and 11.48% to tapirs.
The records distribution and occurrence of the three species throughout the sampling in at least one of the three surveyed tracts showed a continued use of these ecosystems, also we found possible preference patterns related with climatic variables measures temporarily and spatially.
The intensity of use evidences and/or presence was time variant, having highest peaks in a few months but was finally discarded the seasonal use of the moors.
Keywords: seasonality, abundance, Tremarctos, Tapirus, Lycalopex, diversity, Podocarpus, signals

Southeast Asia’s tropical forests suffer the highest rates of deforestation and disturbance of any on Earth, with poorly understood impacts on native fauna. Asian tapirs (Tapirus indicus) are among the least studied of the large mammals in these forests. Using records from 9 camera trap surveys in 7 of the largest (>1000 km2) protected area complexes, we assessed the influence of environmental variation and human-induced disturbance on tapir occurrence. Tapirs were detected at 13% of locations sampled, significantly associated with evergreen forest (P < 0.001). A multiple logistic regression model predicted tapir presence 87% of the time. According to this model, tapir occurrence was positively influenced by annual rainfall and proximity to the forest edge. However, tapirs may not avoid edges but instead prefer wetter evergreen forest, a habitat type that tended to occur further from the forest edge at higher elevations in our particular study sites (P < 0.001). By comparison, 4 other wild ungulate species that share habitats with tapirs showed a range of differing responses. Tapirs are expected to be less sensitive to disturbance because they are not targets for hunting and trade, and are almost entirely active at night, so avoid peak traffic periods in parks. Tapir populations in Thailand may be more stable than in other parts of their global range because rates of forest loss have decreased >40% over the past 20 years. We recommend surveys to fill gaps in the understanding of the status in lesser-known protected areas, research to better understand the fine-scale environmental influences on behavior and habitats of tapirs, and other forest ungulates, and continued legal status for tapirs in the highest category of protection.

Narváez Romero C. (2013). Análisis de estacionalidad y abundancia relativa de oso de anteojos (Tremarctos ornatus), lobo de páramo (Lycalopex culpaeus) y tapir andino (Tapirus pinchaque) en los páramos del Parque Nacional Podocarpus. (Tesis de Biología). UTPL. Loja. 76. http://dspace.utpl.edu.ec/handle/123456789/6421

En la cadena montañosa occidental del Parque Nacional Podocarpus y Nudo de Sabanilla en los ecosistemas de páramo al sur de Ecuador, durante 12 meses, se evaluó la presencia de oso de anteojos, lobo de páramo y tapir andino, tres grandes mamíferos sudamericanos que son potencialmente reconocidos como “especies paraguas”, debido a que tienen importantes funciones ecológicas y amplias áreas de vida.
Por medio de transectos de observación de rastros, se registraron siete distintas señales en campo, usadas para documentar la ocurrencia, obtener índices de abundancia relativa y frecuencia de distribución.
Encontramos 1002 registros de las tres especies en toda el área recorrida de las unidades de observación, de las cuales el 50.11% pertenecen a osos, el 38.41% a lobos y el 11.48% a tapires.
La distribución y ocurrencia de los registros de las tres especies durante todo el muestreo en al menos uno de los tres sectores censados demostró un uso continuo de estos ecosistemas, pero sí encontramos posibles patrones de preferencia relacionados con variables climáticas tanto medidas de forma temporal como espacial.
La intensidad de evidencias de uso y/o presencia fue variante en el tiempo, habiendo mayor abundancia de registros en algunos meses pero finalmente se descartó el uso estacional de los páramos.

Palabras clave: estacionalidad, abundancia, Tremarctos, Tapirus, Lycalopex, diversidad, Podocarpus, señales

Aim We conducted a study to estimate the past and present distribution and population size of T. pinchaque in Colombia. Location The study included all mountain ranges above 2000 m.
Methods The past distribution was obtained by plotting on a map of past distribution of montane rain forests, the geographical locations with the name `danta' or `tapir' above 2000 m obtained from topographic maps, the locations cited in bibliographic references, and the results of interviews in the 530 Andean municipalities. The present distribution was obtained by plotting the present distribution of montane rain forests, the results of interviews and ground control. Population size was estimated by combining measurements of population density with maps of present distribution. Results In the past, the species occurred in the central and eastern Cordilleras, as well as in the Andean Massive where the three cordilleras merge in the south of the country. Currently, the species occurs in the central Andes south of Nevados National Park, and in the eastern Andes, south of Paramo de Sumapaz, Bogota . According to our most optimistic estimates, there are about 2500 tapirs in the Andes of Colombia.
Main conclusions These individuals occur in a total of thirty-five forest patches that range from 5 to 3700 km2. Only five to six fragments have the minimum necessary size (826 km2) to maintain at least 150 individuals, the estimated number to maintain viable population in the short term. The populations most threatened are those of the central Cordillera between P.N. Las Hermosas and P.N. Nevado del Huila where large tracts of
mature montane forests are being converted to opium fields.

The Central American tapir (Tapirus bairdii), is the largest mammalian species of neotropical affinity known
today. It plays a very important role in tropical forest ecology in terms of herbivory, predation and seed dispersal.
However, due to habitat loss and hunting pressure, the species is endangered. Using camera-traps and with the informed
participation of the people from the locality, we documented the presence of several individuals of this species in
Totontepec, Villa de Morelos, Sierra Mixe, Oaxaca. Evidence suggests the existence of a breeding population and
confirms earlier work that suggested its presence in the area.

The scapula represents an important bone in the forelimb which often goes understudied. As the most proximal forelimb bone, the scapula is integral for control and stability of the forelimb, especially in mammals lacking a clavicle (e.g. Perissodactyla). The deep lateral scapular muscles, the supraspinatus and infraspinatus, represent key shoulder extensor and flexor muscles respectively and together provide stability for the proximal forelimb. Examining variation in the attachment areas of these muscles (supraspinous and infraspinous fossae) may provide insights into the adaptation of forelimb osteology to differing habitual needs, e.g. large infraspinatus to provide increased stability for heavy, graviportal taxa; large supraspinatus for impact cushioning in rapid runners. Well known examples of such changes in locomotor style include the fish-tetrapod transition, the back-to-water transition (cetaceans), and the acquisition of monodactyly in equids (horses). Here, we use the scapular morphology of perissodactyls (equids, rhinoceroses, tapirs and their relatives) to examine shifts in relative scapular muscle attachment areas through time, with particular focus on equid locomotor evolution. Scapulae from 48 individuals (16 sp.) were scanned using a 3D laser scanner, supplemented with high-resolution photogrammetry. The scapular fossae were highlighted using Geomagic and imported into MeshLab for area calculation. The area of the supraspinous fossa was divided by the total of the supraspinous and infraspinous fossae to give a value for each individual, here termed the Scapular Fossa Ratio (SFR). Significant differences between species were calculated using ANOVA, and SFRs were mapped onto a composite phylogeny. Two main results came out of the analysis. Firstly, neotropical tapirs recorded a high SFR, with T. pinchaque displaying the highest SFR of all perissodactyls in this study. Conversely, modern equids display the lowest SFR, significantly different from tapirs. The most basal members of the Equidae (e.g. Hyracotherium) display SFRs with nearly equal supraspinous and infraspinous areas, whereas transitional equids in this study exhibit comparable SFRs to modern equids. Our study suggests that the ratio of deep lateral scapula muscles shifted early in equid evolution; this was not mirrored in other perissodactyls, with only a more recent change in SFR in neotropical tapirs (e.g. T. pinchaque).

Abstract: Relative abundance, population structure, habitat preferences and activity patterns of Tapirus bairdii (Perissodactyla: Tapiridae), in Chimalapas forest, Oaxaca, Mexico. Baird’s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is endangered primarily because of habitat loss and  fragmentation, and overhunting throughout its distribution range. One of the priority land areas for the conservation of this species is the Northern part of its range in the Chimalapas forest, Oaxaca. The aim of this research was to determine the relative abundance, population structure, habitat preferences and activity patterns of Baird´s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) in the Chimalapas forest, Oaxaca,
Mexico, through the non-invasive technique of camera-trap sampling. A total of five sampling sessions were undertaken among 2009-2013, and used a total of 30 camera-traps in each period. The determinant factor of the sampling design was the hunting between two study areas. A total sampling effort of 9 000 trap-days allowed
to estimate an index of relative abundance (IRA) of 6.77 tapir photographs/1 000 trap-days (n=61). IRA varied
significantly between sampling stations (Mann-Whitney, p<0.01). The frequency of Baird´s tapir photos was higher in the dry season in tropical rain forest without hunting (x², p<0.5). In the rainy season, the tropical rain
forest and secondary vegetation habitats showed higher photo frequency than expected from random (x², p<0.5). Considering population structure, a 95.08% of adult animals was obtained in photographic records (n=58). Three types of activity pattern were observed, with more nocturnal records (88.33%; Kruskal-Wallis, p<0.05). The
Chimalapas forest appears to be the second most important terrestrial priority ecoregion, just after the Mayan Forest (Campeche, Chiapas, Quintana Roo), for the conservation of tapir populations, not only for Mexico but also for Central America.

Emilia Patricia Medici, Paulo Rogerio Mangini and Renata Carolina Fernandes-Santos
The lowland tapir (Tapirus terrestris) is found in South America and is listed as Vulnerable to Extinction by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, Red List of Threatened Species. Health issues, particularly infectious diseases, are potential threats for the
species. Health information from 65 wild tapirs from two Brazilian biomes, Atlantic Forest (AF) and Pantanal (PA), were collected during a long-term study (1996–2012). The study included physic, hematologic and biochemical evaluations, microbiologic cultures, urinalysis, and serologic
analyses for antibodies against 13 infectious agents (viral and bacterial). The AF and PA tapirs were significantly different for several hematologic and biochemical parameters. Ten bacteria taxa were identified in the AF and 26 in the PA. Antibodies against five viruses were detected: Bluetongue virus, eastern equine encephalitis virus, western equine encephalitis virus, infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus, and porcine parvovirus. A high prevalence of exposure to Leptospira interrogans (10 serovars: Autumnalis, Bratislava, Canicola, Copenhageni, Grippotyphosa, Hardjo, Hebdomadis, Icterohaemorrhagiae, Pomona, and Pyrogenes) was detected in both the AF and PA
sites. A greater diversity of serovars and higher antibody titers were found in the PA. Statistically significant differences between sites were found for L. interrogans, equine encephalitis virus, and porcine parvovirus. Based on physical evaluations, both AF and PA populations were healthy. The differences in the overall health profile of the AF and PA tapir populations appear to be associated with environmental factors and infectious diseases ecology. The extensive datasets on hematology, biochemistry, urinalysis, and microbiology results from this paper can be used as reference values for wild tapirs.

Key words: Biochemistry, health, hematology, microbiology, serology, urinalysis, tapir, Tapirus terrestris.

Daily and seasonal activity of the mountain tapir Tapirus pinchaque was measured along trails and at two salt licks in mature and secondary montane forests of the Central Andes of Colombia using active and passive infrared monitors. Daily activity of the mountain tapir showed a clear bimodal pattern, with maxima during the early hours of the day (5:00–7:00) and early hours of the evening (18:00–20:00). This bimodal activity pattern has also been found in radio-tracking studies of T. terrestris and T. bairdii. Overall, there was more activity in mature than in secondary forest and at lower (3100 m) than higher altitudes (3600 m). Night-time activity was higher during full moon than during quarter and new moons. There was no correlation between monthly rainfall and seasonal activity. The time the mountain tapir was at the salt licks varied between 1 and 190 min. Daily activity at Quebrada Paraiso salt lick (3400 m) showed a clear bimodal pattern with maxima around midnight (0:00–2:00) and midday (11:00–14:00). These patterns of diurnal and nocturnal activity of the mountain tapir could be used in combination with future radio-tracking studies to better understand habitat use by this species.

Forelimb morphology is an indicator for terrestrial locomotor ecology. The limb morphology of the enigmatic tapir (Perissodactyla: Tapirus) has often been compared to that of basal perissodactyls, despite no quantitative studies comparing forelimb variation in modern tapirs. Here, we present a quantitative assessment of tapir upper forelimb osteology using three-dimensional geometric morphometrics to test whether the four modern tapir species are monomorphic in their forelimb skeleton. The shape of the upper forelimb bones across four species (T. indicus; T. bairdii; T. terrestris; T. pinchaque) was investigated. Bones were laser scanned to capture surface shape and 3D landmark analysis was used to quantify shape. Discriminant function analyses were performed to reveal features which could be used for interspecific discrimination. Overall our results show that the appendicular skeleton contains notable interspecific differences. We demonstrate that upper forelimb bones can be used to discriminate between species (>91% accuracy), with the scapula proving the most diagnostic bone (100% accuracy). Features that most successfully discriminate between the four species include the placement of the cranial angle of the scapula, depth of the humeral condyle, and the caudal deflection of the olecranon. Previous studies comparing the limbs of T. indicus and T. terrestris are corroborated by our quantitative findings. Moreover, the mountain tapir T. pinchaque consistently exhibited the greatest divergence in morphology from the other three species. Despite previous studies describing tapirs as functionally mediportal in their locomotor style, we find osteological evidence suggesting a spectrum of locomotor adaptations in the tapirs. We conclude that modern tapir forelimbs are neither monomorphic, nor are tapirs as conserved in their locomotor habits as previously described.

Paulo Rogerio Mangini, Wanderlei de Morais and Leonilda Correia dos Santos
The goal of this study was to revise the medical conditions observed in tapirs (Tapirus terrestris) kept in the Wildlife Captive Breeding Program of ITAIPU Binacional, adding information about the different diseases that can affect this species in captivity. The studied period was from to March 1986 until March 1999. Data analyzed were refereed to four female and four male patients. The notified alterations were classified in: 1) cutaneous lesions; 2) parasitic observations; 3) alterations in the muscle skeletal system and 4) others alterations. The percentage of manifestations in each category was calculated based in the total number of medical situations observed. The incidence rate (I) was calculated considering animal-year at risk. In 101 medical observations, 51 were relative to cutaneous lesions (50,49%; I=1,21), 37 to parasitic observations (36,63%; I=0,88), seven to muscle skeletal system alterations (6,94%; I=0,16) and two were classified as others alterations (1,98%; I=0,05). The incidence rate and the percentage of clinical alterations show that the majority of medical situations were due to poor adaptation of the animals to captivity, demonstrated mostly by high incidence of the cutaneous lesions. Although, parasitic observations didn’t represent clinical problems to the evaluated patients, it must be considered that the parasitic infection can represent the most important factor affecting the health of tapirs in captivity, and appropriated prophylactic protocols are needed to avoid this situation.

The conservation of Baird's tapir (Tapirus bairdii Gill, 1865) in Honduras has recently received a boost with the signing of a memorandum of understanding between the Minister Director of the Honduran wildlife department (ICF) and the Tapir Specialist Group. Despite this agreement, accelerating levels of hunting and habitat loss continue to pose a threat to Baird's tapir in Honduras. An ongoing study in Cusuco National Park (PNC) in northwest Honduras has monitored changes in population dynamics of Baird's tapir between 2006 and 2011 through the collection of occupancy data. The study identified an increase in hunting pressure, which coincided with a drastic decline in the encounter rate with Baird's tapir spoor. Here we examine the significance of a range of demographic variables on Baird's tapir occupancy in PNC using the software PRESENCE and simulate the effects of different management strategies on the future dynamics of the population using the stochastic simulation software VORTEX. The predictions of the theoretical population models are compared to observed changes in occupancy levels. We found that non-intervention resulted in the local extinction of Baird's tapir within a very short time-frame, but that various intervention models enabled the population to recover to near carrying capacity. Occupancy and extinction probability were shown to respond markedly to the increase in hunting pressure; and occupancy models supported the future population predictions generated by VORTEX. Our study suggests that immediate intervention is required to reduce hunting pressure to near historical levels to prevent the imminent local extinction of the species.

Baird´s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is one of the most emblematic mammalian species from Mesoamerica. Due to its level of evolutionary distinctiveness and anthropogenic threat this species was recently ranked in 34th position, in terms of its urgency for conservation, among more than 4,000 species of mammals assessed by experts from the Zoological Society of London. Despite its evolutionary and conservation relevance there remain important gaps in knowledge of the basic ecology of this species. Based on camera-trapping data, we estimated Baird´s tapir abundance and analyzed its patterns of daily activity and preference for different altitude intervals in El Triunfo Biosphere reserve, one of the last strongholds for this species in southern Mexico. We also applied a recently developed method (Random encounter model) to estimate tapir density without the need of individual identification. Tapir relative abundance was: 1.3 events/100 camera-trapdays and density: 0.12 ind./km2. Tapir activity concentrated around dusk (χ2= 21.18, P<0.01) and use of mid-altitude areas was preferred(χ2 = 49, P < 0.001). This study provides data on the ecology of the species and insights on study methods that can have a direct positive impact on its management and conservation.

RESUMEN EJECUTIVO
Este informe contiene una evaluación del estado a nivel de la distribución de dos de las especies de mamíferos ecológica y económicamente más importantes del Neotrópico. El pecarí labiado (Tayassu pecari) y el tapir de tierras bajas (Tapirus terrestris) tienen áreas de distribución enormes; el primero se extiende a lo largo de hábitats tropicales y subtropicales desde el sur de México hasta el norte de Argentina, mientras que el segundo comparte la misma distribución pero en la porción sudamericana. Estas especies son arquitectas de los ecosistemas cumpliendo roles vitales en la estructuración de
las comunidades vegetales. Ambas especies han sido fuentes clave de alimento para cazadores de subsistencia en toda la región y el tráfico internacional de productos de los pecaríes ha sido también económicamente significativo, aunque resultando en una amenaza para la especie donde la cosecha
no es sustentable. Como resultado de la cacería excesiva y la destrucción de sus hábitats, ambas especies son consideradas en peligro o amenazadas en varios países y están incluidas en el Apéndice II de la CITES (Convención sobre el Comercio de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y Flora Silvestres).
Este trabajo ofrece información para la planificación de la conservación y una línea de base para evaluar cambios futuros en el estado y distribución de estas dos especies. También da una indicación de la salud de los ecosistemas a lo largo de su distribución, ya que ambas especies son muy
susceptibles a la presión humana y resultan útiles para el seguimiento o monitoreo del estado de conservación de sus hábitats. Para llevar a cabo este trabajo, muchos rofesionales de 14 países del Neotrópico que estudian los tapires y los pecaríes aportaron datos y contribuyeron al análisis y conclusiones. A continuación se presentan los resultados más sobresalientes.

Baird&#39;s tapir Tapirus bairdii is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is considered rare and locally extirpated from most of its historic range in Costa Rica. We conducted camera-trap and track surveys at 38 forested sites in and around the San Juan–La Selva Biological Corridor in the Northern Zone of Costa Rica. Cameras were set along established game trails and natural funnels and operated for 14–38 days per site. Additionally, we documented tapir tracks at many sites. We used survey photographs and track presence to create detection histories to estimate the habitat and survey-specific variables that influence the probability of detection and the probability of occurrence of Baird&#39;s tapir. The two major protected areas within and adjacent to the corridor were most positively associated with tapir occurrence, and forest cover and native and exotic tree plantations were also positively associated with tapirs’ use of sites. Although the Baird&#39;s tapir is rar...

1. The world’s terrestrial biomes are broadly classified according to the dominant
plant growth forms that define ecosystem structure and processes. Although
the abundance and distribution of different plant growth forms can be strongly
determined by factors such as climate and soil composition, large mammalian
herbivores have a strong impact on plant communities, thus defaunation (the
local or functional extinction of large animals) has the potential to alter the com-
positional structure of plant growth forms in natural ecosystems.
2. Tropical rainforests sustain a high diversity of growth forms, including trees,
palms, lianas, shrubs, herbs and bamboos, all of which play important ecosystem
functions. Here, we experimentally evaluate how large mammalian herbivores
affect the dominance, diversity and coexistence of these major tropical forest
plant growth forms, by monitoring communities of saplings on the understorey
in 43 paired exclusion plots in a long-term replicated exclusion experiment in the
understorey of the Atlantic forest of Brazil.
3. Over the course of 10 years large herbivore exclusion decreased diversity among
growth forms, increased the absolute abundance of palms and trees (22% and
38% respectively) and increased the diversity of species within these two
groups, to the detriment of other growth forms. Furthermore, all pairwise rela-
tionships between growth forms were positive on plots where herbivores had
access, whereas several strong negative relationships emerged in plots where
herbivores were excluded. This occurred despite strong background directional
temporal trends affecting plant communities in both experimental treatments
across the region.
4. Synthesis. Our work indicates that the defaunation alters growth form domi-
nance by favouring palms and trees while eroding diversity among growth
forms and coexistence on a temporal scale. Large herbivore mammals promote
diversity among growth forms, preventing the hyper-dominance of trees and
palms, yet without supressing the diversity of species within growth forms. We
argue that large herbivore mammals affect growth forms through several non-
mutually exclusive mechanisms, including herbivory, seed dispersal and physi-
cal disturbance, as well as differential effects linked to the morphological a physiological adaptations of growth forms. We conclude that defaunation might
lead to profound impacts on important ecosystem functions underpinned by
growth form diversity, and result in vertical and horizontal structural simplifica-
tion of tropical rainforests

In this paper, a record of the White-lipped Peccary Tayassu pecari recovered from Islas Lechiguanas 1 archaeological site (Paraná Delta, southern Entre Ríos province, Argentina) is presented. The
materials identified correspond to teeth recovered from level II, dated 408 ± 30 years 14C AP. This record confirms the presence of this species contemporary with the beginning of the historical period
in the region, extending its southern distribution prior to the environmental changes produced by the biological invasion of the XVIth century.

Baird´s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is one of the most emblematic mammalian species from Mesoamerica. Due to its level of evolutionary distinctiveness and anthropogenic threat this species was recently ranked in 34th position, in terms of its urgency for conservation, among more than 4,000 species of mammals assessed by experts from the Zoological Society of London. Despite its evolutionary and conservation relevance there remain important gaps in knowledge of the basic ecology of this species. Based on camera-trapping data, we estimated Baird´s tapir abundance and analyzed its patterns of daily activity and preference for different altitude intervals in El Triunfo Biosphere reserve, one of the last strongholds for this species in southern Mexico. We also applied a recently developed method (Random encounter model) to estimate tapir density without the need of individual identification. Tapir relative abundance was: 1.3 events/100 camera-trap days and density: 0.12 ind./km 2 . Tapir act...

Baird&#39;s tapir Tapirus bairdii is categorized as Endangered on the IUCN Red List and is considered rare and locally extirpated from most of its historic range in Costa Rica. We conducted camera-trap and track surveys at 38 forested sites in and around the San Juan–La Selva Biological Corridor in the Northern Zone of Costa Rica. Cameras were set along established game trails and natural funnels and operated for 14–38 days per site. Additionally, we documented tapir tracks at many sites. We used survey photographs and track presence to create detection histories to estimate the habitat and survey-specific variables that influence the probability of detection and the probability of occurrence of Baird&#39;s tapir. The two major protected areas within and adjacent to the corridor were most positively associated with tapir occurrence, and forest cover and native and exotic tree plantations were also positively associated with tapirs’ use of sites. Although the Baird&#39;s tapir is rar...

Baird´s tapir (Tapirus bairdii) is one of the most emblematic mammalian species from Mesoamerica. Due to its level of evolutionary distinctiveness and anthropogenic threat this species was recently ranked in 34th position, in terms of its urgency for conservation, among more than 4,000 species of mammals assessed by experts from the Zoological Society of London. Despite its evolutionary and conservation relevance there remain important gaps in knowledge of the basic ecology of this species. Based on camera-trapping data, we estimated Baird´s tapir abundance and analyzed its patterns of daily activity and preference for different altitude intervals in El Triunfo Biosphere reserve, one of the last strongholds for this species in southern Mexico. We also applied a recently developed method (Random encounter model) to estimate tapir density without the need of individual identification. Tapir relative abundance was: 1.3 events/100 camera-trapdays and density: 0.12 ind./km2. Tapir activi...

The UN declaration of the Decade of Ecosystem Restoration 2021–2030 emphasizes the need for effective measures to restore ecosystems and safeguard biodiversity. Large herbivores regulate many ecosystem processes and functions; yet, their potential as a nature-based solution to buffer against long-term temporal declines in biodiversity associated with global change and restore diversity in secondary forests remains unknown.
    By means of an exclusion experiment, we tested experimentally the buffering effects of large wild herbivores to avert against long-term biodiversity collapse in old-growth and secondary tropical forests in the Atlantic Forest of Brazil where sapling abundance and species richness declined c. 20% over the course of 10 years. The experiment comprised 50 large herbivore exclosure-open control plot pairs (25 at the old-growth forest and 25 at the secondary forest), where 2 m2 were monitored in every plot during a 10-year period.
    Large herbivores were able to decelerate diversity declines and compositional change in the species-rich old-growth forest, but only decelerated compositional change in the secondary forest. In contrast, declines in species richness and abundance were unaffected by large herbivores on either forest.
    The buffering effects of large herbivores were strongly nonlinear and contingent on the initial level of diversity at the patch scale: highly diverse communities suffered the strongest collapse in the absence of large herbivores. Thus, larger buffering effects of large herbivores on the old-growth forest are the logical consequence of large herbivores buffering the many high diversity plant communities found in this forest. Conversely, as the secondary forest held fewer high diversity patches, buffering effects on the secondary forest were weak.
    Synthesis and applications. Our study indicates that large herbivores have moderate yet critical effects on slowing down community change and diversity loss of highly diverse plant communities, thus suggesting that the conservation of (and potentially trophic rewilding with) large herbivores is a fundamental nature-based solution for averting the global collapse of the strongholds of biodiversity. Its buffering effects on biodiversity loss operate at very small spatial scales, are likely contingent on successional stage and are most effective in old-growth or high diversity secondary forests.