Trichoderma

Many microorganisms produce volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with biological effects on plants. In this study, Arabidopsis seeds or 14-day-old vegetative plants were exposed to 0.5 μg/l of chemical standards of 26 VOCs previously identified from the biocontrol fungus Trichoderma. Seven compounds (1-decene, 2-heptylfuran, 2-methyl-1-propanol, 2-methyl-1-butanol, 3-methyl-1- butanol, 2-heptanone, and 1-octen-3-ol) were further tested at the physiological concentration (10 ng/l) and 3-methyl-1-butanol, 1-decene, and 2-heptylfuran induced significant increases in fresh weight and total chlorophyll content. Plants exposed to 1-decene had the greatest increase in plant fresh shoot weight (38.9%) and chlorophyll content (67.8%). An RNA sequencing analysis was performed on plants treated with vapors of 1-decene. The expression of 123 genes was differentially affected, encompassing genes involved in cell wall modification, auxin induction, stress, and defense responses, with several major classes of stress-related genes showing down-regulation. To our knowledge, this is the first report of the effect of a plant growth promoting VOC on gene expression in Arabidopsis thaliana. As the role of fungal VOCs in biocontrol moves from correlative studies to more hypothesis driven approaches, our findings can guide both basic and applied studies in agricultural research.

Se elaboró un biaoctivador a partir de un consorcio microbiano con los géneros Pseudomonas spp., Paecilomyces spp. y Trichoderma spp., como reactivador de suelos erosionados de la parroquia Cacha, provincia de Chimborazo. Se caracterizó el suelo físico-químico y microbiológicamente para conocer la situación real del mismo, se analizó los siguientes parámetros pH, humedad, temperatura, carbono, nitrógeno, fósforo, potasio, relación C/N, porcentaje de materia orgánica, UFC/g de suelo, los cuales determinaron que el suelo de las comunidades Chuyuc (Panadero), Cacha Obraje, San Pedro, Pucara Quinche, Cauñag, San Antonio de Bashug, Verdepamba, Machangara, Cachaton, presentaron síntomas de erosión, por lo que necesita una recuperación. Del mismo suelo se aislaron los hongos destinados para este bioactivador Trichoderma spp y Paecilomyces spp, en el proceso se logró aislar distintos géneros como Fusarium spp., Aspergillus spp., Penicillum spp., Scedosporium spp., Rhizopus spp. Para realizar el bioformulado se determinó las cantidades necesarias del medio que constó de melaza y arroz. Se elaboró el bioactivador con un consorcio microbiano contenido por 37,5% de Trichoderma spp., 37,5% de Paecilomyces spp. y 25% de Pseudomonas spp. en un sustrato de 53% (p/p) de arroz, 10%(p/p) de melaza y 37% (p/p) de agua destilada. Después de la incubación de las cepas se inoculó el bioactivador en el suelo y se realizó el control de efectividad del mismo, se analizó índice de germinación el cual presentó una mejora del 49,80% aplicado el bioactivador, el pH que se logró regular a una media de 7, en humedad se obtuvo una mejora del 53,68%, en cuanto a la relación carbono/nitrógeno las muestras alcanzaron la relación C/N baja, indica que la materia orgánica da un buen suministro de N, K y S al suelo. En cuanto al porcentaje de materia orgánica se evidenció una mejora de 24,32%. La cantidad de UFC/g de suelo aumentó significativamente en 70,56% en el suelo aplicado el bioactivador. Además, se halló protozoos en las muestras de suelo con bioactivador, microorganismo que indica existe una buena fuente de materia orgánica, nutrientes disponibles, condiciones física-químicas apropiadas, temperatura adecuada y un buen suministro de agua. Se recomienda realizar el control de efectividad del bioactivador probándolo en parcelas de suelo, ampliando el área de muestra, ya que el prototipo aplicado en esta investigación es de proporciones menores

We have investigated the regulation by N-acetyl-glucosamine of the nag1 gene of the mycoparasitic biocontrol fungus Trichoderma atroviride (=T. harzianum P1), which encodes a 73-kDa N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase. The use of translational fusions revealed that a 290-bp fragment of the 5′ regulatory region of nag1 is sufficient to confer inducibility on the Aspergillus niger goxA gene. The region between positions –150 and –290, upstream of the nag1 coding region, was investigated using in vivo methylation protection analysis and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSAs). Two neighbouring regions that interacted with regulatory proteins were identified, and bases essential for these interactions were determined in vitro. These data reveal protein binding to a CCCCT element at –240, a CCAGN13CTGG motif at –284, and a CCAAT-box which is present in the spacer of the latter motif. Evidence for the binding of a Hap2/3/5 complex to this CCAAT motif is presented. Protein binding to all three motifs was constitutive, and no differences were observed between induced and non-induced cultures. Mutation of either the CCAGN13CTGG or the AGGGG motif resulted in loss of inducibility of nag1 expression by N-acetyl-D-glucosamine in vivo.

RESUMEN En éste trabajo se realizó el reconocimiento a los integrantes del dominio eukarya (protozoos, algas, hongos). En el caso de hongos, protozoos y algas se hizo un reconocimiento detallado de esto donde se pudo evidenciar sus tipos y el porqué de sus características físicas y biológicas. Además, para el fungi se aplicó la técnica del repique para Trichoderma, y se aisló otros hongos a partir de una gran variedad de productos naturales como el banano, aguacate, arepa, pan, fresa, mora, semillas de cannabis, semillas de naranja, entre otros. A partir del aislamiento, se logró observar las estructuras principales que facilitan ver la taxonomía del microorganismo y ésto se pudo realizar a través del microscopio. ABSTRACT In this work the recognition to members of the eukarya domain (protozoa, algae, fungi) was performed. In the case of fungi, protozoa and algae made a detailed analysis of where this was evident why their types and their physical and biological characteristics recognition. In addition to the fungi technique peal for Trichoderma it was applied, and other fungi was isolated from a variety of natural products such as bananas, avocado, corn bread, bread, strawberry, blackberry, cannabis seeds, orange seeds, among others. From isolation, it was possible to observe the main structures that facilitate see the taxonomy of the organism and this could be done through the microscope.

ABSTRACT
In this work the recognition to members of the eukarya domain (protozoa, algae, fungi) was performed. In the case of fungi, protozoa and algae made a detailed analysis of where this was evident why their types and their physical and biological characteristics recognition. In addition to the fungi technique peal for Trichoderma it was applied, and other fungi was isolated from a variety of natural products such as bananas, avocado, corn bread, bread, strawberry, blackberry, cannabis seeds, orange seeds, among others. From isolation, it was possible to observe the main structures that facilitate see the taxonomy of the organism and this could be done through the microscope.

ABSTRAK Kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan penerapan teknologi budidaya tanaman yang dilakukan perlu berorientasi pada pemanfaatan sumber daya alam yang efektif penggunaannya, sehingga tercipta keseimbangan lingkungan yang dapat menjamin kelangsungan hidup manusia dan spesies lainnya. Serangan organisme pengganggu tanaman (OPT) hingga saat ini masih merupakan masalah utama yang membatasi produksi terutama untuk daerah-daerah yang mempunyai iklim tropis. Sementara, penggunaan pestisida sintetik dalam mengendalikan OPT mempunyai resiko yang besar karena dapat menyebabkan resistensi, resurgensi, pencemaran lingkungan, musnahnya musuh alami, timbulnya residu pestisida dalam tanaman dan sebagainya. Pengendalian hayati diharapkan dapat mengurangi efek samping dari penggunaan pestisida dalam mengendalikan serangan OPT. Salah satu agens hayati yang telah banyak dilaporkan adalah Trichoderma spp.. Tujuan dari pembuatan artikel ini untuk memaparkan informasi hasil-hasil penelitian tentang pemanfaatan Trichoderma spp. sebagai pengendalian hayati yang berwawasan lingkungan. Trichoderma spp. merupakan jamur antagonis yang mampu menghambat perkembangan patogen melalui proses, mikroparasitisme, antibiosis dan kompetesi. Trichoderma spp. mempunyai potensi yang baik untuk dikembangkan sebagai agens hayati dalam pengendalian penyakit tanaman, hal ini dikarenakan sifat Trichoderma spp. sebagai cendawan antagonis yang dianggap aman bagi lingkungan karena cendawan ini berasal dari tanah dan dapat berfungsi sebagai pengurai unsur hara tanaman serta dalam pengendalian penyakit memberikan hasil yang cukup memuaskan. Kata kunci : Trichoderma spp., agens hayati, cendawan antagonis. PENDAHULUAN A. Latar Belakang Pertanian merupakan suatu bidang kegiatan usaha yang tidak akan lepas dari kehidupan manusia dan alam, sebab secara hirarkhi di ekosistem beberapa komponen kehidupan membentuk mata rantai yang saling mempengaruhi, terputusnya salah satu mata rantai tersebut akan mengakibatkan atau berpengaruh terhadap kelangsungan makhluk hidup yang lain sehingga harus dilestarikan. Kemajuan ilmu pengetahuan dan penerapan teknologi budidaya tanaman yang dilakukan perlu berorientasi pada pemanfaatan sumber daya alam yang efektif penggunaannya, sehingga dapat terciptan keseimbangan lingkungan yang dapat menjamin kelangsungan hidup

Species of Trichoderma are diverse fungal microbial community known and explored worldwide for their
versatilities as biocontrol and growth promoting agents. They are also widely exploited in industries as sources of enzymes.
A large number of research groups are working on various aspects of Trichoderma viz., diversity, ecology and their
applications. In India, about 110 groups representing various universities and research institutes are working with about 15
different species and have published about 460 research papers. Trichoderma harzianum and Trichoderma viride are the
widely used species and have been exploited on about 87 different crops and about 70 soilborne and 18 foliar pathogens,
respectively. This review aims to give an overview of the status of usage of Trichoderma on important agricultural crops by
different groups and organizations in the country.

Various techniques are used to adjust the flavors of foods and beverages to new market demands. Although synthetic flavoring chemicals are still widely used, flavors produced by biological methods (bioflavors) are now more and more requested by consumers, increasingly concerned with health and environmental problems caused by synthetic chemicals. Bioflavors can be extracted from plants or produced with plant cell cultures, microorganisms or isolated enzymes. This Mini-Review paper gives an overview of different systems for the microbial production of natural flavors, either de novo, or starting with selected flavor precursor molecules. Emphasis is put on the bioflavoring of beer and the possibilities offered by beer refermentation processes. The use of flavor precursors in combination with non-conventional or genetically modified yeasts for the production of new products is discussed.

RESUMEN
El hongo Trichoderma spp. Pers. es de importancia en la agricultura principalmente en el control de enfermedades de plantas, por su capacidad antagónica y biofungicida sobre otros hongos y pseudohongos patógenos. En este sentido, se aislaron 21 cepas nativas de Trichoderma spp. a partir de muestras de suelo de la rizósfera de plantas de cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) en el Municipio Antonio Pinto Salinas del Estado Mérida, Venezuela. Los aislados fueron identificados basados en su morfología, obteniéndose nueve especies: T. harzianum (8), T. koningii (3), T. citrinoviride (2), T. reesei (2), T. fasciculatum (2), T. pseudokoningii, T. piluliferum, T. longibrachiatum e Hypocreanum. Los índices de diversidad ID= 0,43 y DMg = 2,63 nos mostró una diversidad media para el agroecosistema cacao, que es similar a lo encontrado en selvas tropicales. Mediante el uso de la técnica de cultivos duales in vitro y un diseño unifactorial completamente al azar los aislamientos más la cepa comercial (INIA, T. harzianum) se enfrentaron al patógeno Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. causante de antracnosis en cultivos de cacao de la zona. Se encontraron diferencias significativas entre los tratamientos en Tukey (P<0,05) variable PICR, se aplicó la escala de Bell et al., 1982, encontrándose que el 90,91% de los aislados presentaron Grado 1 y 2 de antagonismo, se evaluó también la presencia de antibiosis y actividad micoparasítica. Por último, se tomaron en cuenta los diferentes mecanismos de acción del antagonista, resultando seleccionadas como especies promisorias los aislados TD3, TA5, TD2 y TE*, los dos primeros de la especie T. koningii y los dos últimos de T. harzianum respectivamente para el biocontrol de la antracnosis en cacao.

ABSTRACT
EVALUATION OF THE in vitro ANTAGONISTIC CAPACITY OF Trichoderma spp. Pers. ISOLATES FROM CACAO CULTIVARS (Theobroma cacao L.) Vs. Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz.
Trichoderma spp. Pers. is a fungus of importance in agriculture, mainly in controlling plant diseases by their antagonistic and fungicide on other fungi and pathogens pseudofungi capacity. In this regard, 21 native strains of Trichoderma were isolated from soil samples from the rhizosphere of plants cacao (Theobroma cacao L.) in Antonio Pinto Salinas Municipality of Merida State, Venezuela. Isolates were identified by their morphology obtained nine species, as follows: T. harzianum (8), T. koningii (3), T. citrinoviride (2), T. reesei (2), T. fasciculatum (2), T. pseudokoningii, T. piluliferum, T. longibrachiatum and Hypocreanum. Diversity indices ID = 0.43 and DMg = 2,63 at an average diversity for cacao agroecosystem and follows similar to that found in rain forests. Using the dual in vitro culture technique and a completely random unifactorial design, the isolates more the commercial strain (INIA, T. harzianum) were faced with the pathogen Colletotrichum gloeosporioides Penz. causing anthracnose in cocoa crops in the area. Significant differences between treatments Tukey (P<0.05) was found varying PICR is, the scale was applied Bell et al.,1982, finding that 90.91% of isolates exhibit Grade 1 and 2 antagonism, was also evaluated the presence of antibiosis and mycoparasitic activity. Finally, taking into account the different mechanisms of action of the antagonist, they were selected as promising species isolated TD3, TA5, TD2 and TE*, the first two of the species T. koningii and the last two of T. harzianum respectively for the anthracnose biocontrol of cocoa.

The use of Trichoderma isolates with efficient antagonistic activity represents a potentially effective and alternative disease management strategy to replace health hazardous chemical control. In this context, twenty isolates were obtained from tomato rhizosphere and evaluated by their antagonistic activity against four fungal pathogens (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. lycopersici, Alternaria alternata, Colletotrichum gloeosporoides and Rhizoctonia solani). The production of extracellular cell wall degrading enzymes of tested isolates was also measured. All the isolates significantly reduced the mycelial growth of tested pathogens but the amount of growth reduction varied significantly as well. There was a positive correlation between the antagonistic capacity of Trichoderma isolates towards fungal pathogens and their lytic enzyme production. The Trichoderma isolates were initially sorted according to morphology and based on the translation elongation factor 1-α gene sequence similarity, the isolates were designated as Trichoderma harzianum, T. koningii, T. asperellum, T. virens and T. viride. PCA analysis explained 31.53, 61.95, 62.22 and 60.25% genetic variation among Trichoderma isolates based on RAPD, REP-, ERIC- and BOX element analysis, respectively. ERG-1 gene, encoding a squalene epoxidase has been used for the first time for diversity analysis of antagonistic Trichoderma from tomato rhizosphere. Phylogenetic analysis of ERG-1 gene sequences revealed close relatedness of ERG-1sequences with earlier reported sequences of Hypocrea lixii, T. arundinaceum and T. reesei. However, ERG-1 gene also showed heterogeneity among some antagonistic isolates and indicated the possibility of occurrence of squalene epoxidase driven triterpene biosynthesis as an alternative biocontrol mechanism in Trichoderma species.

Seven different strains of  Trichoderma  are isolated
from wilt infected leguminous crops of a Madhya Pradesh state
and tested for their antagonistic activity against  Fusarium (soil
borne pathogen) which is expressed as a zone of inhibition in the
culture plates. The seven strains are identified as  Trichoderma
viride, T. harzianum, T. asperellum, T. koningii, T. atroviride, T.
longibrachiatum,  and  T. virens. Upon successful identification,
morphological description of the isolated strains. This study aims
at selecting the best strain of Trichoderma species (Trichoderma
viride) and then preparing a simple bioformulation that is cheap,
easy to apply and readily accessible to the farmers. Shelf life of
the prepared bioformulation is even checked for 180 days and it
is concluded that the number of prop gules start declining from
30th day onwards when the bioformulation is prepared in talc as
a carrier material.

Trichoderma is a cosmopolitan fungus abundantly present in fertile soils and is well known for its mutualistic and endophytic relationship with other plant bodies. The diversified species of trichoderma have been well described in literature for its biocontrol capacity and its key role in health and plant growth. The species of trichoderma varies in different soils and could only be identified after specific procedures. The present study was designed to investigate the various species of trichoderma in wheat fields of central Punjab area of Pakistan which consists of 19 districts. Three soil samples from each district of central Punjab have been isolated to determine the prevalence/diversity of various Trichoderma species. The samples were grown on complete media to isolate various species of fungi. The isolated species were then analyzed further on minimal media for the production of Trichoderma species. The result revealed the presence of Trichoderma in all samples. The morphological characteristics led to the identification of five species of Trichoderma in all samples. The most prevalent strains occurring in some districts of Punjab were Trichoderma Harzianum (84%) followed by Trichoderma viridae (63%), Trichoderma reesei (52%), Trichoderma koningii (31%) and Trichoderma Hamatum (26%). The district wise the most prevalent species is Trichoderma harzianum it is found in 6 districts with maximum prevalence in 3 districts i.e Hafizabad, Mandi bahuddin and Sahiwal. While the least prevalent species found to be was Trichoderma Hamatum having occurrence in only 2 districts named Faisalabad and Khanewal.  The study showed the presence of different strains of trichoderma in all districts of central and upper Punjab region of Pakistan. The present study validated the presence of Trichoderma species in major districts of Punjab regions and also speculates its mutualistic role in different soils.

The production of mushroom substrate with limited aeration in phase I composting was studied. A
standard mushroom compost made in windrow piles with forced aeration was compared with the
experimental compost prepared under limited aeration during part of phase I. Limited ventilation
resulted in a product with chemical parameters similar to those produced with full aeration. Despite this,
loss of compost selectivity was observed. When aeration was limited during part of the composting
process, 50% mushroom yield losses caused by strong infestation of Trichoderma aggressivum were
observed. Limited ventilation in part of phase I resulted in a reduction of redox potential, increase of pH,
and concentration of free ammonia, and thus disturbed the transformation of compost into selective
medium for Agaricus. Mushroom yield correlated with redox potential in the compost, and prolonged
high concentration of free ammonia was the main factor in delayed but faster organic matter degradation
in non-ventilated compost. The changes of redox potential and electrical conductivity in the course of
composting can be useful tools for process control and evaluation of the compost quality potential and
susceptibility to green mould infestation.

Fungi form an important group of microorganisms comprising of both forms
Filamentous and Non-filamentous but mycotoxin production is mostly seen
associated with terrestrial filamentous fungi like molds. Symbiosis between
plants and endophytes is well known in which symbionts provide shelter to latter
and fungi produces some bioactive compounds which play important role in
mitigating the effect of pathogens, insectides etc and defend the plant from attack.
Toxigenic fungi can produce mycotoxin like Trichothecenes, aflatoxins,
rubratoxins, ochratoxins, fumonisins etc. Among them trichothecenes play
important role to be used as potential biopesticides. Potentially hazardous
concentrations of the trichothecene mycotoxins can occur naturally in cereals and
grains.