Tropical Climate Variability

This updated and expanded second edition of a much lauded work provides a current overview of the impacts of climate change on tropical forests. The authors also investigate past, present and future climatic influences on the ecosystems with the highest biodiversity on the planet. Tropical Rainforest Responses to Climatic Change, Second Edition, looks at how tropical rain forest ecology is altered by climate change, rather than simply seeing how plant communities were altered. Shifting the emphasis on to ecological processes, e.g. how diversity is structured by climate and the subsequent impact on tropical forest ecology, provides the reader with a more comprehensive coverage. A major theme of the book is the interaction between humans, climate and forest ecology. The authors, all foremost experts in their fields, explore the long term occupation of tropical systems, the influence of fire and the future climatic effects of deforestation, together with anthropogenic emissions. Incorporating modelling of past and future systems paves the way for a discussion of conservation from a climatic perspective, rather than the usual plea to stop logging. This second edition provides an updated text in this rapidly evolving field. The existing chapters are revised and updated and two entirely new chapters deal with Central America and the effect of fire on wet forest systems. In the first new chapter, the paleoclimate and ecological record from Central America (Lozano, Correa, Bush) is discussed, while the other deals with the impact of fire on tropical ecosystems.

Architectural styles in the Europe, forming the Western Architecture styles such as Classical, Byzantium, Romanesque, Gothic, Renaissance, Baroque, Rococo, Neoclassical and New Classical Architecture, that cannot simply be applied in Indonesia or other tropical area regardless of tropical aspects. In line with the culture of an adaptive tropical society, the western architecture must also be able to adapt in response to the issue of tropical. Architecture as a cultural product is inseparable from the aesthetic aspect to adapt with local conditions.
Likewise, with western architecture styles from Europe that has for a long time formed the face of the cities in some regions of Indonesia as a significant aesthetic element. The adaptation of the Gothic Architecture style from western architecture to the issue of tropical in Indonesia certainly produces a distinctive form of composition and becomes an interesting element in aesthetic reviews.
One example of the building which used Gothic architecture of the era of Dutch colonial heritage that is significant presence in the tropics is the Church Cathedral Saint Peter’s Bandung by W.C.P. Schoemaker. That building have adapted to the problem of tropical climate through material selection, high slope of the roof and openings in the form of windows and vents that adorn the elements of scope of space in that building.
This research with the case study demonstrates that adaptation to tropical climate produces very rich new design elements or something that unique and has the potential to be a highly structured element of Gothic architecture elements, which are integrated with implementing western architecture to the tropical climate.

Land degradation affecting the livelihoods of people living in dryland areas, particularly the Sub-Saharan Africa countries like Ethiopia. Degraded land rehabilitation in dryland is a challenging task due to moisture limitation. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of soil and water conservation structures on growth of planted tree and rehabilitation of indigenous plant species in West Guji Zone, Dugda Dawa District. Four multipurpose tree species (MPTs) namely Faidherbia albida, Melia azedarach, Moringa stenopetala, and Sesbania sesban were planted in four soil and moisture conservation structures (soil level bund, half-moon, trench and normal pit). Data of survival rate, height and diameter growth of planted tree species and, diversity and species richness of indigenous plant species were collected. The survival rate of all planted MPTs species were declining along the study years; however, the survival rate was better under soil level bund and half-moon. Under control treatments, all planted MPTs died at the end of the study period. The height and stem diameter of F. albida, M. azedarach and M. stenopetala were best in soil level bund and half-moon and followed by the trench. Whereas, the growth performance of Sesbania sesban was not significantly different among the three moisture conservation structures. Furthermore, soil moisture conservation structures significantly increased the indigenous plant species regeneration after the intervention. The mean indigenous plant species diversity and richness were significantly highest in half-moon and soil level bund followed by trench and, lowest in Control (normal pit). Thus, the results a potential for alternative forest and soil restoration in arid areas.

Periphyton is sessile biota attached to submerged substrata which includes algae, invertebrates, detritus and microorganisms. It consists of mainly algae but also include bacterial and fungal matter. Diversity and abundance of algae is considered as indicator of water quality of aquatic systems. In lotic habitats, attached algal communities (periphyton) are often the only primary producers. The present study is based on the study of Periphyton population under tropical climatic condition. The present study was carried out at Hoshangabad site of River Narmada situated in Madhya Pradesh. Four sampling stations were selected viz. Shahgang (Site-1), Bandra Bandh (Site-2), Sethani Ghat (Site-3) and Bandra Bandh-2 (Site-4). During the present study a total 45 species of Periphytic forms were recorded from 13 different classes. In the present study high species diversity of Periphytic forms were recorded at the site having abundance of macrophytic vegetation.

The Eastern Tropical Pacific region is characterized by climate features rarely observed in
tropical regions, one of them is the Mid-Summer Drought (MSD), “veranillo” or “canícula” in Spanish. On the
Pacific slope of Central America, the annual precipitation cycle is characterized by two rainfall maxima in June
and September-October, an extended dry season from November to May, and a shorter reduced precipitation
period during July–August (MSD), during July, the magnitude of the trade winds increases and this is associated
also with the Caribbean Low Level Jet (CLLJ), but characterization of these features using monthly data
is difficult. In this work, seven daily gauge stations records, located at two important river basins of Costa
Rica, Tarcoles and Tempisque, were studied to characterize the MSD from 1937 to 2012. Among the aspects
considered are the MSD Start, Timing, End, Duration, Intensity and Magnitude. The modulation and seasonal
predictability of these aspects by climate variability sources as Equatorial Eastern Pacific was lately explored,
showing that warmer (cooler) conditions in Niño 3.4 tend to be associated to drier (wetter) MSD events.

A mechanistic understanding of the North American Monsoon (NAM) is suggested by incorporating local- and synoptic-scale processes. The local-scale mechanism describes the effect sea surface temperature (SST) in Gulf of California (GC) and how it contributes to the low-level moisture during the 2004 NAM. Before NAM onset, the strong low-level temperature inversion exists over the GC, but this inversion weakens with increasing GC SST and generally disappears once SSTs exceed 29.5°C, allowing the moist air, trapped in the MBL, to mix with free tropospheric air. This leads to a deep, moist layer that can be transported toward the NAM regions to produce thunderstorms. The synoptic scale mechanism is based on climatologies from 1983 to 2010 and explains that the warmest SSTs moving up the coast contributes to NAM convection and atmospheric heating, and consequently advancing the position of the anticyclone and the region of descent northward.

In order to improve microphysical properties of ice clouds, this study develops self-consistent second order polynomial mass- and projected area-dimension (m-D and A-D) expressions that are valid over a much larger size range, compared to traditional power laws. Such expressions can easily be reduced to power laws for the size range of interest, in order to use in cloud and climate models. This was done by combining field measurements of individual ice particle m and D with airborne optical probe measurements of D, A and estimates of m. The resulting m-D and A-D expressions are functions of temperature and cloud type (synoptic vs. anvil), and are in good agreement with m-D power laws developed from recent field studies. These expressions also appear representative for heavily rimed dendrites occurring over the Sierra Nevada Mountains. By using the m-D field measurements of rimed and unrimed particles, and by developing theoretical methods, an approach was suggested for calculating rimed m and A, which has the benefit of accounting for the degree of riming, and therefore it produces a gradual and continuous growth from unrimed ice particles to graupel. The treatment for riming includes a parameterization for collision efficiency as a function of droplet size and ice particle size using the available numerical studies.

A rimed snow growth model (RSGM) was developed based on the growth processes of vapor diffusion, aggregation, and riming. The RSGM uses a measured radar reflectivity at cloud top for initialization, and then predicts the vertical evolution of size spectra. The RSGM is based on the zeroth- and second- moment conservation equations with respect to mass, and thus conserves the number concentration and radar reflectivity, respectively. The size spectra predicted by the RSGM are in good agreement with observed spectra during Lagrangian spiral descents through frontal clouds. The snowfall rate with the inclusion of riming is significantly greater than that produced by the vapor deposition and aggregation alone. Snowfall rates are found to be sensitive to the cloud drop size distribution.

The objective of this study was to compare two closed-field plant production environments for tomato cultivation based on optimal vapor pressure deficit (VPD). Experiment was carried out in tropical lowlands of Malaysia by collecting 11 days of sample data during March (2014), from an evaporative cooled Polycarbonate Panel (PP) covered greenhouse and a naturally ventilated Screenhouse (SH). A computer application was designed and used for VPD calculation and data processing with respect to three light conditions (night, sun and cloud). The average and maximum VPD were respectively equal to 0.97 and 3.81 kPa for SH and 1.19 and 5.1 kPa for PP. The largest differences in the VPD of the two environments were between 2.9 and 3.1 kPa and were observed between hours of 12:30 and 17:30 at sun conditions. Results did not show significant differences in the two environments between hours of 00:00 and 8:00, when inside air temperature was between 24 to 26°C, and relative humidity was near 90%. The hypothesis that the PP, compared to SH, provides VPD closer to the optimal range was rejected. Further analysis of the results showed that linear correlations with R2>0.9 exist between daily averaged VPD of each greenhouses. It was concluded that VPD in the SH was closer to the optimal range in the entire days of experiment. The outcome of this study contributes to knowledge-based information for greenhouse growers by addressing questions about trends in VPD data, peak-hours and light conditions associated with maximum and minimum values.

Siklon Kompasu awalnya teramati sekitar pada tanggal 8 Oktober terbentuk di sekitar wilayah Samudra Pasifik Barat sebelah timur Filipina, tepatnya di 13.8 LU, 131.5 BT dengan kecepatan angin maksimum di sekitar sistemnya mencapai 35 knots (65 km/jam) dan tekanan udara pada pusat pusaran siklon terpantau sebesar 998 hpa. Siklon Kompasu sendiri menyebabkan bebrbagai dampak terhadap cuaca di wilayah Benua Maritim Indonesia (BMI), yaitu peningkatan curah hujan dan angina kencang. Siklon Tropis KOMPASU memberikan dampak tidak langsung terhadap kondisi cuaca di wilayah Indonesia berupa, potensi hujan dengan intensitas sedang-lebat di wilayah Provinsi Aceh, Riau, Jambi, Kep. Riau dan Kalimantan Barat, Kenaikan Gelombang laut dengan ketinggian 1.25 - 2.5 meter di Laut Natuna Utara, Laut Sulawesi bagian barat, dan Samudra Pasifik utara Halmahera hingga Papua dan dampak berikutnya yaitu Kenaikan Gelombang laut dengan ketinggian 2.5 - 4.0 meter di Perairan barat dan utara Aceh, Selat Malaka Utara (BMKG, 2021).

In the 1990s Peru experienced the first cholera epidemic after almost a century. The source of emergence was initially attributed to a cargo ship, but later there was evidence of an El Niño association. It was hypothesized that marine ecosystem changes associated with El Niño led to the propagation of V. cholerae along the coast of Peru, which in turn initiated the onset of the epidemic in 1991. Earlier studies supported this explanation by demonstrating a relationship between elevated temperatures and increased cholera incidence in Peru; however, other aspects of El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and their potential impacts on cholera were not investigated. Therefore, this study examines the relationship between El Niño and cholera in Peru from a holistic view of the ENSO cycle. A “Climate Affairs” approach is employed as a conceptual framework to incorporate ENSO’s multidimensional nature and to generate new hypotheses about the ENSO and cholera association in Peru. The findings reveal that ENSO may have been linked to the cholera epidemic through multiple pathways, including rainfall extremes, La Niña, and social vulnerability with impacts depending on the geography of teleconnections within Peru. When the definition of an ENSO event is examined, cholera appears to have emerged either during ENSO neutral or La Niña conditions. Furthermore, the analysis herein suggests that the impact of El Ni~no arrived much later, possibly resulting in heightened transmission in the austral summer of 1992. In conclusion, a modified hypothesis with these new insights on cholera emergence and transmission in Peru is presented.

Recent years have seen major advances in our understanding of the historical climatology of tropical and subtropical areas, primarily through the analysis of documentary materials such as weather diaries, newspapers, personal correspondence, government records and ships logs. This paper presents a critical review of these advances, drawing upon examples from across the tropics and subtropics. We focus in particular on the ways in which documentary evidence has been used to improve our understanding of: (i) historical temperature variability, (ii) fluctuations in annual and seasonal precipitation, and (iii) the occurrence, severity and impact of tropical cyclones. We also discuss the ways in which documentary evidence has been combined with information from natural archives to reconstruct historical El Niño and La Niña episodes. We conclude with some suggestions for future research. These include the exploration of historical documents from hitherto under-researched regions and the application of new methodological approaches highlighted as part of the review.

The main climatic indices used for the determination of pre-summer drought severity were developed for temperate zones with very different climatic conditions from those found in the tropical climate zones, particularly with respect to seasonal rainfall variations. The temporal evolution of pre-summer drought leads the authors to compute the indices for each year over a defined period according to the climatic normals of each meteorological station and to consider the months inside the dry episode differently, according to the law of emptying the water reserves. As a function of this, standardized drought indices are proposed for the evaluation of the pre-summer drought in tropical zone. Two new indices were tested: one developed from precipitation and the other also considering temperature. These indices were validated by correlation with Advanced very-high-resolution radiometer (AVHRR) normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) time series and used to identify the most severe drought conditions in the Yucatan Peninsula. The comparison between the indices and their temporal variations highlighted the importance of temperature in the most critical events and left indications of the impact of global warming on the phenomenon.

ABSTRACT:
This study is the first systematic comparison of the effect of acid treatment methods on the reliability of organic carbon [C] and nitrogen [N], and carbon isotope (δ13C) values on a range of terrestrial and aquatic, modern and geological environmental materials. We investigated the 3 most common methods; (i) acidification followed by sequential deionised water rinses (“rinse method”); (ii) acidification in silver capsules (“capsule method”); and (iii) acidification by exposure to an acid vapour (“fumigation method”). We also investigated the effect of sample size and capsule type (silver and tin) on C/N ratio and δ13C values. We find (i) %C, %N, C/N and δ13C showed significant within and between method variability; (ii) disproportionate and non-linear offsets of %C, %N and C/N values after acidification within and between methods and within and between sample materials; (iii) that alterations in %C did not necessarily manifest themselves in shifts in δ13C, and vice-versa; (iv) small (~ 90 μg C) sample sizes showed consistent overestimations and inaccuracies after acidification; (v) The effect of capsule type was not significant on most samples, but did show a notable effect on our aquatic materials, generally increasing %C and %N, and producing depleted δ13C values. These findings raise cause for concern on the interpretative nature of C/N ratios and their support for carbon isotope values. The comparability between laboratories (different preparation methods) and environmental settings (amount, type and nature of OM) are also likely to be problematic. We conclude that the response of C and N concentrations in organic matter to acid treatment in environmental materials is neither negligible nor systematic.

Keywords: δ13C; C/N ratio; Method comparison; Rinse method; Capsule method; Fumigation method; environmental reconstruction

Flood duration, volume, and peak flow are important considerations in flood risk analysis and management of hydraulic structures. The conventional flood frequency analysis assumed that the marginal distribution functions of flood parameters follow a certain pattern. However, such assumption is impractical because a flood event is multivariate and the flood parameter distributions can be different. These discrepancies were addressed using bivariate joint distributions and Copula function which allow flood parameters having different marginal distributions to be analyzed simultaneously. The analysis used hourly stream flow data for 45 years recorded at the Rantau Panjang gauging station on the Johor River in Malaysia. It was found that flood duration and volume are best fitted by the generalized extreme value distribution while peak flow by the Generalized Pareto. Inference function for margin (IFM) method was applied to model the joint distributions of correlated flood variables for each pair and the results showed that all the calculated θ values were in acceptable range of Gaussian Copula. By horizontally cutting the joint cumulative distribution function (CDF), a set of contour lines were obtained for Gaussian Copula which represented the occurrence probabilities for the joint variables. Also the joint return period for pair of flood variables was calculated.

Land degradation affecting the livelihoods of people living in dryland areas, particularly the Sub-Saharan Africa countries like Ethiopia. Degraded land rehabilitation in dryland is a challenging task due to moisture limitation. This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of soil and water conservation structures on growth of planted tree and rehabilitation of indigenous plant species in West Guji Zone, Dugda Dawa District. Four multipurpose tree species (MPTs) namely Faidherbia albida, Melia azedarach, Moringa stenopetala, and Sesbania sesban were planted in four soil and moisture conservation structures (soil level bund, half-moon, trench and normal pit). Data of survival rate, height and diameter growth of planted tree species and, diversity and species richness of indigenous plant species were collected. The survival rate of all planted MPTs species were declining along the study years; however, the survival rate was better under soil level bund and half-moon. Under control...

Present study was focused to describe the odonate diversity and distribution patterns in selected habitats of southern Sri Lanka with reference to habitat quality, climate variability and conservation status. Survey was conducted from June to December 2018 at Bundala National Park, Kalamatiya sanctuary and Nilwala River. Odonates species distribution, specific behavior types, exuviae and key vegetation types were recorded. Water quality parameters, habitat disturbances and climatic variability were also analyzed. 40 odonate species as 18 zygopterans from 06 different families and 22 anisopterans from 02 different families were identified. 11 endemic, 02 rare, 05 uncommon, one migratory, 03 endangered, 08 vulnerable, 08 near threaten and one critically endangered species were identified. 11 exuviae were identified under three different families. Highest species composition (47.50%) was recorded at Kalamatiya lagoon sites while highest species composition (35.48%) was recorded wet zone habitats located at Nilwala River. Higher species richness (19 species) and species diversity (H = 2.944) were recorded at Kalamatiya lagoon. One specific odonate assemblage was identified at Nilwala river upper area and Nilwala River middle area while another specific assemblage was identified at Embilikala lagoon and Kalamatiya lagoon. Respective vegetation assemblages were also similar at these sites indicating the relationship of vegetation to odonate species distribution. Heat tolerant species and species which can scarcely be seen in dry zone were abundantly recorded at dry zone habitats indicating the effects of climate variability on odonate distribution. Significant direct effect of habitat quality on odonate species assemblages and distribution patterns in studied habitats and an indirect effect of climate variability on odonate species assemblages and distribution patterns in studied habitats were noted.

Variability in the strength of low-cloud feedbacks across climate models is the primary contributor to the spread in their estimates of equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS). This raises the question: What are the regional implications for key features of tropical climate of globally weak versus strong low-cloud feedbacks in response to greenhouse gas induced warming? To address this question and formalize our understanding of cloud controls on tropical climate, we perform a suite of idealized fully-coupled and slab-ocean climate simulations across which we systematically scale the strength of the low-cloud-cover feedback under abrupt 2xCO2 forcing within a single model, thereby isolating the impact of low-cloud feedback strength. The feedback strength is varied by modifying the stratus cloud fraction so that it is a function of not only local conditions but also global temperature in a series of abrupt 2xCO2 sensitivity experiments. The unperturbed decrease in low cloud cover (LCC) under 2xCO2 is greatest in the mid- and high-latitude oceans, and subtropical eastern Pacific and Atlantic, a pattern that is magnified as the feedback strength is scaled. Consequently, sea surface temperature (SST) increases more in these regions as well as the Pacific cold tongue. As the strength of the low-cloud feedback increases this results in not only increased ECS, but also an enhanced reduction of the large-scale zonal and meridional SST gradients (structural climate sensitivity), with implications for the atmospheric Hadley and Walker Circulations, as well as the hydrological cycle. The relevance of our results to simulating past warm climate is also discussed.

In the present study, the PRECIS, a regional climate model, is
employed to simulate the baseline (1970–2000) and future 2071–2100 (2080s)
maximum, minimum and diurnal temperature range changes under SRES A1B
scenario over the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, South India. A
comparison of the simulated baseline results with observation data acquired
from IMD show that PRECIS can well simulate the local distribution
characteristics of diurnal temperature range over the study area with a
correlation coefficient (R2) value of 0.948 with 1% significance level. Analyses
of the simulated results in the 2080s under SRES A1B scenario relative to the
baseline shows that there would be an overall increasing trend in the maximum
and minimum temperatures over the study area and the warming amplitude in
the north, west and interior parts are projected to be greater than in the east
coastal areas. Sen’s slope estimator supported by the Man Kendal test shows
that the diurnal temperature range in the 2080s under SRES A1B scenario
relative to the baseline are projected to decrease annually by –0.015°C and a
statistically significant decrease of –0.029°C during the southwest monsoon
season in the overall study area

Reducing the role of the conventional cooling machines into the building to make the thermal comfort is so imperative as their massive energy consumption and their contribution to the global climate change. Shifting into less energy consumed cooling methods using the locally available vegetative sources as passive cooling, can be one of the appropriate methods. The aim of this study is to investigate the influence of trees to the thermal comfort performance in a building in Southeast Sulawesi, a region, geographically, located in the equator line with its high daily solar radiation intensity. It conducts an experiment on a small scale building with various tree configurations. The result shows that the trees provide the effect of lowering temperature and maintaining the relative humidity of air, contributing into making the thermal comfort-ability in the building. A comprehensive discussion, using the Psychometric chart, regarding to the reason for the phenomenon is also presented in this paper.

An improved understanding of present-day climate variability and change relies on high-quality data sets from the past 2 millennia. Global efforts to model regional climate modes are in the process of being validated against, and integrated with, records of past vegetation change. For South America, however, the full potential of vegetation records for evaluating and improving climate models has hitherto not been sufficiently acknowledged due to an absence of information on the spatial and temporal coverage of study sites. This paper therefore serves as a guide to high-quality pollen records that capture environmental variability during the last 2 millennia. We identify 60 vegetation (pollen) records from across South America which satisfy geochronological requirements set out for climate modelling, and we discuss their sensitivity to the spatial signature of climate modes throughout the continent. Diverse patterns of vegetation response to climate change are observed, with more sim...

In the present study, the PRECIS, a regional climate model, is employed to simulate the baseline (1970-2000) and future 2071-2100 (2080s) maximum, minimum and diurnal temperature range changes under SRES A1B scenario over the Kancheepuram district of Tamil Nadu, South India. A comparison of the simulated baseline results with observation data acquired from IMD show that PRECIS can well simulate the local distribution characteristics of diurnal temperature range over the study area with a correlation coefficient (R2) value of 0.948 with 1% significance level. Analyses of the simulated results in the 2080s under SRES A1B scenario relative to the baseline shows that there would be an overall increasing trend in the maximum and minimum temperatures over the study area and the warming amplitude in the north, west and interior parts are projected to be greater than in the east coastal areas. Sen's slope estimator supported by the Man Kendal test shows that the diurnal temperature range in the 2080s under SRES A1B scenario relative to the baseline are projected to decrease annually by -0.015°C and a statistically significant decrease of −0.029°C during the southwest monsoon season in the overall study area.

An improved understanding of present-day climate variability and change relies on high-quality data sets from the past 2 millennia. Global efforts to model regional climate modes are in the process of being validated against, and integrated with, records of past vegetation change. For South America, however, the full potential of vegetation records for evaluating and improving climate models has hitherto not been sufficiently acknowledged due to an absence of information on the spatial and temporal coverage of study sites. This paper therefore serves as a guide to high-quality pollen records that capture environmental variability during the last 2 millennia. We identify 60 vegetation (pollen) records from across South America which satisfy geochronological requirements set out for climate modelling, and we discuss their sensitivity to the spatial signature of climate modes throughout the continent. Diverse patterns of vegetation response to climate change are observed, with more sim...

The history of the Somali upwelling during the last 18.5 ka has been reconstructed using biogenic silica fluxes estimated from a sediment core retrieved from the western Arabian Sea. The reconstructed record demonstrates periodic weakening and strengthening of the Somali upwelling during the past 18.5 ka. Variations in biogenic silica fluxes suggest weak upwelling during the last glacial period (18.5–15 ka BP). Strengthened upwelling during the Bølling–Allerød period (15–13 ka BP) points to post-glacial onset of the southwest monsoon. The Younger Dryas (13–11 ka BP) is again marked by reduced upwelling strength. Intensification of the Somali upwelling at the beginning of the Holocene and a decline at 8 ka BP are observed. Increases in upwelling strength recorded since 8 ka BP suggest strengthening of the southwest monsoon during the latter part of the Holocene. Linking these upwelling variations with southwest monsoon precipitation, a major shift in the relationship between the strength of the Somali upwelling and southwest monsoon rainfall from positive to negative has occurred during the pre-Holocene to the Holocene. The observed shift is attributed to the variation in the southwest monsoon strength due to the latitudinal shift of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) associated with changes in moisture sources.

An in situ respirometric technique was applied to a sequential biofilm batch reactor treating a synthetic wastewater containing acetate. In this reactor, inoculated with mixed liquor from a wastewater plant, unglazed ceramic tiles were used as support media while maintaining complete mixing regime. A total of 8 kinetic and stoichiometric parameters were determined by in situ pulse respirometry; namely substrate oxidation yield, biomass growth yield, storage yield, storage growth yield, substrate affinity constant, storage affinity constant, storage kinetic constant and maximum oxygen uptake rate. Additionally, biofilm growth was determined from support media sampling showing that the colonization process occurred during the first 40 days, reaching an apparent steady-state afterward. Similarly, most of the stoichiometric and kinetic parameters were changing over time but reached steady values after day 40. During the experiment, the respirometric method allowed to quantify the amount...

Complex interactions manifest between modes of tropical climate variability across the Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans. For example, the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) extends its influence on modes of variability in the tropical Indian and Atlantic Oceans, which in turn feed back onto ENSO. Interactions between pairs of modes can alter their strength, periodicity, seasonality, and ultimately their predictability, yet little is known about the role that a third mode plays. Here we examine the interactions and relative in uences between pairs of climate modes using ensembles of 100-year partially coupled experiments in an otherwise fully coupled general circulation model. In these experiments, the air–sea interaction over each tropical ocean basin, as well as pairs of ocean basins, is suppressed in turn. We find that Indian Ocean variability has a net damping effect on ENSO and Atlantic Ocean variability, and conversely they each promote Indian Ocean variability. The connection between the Pacific and the Atlantic is most clearly revealed in the absence of Indian Ocean variability. Our model runs suggest a weak damping influence by Atlantic variability on ENSO, and an enhancing influence by ENSO on Atlantic variability.