Universal Design (Architecture)

Since previous documents with the subject was loaded on Academia, a lot of research and development has been conducted and the South African Tactile pedestrian crossing layouts evolved. This lecture gives background on this process to where we are today.

Editor's note: The Autism Research Institute has been actively involved in sensory-related research for the past 30 years. An important question is: How can we translate our understanding of sensory challenges to improving the quality of life for those on the autism spectrum? For the past decade, Steven J. Orfield, a colleague of Dr. Stephen M. Edelson and founder of Orfield Laboratories, has focused his efforts on designing sensory-optimal residential, school, and work spaces for those with autism as well as other populations. Professionals who design building structures typically do not take into account the perceptual and/or cognitive challenges experienced by individuals with various disabilities. Sometimes these challenges are referred to as the " invisible disabilities " within the inclusiveness community. Moreover, when designers are asked to consider the users' perceptual and/or cognitive disabilities, they often rely on intuition rather than on an agreed-upon, science-based approach. Consequently, the need for objective standards is paramount, given the increasing number of residential facilities, therapeutic clinics, and employment settings currently being designed for those with autism and other disabilities.

Özet

Seyahat olanaklarının gelişmesi ve engelli bireylerin turizm faaliyetlerinde önemli bir niş pazar haline gelmesi ile birlikte, otel ortak kullanım alanlarına ilişkin erişim olanaklarının iyileştirilmesi gerekliliği güncel tasarım paradigmalarında yerini almıştır. Bu bağlamda, engellilerin tüm insani haklardan ve temel özgürlüklerden eşit bir şekilde yararlanmasını desteklemek üzere oluşturulan uluslararası konvansiyonların otel yapıları için de hedefine ulaşmasına katkı sağlanması ihtiyacı araştırmanın birincil kaygısını oluşturmuştur. Aynı kuramsal anlayış içerisinde, otel yapılarının organizasyon şemasında büyük önemi olan ortak kullanım alanlarının mekân kurgusundaki tanımsızlıkların ya da çözümsüzlüklerin kullanıcıların sirkülasyon kabiliyetini doğrudan kısıtladığı gerçeği referans kabul edilmiş ve otel yapılarındaki ortak alanların engelli ziyaretçiler başta olmak üzere; tüm kullanıcı grupları için görsel ve fiziksel açıdan erişilebilir kılınmasına yönelik tasarım eğilimlerinin benimsetilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında, konunun kuramsal sınırlılıklarını ortadan kaldırabilmek maksadıyla literatür taraması yapılmış ve yanıt bulamayan tasarım sorunlarının belirlenmesi ile araştırmanın bibliyografik künyesi oluşturulmuştur. Tasarım olgusu ile otel ortak kullanım alanları arasında erişilebilirlik bağlamında iletişim kurmayı amaçlayan araştırmanın sonucunda, yapıların bütünlüğüne müdahale etmeden erişilebilir çevrelerin kurgulanabileceğine ilişkin üretilen düzgüsel tasarım pratiklerinin tümü teknik anlatımlar ile tanımlı hale getirilmiş ve mekân tüketiminin demokratikleştirilmesine otel ölçeğinde katkı sağlanmıştır.

Abstract

With the development of travel opportunities and with the disabled people who has become an important niche market in the tourism activities, necessity of enhancing the access opportunities regarding hotel shared spaces took its place in the current design paradigms. In this context, the need for international conventions, which are created to support disabled people to equally take advantage of all human rights and fundamental freedoms, to meet the objective for the hotel structures too is created the primary concern of the research. In the same theoretic approach, the fact of ineffability and insolubility in the space setup of common use areas which have a great importance in the organization schemes of hotel structures, does directly restrict the circulation ability of the users is accepted as reference and it is aimed to adopt design tendencies which are oriented to make shared spaces in the hotel structures accessible in terms of visual and physical for whole user groups, especially for disabled visitors. Within the research, a literature scan has been done to abolish the theoretical limitedness of the topic and the bibliographic tag of the research has been created with the identification of design problems which remain unanswered. At the end of the research that aims to communicate within the context of accessibility between design feature and hotel shared spaces, whole normative design practices created regarding accessible spaces can be fictionalized without interfering the integrity of the structures has been described with technical presentation and has been contributed to the democratizing of space consumption in the hotel scale.

El término autismo se acuñó para referirse a síntomas relacionados con la esquizofrenia hasta que Leo Kanner adaptó el concepto a lo que hoy en día conocemos como Trastorno del Espectro Autista. Debido a los déficits de socialización y procesamiento del entorno que esta condición puede conllevar, las personas con autismo y en particular los niños, necesitan que el medio esté adaptado a sus necesidades. La situación de los centros educativos no resuelve esta problemática desde un punto de vista arquitectónico, aunque la implementación de un diseño empático supone un apoyo en el tratamiento terapéutico utilizado en el autismo, facilita el entendimiento del medio a las personas dentro del espectro y les otorga mayor autonomía. Actualmente no existe una normativa que regule específicamente la accesibilidad cognitiva que el autismo requiere, sin embargo, disponemos de estrategias específicas que pueden dar solución a este problema. Estas estrategias se basan en un diseño adaptado, el uso de colores y de texturas, la utilización del sistema Teacch, el refuerzo del control acústico y lumínico y la dotación de espacios que aporten privacidad, supervisión y seguridad en el centro. En definitiva, la adaptación del espacio radica en perseguir una accesibilidad cognitiva donde los niños con espectro autista no son únicamente niños con una discapacidad.

Evrensel tasarım, mikro ölçekte ürün tasarımından, makro ölçekte kentsel alanların tasarımına kadar, fiziksel ve mental yetileri sınırlı olan/olmayan, farklı boyut cinsiyet veya yaşta tüm kullanıcıların, aynı haklardan eşit oranda yararlanmasını, erişilebilirlik standartlarından öte kullanılabilirliği esas alarak daha iyi tasarımların elde edilmesini amaçlar. Kentsel mekanların tasarımında evrensel tasarım kriterlerinin esas alınması, kullanıcıların beğeni, ihtiyaç ve tercihlerine karşılık verilmesi, konforlu ve kaliteli mekanlar kurgulanması, kentsel mekânın herkes tarafından kullanılabilmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Bu bağlamda yayanın beklentilerini dikkate almak ve herkes için kullanılabilir, konforlu mekanlar tasarlamak evrensel tasarımın önemli noktalarından biri olmaktadır.
Günümüzde, kentsel tasarım yaklaşımlarında yayaların güvenliği esas alınarak düzenlenen yaya alt/üst geçitlerinin, yoğun araç trafiğine ve hızlı trafik akışına sahip alanlarda inşa edildiği görülmektedir. Son yıllarda kentlerin büyümesiyle ulaşım sistemlerinde yaşanan gelişmeler, doğal ve yapay çevrede sınır ögesi olarak yer alan unsurlar, yaya/araç sürekliliğinin bozulmasına neden olmuş ve bu problem doğrultusunda araç veya yayalar için alt/üst yaya geçitleri inşa edilmiştir. Kentsel mekânda yer alan alt/üst yaya geçitlerinin evrensel tasarım bağlamında ele alınması ise kentsel/kamusal mekânların etkin kullanılabilirliğinin artmasında oldukça önemli olmaktadır.
Çalışmada, yaya alt ve üst geçitleri analiz edilerek Konya kenti bağlamında yaya erişilebilirliği, evrensel tasarım kriterleri bağlamında ele alınmaktadır. Çalışma alanı olarak belirlenen yaya geçitleri, üst geçitler (İstanbul yolu üzerinde yer alan 4 yaya üst geçidi) ve alt geçitler (hızlı tren hattı üzerinde yer alan 2 yaya alt geçiti) olarak sınıflandırılmış ve analiz edilmiştir. Genellikle işlevsel amaçla tasarlanan yaya alt/üst geçitlerinin, mevcut işlevlerini ne kadar yerine getirdiği, bugünün yenilikçi yaklaşımlarına göre evrensel tasarım ilkeleri bağlamında ne derece etkin kullanıldığı ve kent yaşamında ne kadar erişilebilir olduğu konuları araştırmanın kapsamını belirlemektedir.
Yaya alt/üst geçitlerinin etkin kullanımında, yaya sürekliliğinin sağlanmasında evrensel tasarımın önemini vurgulamak ise çalışmanın temel amacını oluşturmaktadır. Çalışma alanlarında yapılan yerinde gözlem ve deneyimsel analizler ile elde edilen bulgular, analiz edilerek eksik yönler tespit edilmiş, getirilen öneriler ile kentsel erişilebilirliğe katkı sağlanmıştır.

ÖZ Herkes için tasarımın amacı; binalar, peyzaj tasarımına konu olan her türlü alan ve mekan, iletişim araçları veya ev eşyalarında, her bireyin aynı fiziksel çevre için geliştirilen çözümleri mümkün olan en geniş ölçüde kullanmasını sağlamak amacı ile gerekli teorilerin, ilkelerin ve çözüm önerilerinin geliştirilmesidir. Herkes için tasarımda; her bireye eşit koşullarda eşit hak, kullanım olanakları, konu ve davranış biçimlerinin sağlanması, kilit kavramlardır. Herkes için tasarım; her türlü kullanıcıya duyarlı kapsayıcı ve sürdürülebilir bir tasarımdır. Açık alan veya doğal alanların tasarımı ve düzenlenmesi; plancılar, mimarlar, peyzaj mimarları ve endüstri ürünleri tasarımcıları için özel fırsatların yanı sıra benzersiz zorluklar da sunmaktadır. Birçok kırsal ya da kentsel alan, toplumun belli bir kesimi tarafından erişilebilir konumda değil ya da kullanılamaz durumdadır. Herkes için peyzaj tasarımı; çağdaş vurgu, sürdürülebilirlik, ergonomi, eşitlik ve özgürlük ilkeleri kapsamında değerlendirilmeleri gereken bir olgudur. Peyzaj alanları herkes için tasarım kapsamında düzenlendiğinde; yaşlılar, engelli bireyler ve çocuklu aileler de dahil olmak üzere toplumun her kesimini kapsayan bir nitelik kazanabilmektedir. Bu araştırma kapsamında; herkes için tasarım kavramsal anlamda değerlendirilecek evrensel tasarım ilkelerine yer verilmiş ve tasarım bileşenleri peyzaj mimarlığı açısından irdelenmiştir. ABSTRACT The objective of design for all is to develop theories, principles and solution suggestions for ensuring that each and every individual uses the solutions developed for physical environment in the widest sense, within the scope of buildings, any area and space that is subjected to landscape design, communication tools or households goods. In design-for-all, the key point is to ensure every individual with the rights of use, manners and forms under equal terms. Along with special opportunities, design and landscaping of open areas and natural fields present unexampled challenges for planners, architectures, landscape architectures and industrial product designers. Many rural or urban areas are not accessible by a certain part of the society, nor is it usable. Landscape design for all is a phenomenon, which needs to be addressed within the scope of the principles of modern focus, sustainability, ergonomics, equality and freedom. Where the landscape areas are subjected to landscaping within the scope of designing, it may be of a characteristic to be used by each and every part of the society, including the elders, people with disabilities and families with children. Within the scope of this research, the universal design principles are included in terms of design-for-all, while examining the design components in terms of landscape architecture.

ÖZET Trabzon il merkezinde yürütülen bir alan çalışmasında, yakın çevresiyle birlikte iki sinema salonu seçilerek bir analiz çalışması yapılmıştır. Amaç " Evrensel Tasarım " anlayışı bağlamında kamu binalarında, ulaşımda, bilgilendirme ve iletişimde karşılaşılan engellerin ortadan kaldırılması, kamusal mekânların niteliksel ve niceliksel olarak geliştirilmesi, tecrit ve bağımlılığın azaltılarak yaşlı ve engelli bireylerin eğitim, istihdam ve sosyal yaşama katılımını sağlamaktır. Çalışmada evrensel tasarım esaslarından; eşitlikçi kullanım, kullanımda esneklik, kolay ve sezgisel kullanım, algılanabilir bilgi, hata için tolerans, düşük fiziksel güç, yaklaşma ve kullanım için hacim ve mesafe parametreleri kullanılmıştır. Yöntem olarak yerinde tespit ve gözlem tekniği seçilmiş, elde edilen bulgular kuramsal bilgilerin ışığında irdelenmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: Evrensel tasarım kriterleri, sinema salonu, sosyalleşme alanları ABSTRACT Trabzon in a field study conducted in the city center, an analysis by selecting two cinema halls with the surroundings is made. Trabzon in a field study conducted in the city center, an analysis by selecting two cinema halls with the surroundings is made. The goal of "Universal Design" concept in the context of public buildings, transportation, information and elimination of the difficulties encountered in communication, improvement of qualitative and quantitative public spaces, isolation and addiction education of the elderly and people with disabilities by reducing is to ensure that participation in employment and social life. In the study of universal design principles; equitable use, flexibility in use, simple and intuitive use, perceptible information, tolerance for error, low physical power, volume and distance parameters are used for approach. In situ detection method and observation technique selected it was examined in the light of the findings of theoretical knowledge.

Se describe en este artículo el proceso metodológico para reconstruir el diseño modular del palacio fortificado de Onda (Castellón) a partir de su planta arqueológica, aplicando los principios metrológicos desentrañados en las investigaciones previas del autor en este campo. Módulo, ejes, tamaños y esquema geométrico general quedan identificados sobre la planta base con precisión digital. Se clasifican los diferentes espesores de muros detectados. Se realizan comprobaciones mediante mediciones directas. En esta obra resalta la continua utilización de modulaciones dinámicas, tanto en la rotunda y caracterizadora geometría de su planta general, como en cada una de las partes. Destaca también la variedad de espesores de muro, los desplazamientos de ejes, y el correcto replanteo de la fortaleza. El conocimiento de un sistema común de proporciones en los usos del pasado puede representar un nuevo paradigma en el estudio y conservación de nuestro patrimonio histórico y cultural. /
Described in this paper, is the methodological process to reconstruct the modular design of the fortified palace of Onda (Castellon) Spain, through its anthropologic plan, and applying the Metrologic Principles unravelled in previous research of the author in this field. Module, axis, size and geometric scheme are identified on the base plan, with digital precision. Different thicknesses of the walls are detected and classified. Verifications are carried out via direct measurements. In this building, the continuous utilization of dynamic modulations are highlighted in the decisive and characteristic geometry of the general floor, as in each of the parts. The variety of the thickness of the walls, the displacements of the axis and the correct tracing of the fortress, also stand out. The knowledge of a common system of proportions used in the past could represent a new paradigm in the study and the conservation of our historical and cultural heritage.

Özet

Eğitim, sağlık ve bilim gibi pek çok alanda bağlayıcı rol üstlenerek toplantı ve konferans sektörünün büyümesini sağlayan uluslararası ticaret ve küreselleşme kavramı, konaklama hizmetlerinin erişilebilirliğinin artırılması ile kongre turizmini dünyanın hızla gelişen alanlarından biri haline getirmiştir. Ayrıca seyahat olanaklarının hızla artması ve engelli bireylerin kongre turizmi faaliyetlerinde önemli bir niş pazar haline gelmesi ile birlikte, konferans çevrelerine ilişkin erişim olanaklarının iyileştirilmesi gerekliliği de güncel tasarım yaklaşımlarında yerini almıştır. Bu bağlamda, engellilerin insani haklardan ve temel özgürlüklerden eşit bir şekilde yararlanmasını desteklemek üzere oluşturulan uluslararası konvansiyonların otel yapılarında kullanılan konferans salonları için hedefine ulaşmasına katkı sağlanması kaygısını referans alan araştırma kapsamında, çalışma konusunun kuramsal sınırlılıklarını ortadan kaldırabilmek maksadıyla literatür taraması yapılmış ve yanıt bulamayan tasarım pratikleri tespit edilerek çalışmanın bibliyografik künyesi oluşturulmuştur. Aynı kuramsal anlayış doğrultusunda, otel yapılarının fonksiyon kurgusunda büyük önem arz eden konferans salonlarının mekânsal kurgusundaki çözümsüzlüklerin kullanıcıların sirkülasyon kabiliyetini doğrudan kısıtladığı gerçeği referans alınmış ve kongre turizmi sektöründe hizmet üreten her çevrenin görsel, işitsel ve fiziksel açıdan erişilebilir kılınmasına yönelik tasarım eğilimlerinin benimsetilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Erişilebilirlik kavramı ile konferans salonları arasında engellilik ölçeğinde iletişim kuran araştırma sonucunda, ergonomik yaklaşımlar ile üretilen düzgüsel tasarım pratiklerinin tümü teknik anlatımlarla tanımlı hale getirilmiş ve mekân tüketiminin demokratikleştirilmesine konferans salonları ölçeğinde katkı sağlanmıştır.

Abstract

International trade and globalization concept that generate the grow of meeting and conference sector by taking a bounding role in many areas such as education, health and science, with the improvements in the accessibility of accommodation services, congress tourism has become one of the worlds fastest growing areas. Also, with the fast increase of travel opportunities and with the disabled individuals becoming an important niche market in the congress tourism activities, necessity of enhancing the accessibility opportunities concerning the conference environment has taken its place in the current design approaches. In this context, in the scope of the research that takes the concern of contributing to international conventions as reference, which are created for disabled individuals to equally benefit from human rights and fundamental freedoms, to reach its aim for conference halls that are used in hotel structures, for the purpose of putting away the conceptual boundedness of the study subject; a literature scan has been done and by determining the unanswered design practices, bibliographic tag of the study has been created. In the direction of the same conceptual understanding, reality of direct limitation to circulation ability of users by insolubilities in spatial fiction of conference halls, which is crucial for the function fiction of hotel structures has taken as reference and it has been aimed to infuse design tendencies towards making every environment which serves in congress tourism accessible in terms of visual, audial and physical. In the wake of the study that makes contact between the accessibility concept and conference halls in disability scale, all the normative design practices produced with ergonomic approaches has defined with technical expressions and has been contributed to democratization of space usage in the conference halls scale.

Despite a growing awareness of the need to create more usable, comfortable, and sustainable buildings for everyone, in many countries, the adoption of universal design (UD) as a design strategy is still limited. As key stakeholders, architects can contribute greatly to making the built environment more inclusive for all, but many practitioners face difficulties in daily design practice that hold them back from implementing a UD approach. This study investigated architects' perceptions regarding the barriers to and drivers of adopting UD as a design strategy at the start of the design process using a survey of 135 practicing Flemish architects. Results showed that budget constraints and skepticism from other stakeholders were perceived as the main barriers, while time-related issues were experienced as less problematic than the literature suggests. Responses to the open-ended questions revealed how architects carefully evaluate whether to apply UD as a design strategy for each design project according to design-related and client/budget criteria. These results offer insights into practicing architects' motivations regarding UD, which can provide policy makers and researchers with the information needed to more efficiently and effectively address the barriers and drivers that architects face in implementing UD.

Universal Design (UD) philosophy is inspired by the social responsibility that no discrimination is present in the use of the built environment. During recent decades UD philosophy led to a systematic development of design guidelines for architectural and urban projects aimed at rendering the built environment accessible to all. In Malta, such guidelines are endorsed by central and local government entities and non governmental organizations and they are covered by legislation which i s actively enforced. Moreover, the law stipulates that the planning regulator makes it mandatory that a given development permission complies with these guidelines. This ensures that no barriers can hinder the usage of a given development. The objective of this paper is to demonstrate that UD is not only a legal requisite emerging from a socially sensitive design philosophy and grounded in official design standards that ensure legal compliance, but an applied science aimed at ensuring mobility for all. Using a case study from this European Union Member State, this paper argues that setting the focus on technical specifications relating to access for all falls short of addressing the inherent interdependencies; consequently, it does not tackle UD issues. UD goes beyond the prescriptive requirement established by law and underpins a performance-based design, thereby intrinsically enhancing the quality of any given element, whether a space or a product. UD is an applied scientific discipline; it is a multifaceted, interdisciplinary branch of learning. It involves the application of current

The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) outlines what constitutes equality of citizens, based on equal opportunities for all people to access services, places and social participation.  Understanding what constitutes equal opportunities to buildings necessitates a radical investigation to what can contribute to feelings of marginalisation and stigmatisation in these environments.  Emerging design paradigms such as inclusive design, and particularly universal design (UD) seek to represent in a totalising way the sum of experiential factors that contribute to “positive” experience for a universal constituency of citizens, which includes people of all ages, sizes, shapes and abilities.  The urgency of these design approaches is underscored by the evolving demographics of Ireland, and other countries of similar or greater wealth, demonstrating a tendency toward increasingly older populations, a growth in the population of people with morbid conditions such as obesity and diabetes, and a resultant increase in the level of impairment in the population as a whole. Pursuing a design of the built environment that allows the greatest range of people to participate in the social realm and minimises dependence on others where possible will have an increasing effect on economic growth and on well-being over the next century.  It is probable in this context that many of the principles and aims of UD will be adopted in mainstream design schools, and will contribute to a paradigm shift in architectural design thinking.
UD is considered as a process by its most vocal advocates, although this postmodern characterisation of a constantly changing paradigm is undermined by the urge from many of those same advocates to codify universal design in guidelines and regulations and to “set” standards which define whether or not universal design is met, and by viewing building interventions as causal and predictable in their outcomes.
This paper outlines a methodology for interrogating the predictive assumption of universal design/accessibility guidelines.  This involves engaging a number of intersecting techniques, based around a selection of buildings and introducing a participative dimension to understand how buildings can be evaluated in a manner that addresses social equity.  These methods include a meta-review and reconceptualization of international design standards in this area; participant walking tours involving people of a wide range of capabilities aimed at understanding visitor experience of buildings; questionnaires and self-directed diary and photograph studies aimed at people embedded everyday in specific buildings.  The results and conclusions of these studies are summarised.

The aim of the study presented in this paper was to analyze the physical structures in the Stadium “Governor Lourival Baptista” in the city of Aracaju, Sergipe (Brazil), in regards to accessibility - in the categories security and autonomy – for receiving wheelchair users in the events that occur in this specific leisure equipment. Methodologically, the research was characterized as a case study with a qualitative bias. The data was collected through participant observation for five days, one of which occurred during a football match in the 2015 state championship. The researchers also photographed specific sites in the stadium – following a preconceived script – including facilities inside and outside the stadium. These images were also part of the analysis. The paper concludes that the internal areas of the stadium offer accessibility for wheelchair users as recommended by the legal orientations of the document ABNT 9050. However, some structures of the external areas of the stadium do not meet the needs of people with disabilities regarding autonomy and safety.

Purpose: Universal design (UD) provides an explanation of good design based on the user perspective, which are outlined through its principles, goals, and related frameworks. The aim of this paper is to provide an overview of the frameworks and methods for UD building evaluations and to describe how close they have come to describing what a universally designed building is. Methods: Evaluation approaches are reviewed from the existing literature across a number of spatial disciplines, including UD, human geography and urban studies. Results: Four categories of UD evaluation methods are outlined, including (1) checklist evaluations, (2) value-driven evaluations, (3) holistic evaluations, and (4) invisible evaluations. Conclusions: A number of suggestions are made to aid research aimed at developing UD evaluation in buildings. (1) Design standards and guidelines should be contested or validated where possible; (2) evaluation criteria should be contextual; (3) it may be more practical to have separate methodologies for contextualising UD to allow for the creation of an evaluating tool that is practical in use. Additionally, there is a difficulty in establishing a clear basis for evaluating how empathetic buildings are without expanding the methodological horizons of UD evaluation

Today Urbanization is the most echoing word for all the cities around the globe but in simple terms Urbanization has been described as a consequence of population shift from less utilitarian areas to high utilitarian areas. The process of urbanization is directly proportional to other trends e.g., modernization, industrialization, technological advancement, infrastructure, sociological transformations, economy, planning policies and public health etc. Urbanization impacts climate, Land use pattern and transportation on a larger scale, however the debates of decades are yet to summarize the pros and cons of it. Urbanization is not just a modern threshold, but it is a phenomenon of transferring and redefining the social, cultural and historical roots of human on a universal scale. Whereas the rural tradition is the most effected aspect influenced by urban culture, the sustainable growth of urban cities is only possible when the planner would start working on synchronized policies for both the rural and urban transformations. In India many rural habitants migrate for employment and better lifestyle but the glint of urbanization fades on factual ground where a city fails to provide even the basic necessities to a human e.g. food, shelter, education and employment. The haphazard and unplanned growth of metropolitan cities has resulted in urban sprawl and over-densification. The intermural city stresses and migration from outside of the city are the two main factors that determine the positive or negative impacts of urbanization. The urbanization story of Indian cities also comes with its share of complex issues related to housing, Pollution, climate change along with inadequate provision for social and physical infrastructure. The emerging cities are located in developing countries that are experiencing rapid economic growth. In India, they are referred to as Tier II (1-4 million people) or Tier III (0.5-1 million) cities. India's urban areas currently house about 377 million people and will have to accommodate close to 200 million more by 2030 as the country's economic emphasis shifts from agriculture to manufacturing and services. Much of India's growth is currently taking place on the fringes of cities. It is unplanned and without sufficient infrastructure and services. In 2010, urban pollution caused more than 620,000 premature deaths (a more than six-fold increase in a decade). Environmental degradation is costing India about US$80 billion annually-5.7% of GDP. While these are enormous challenges, India's emerging cities are critical to the country's economy, being expected to contribute up to 75% of national GDP by 2020. It is estimated that urbanization will generate 6 billion urban dwellers by 2050. Cities are set to be subjected to climate change.

This chapter incorporates the earlier autobiographical work Lying Down Anyhow, celebrating the rebel body, followed by an exploration of the influences involved in the process and their place in my identity as an activist. Copy available at: http://www.roaring-girl.com/work/lying-anyhow-disability-rebel-body/