Water in Oil Emulsion

This experiment explains the properties of certain formulations of the emulsified acid. Formation water almost always comes out of crude oil processing. It is important to acidify treatments in formations by creating wormholes to restore or stimulate the near-wellbore region. Under intense mixing and high turbulence produced by pumps, valves, chokes and pipelines, water and oil, which combine to form highly stable and viscous emulsions in the production system.

Due to the increasing viscosity of water these emulsions produce flow control and separation problems in deep water production facilities. To predict changes in viscosity and stability over time, understanding of the flow behaviour and factors that affect its stability of these emulsions in pipelines is important. It is also important to understand how the acid and bases work with the other active surface components to stabilize emulsion.

This study emphasis on the effect of acid volume fraction, agitation speed and emulsifier emulsifier concentration on the stability of emulsified acid. The results of this study will be used for studying emulsion flow in pipelines under various conditions. Emulsified acids are shown to be effective stimulating fluids at low flow rates. The key benefit is profound penetration under conditions where plain acid gives compact dissolution patterns.

Aims: An edible coating “bemul-wax” developed from cassava starch (Manihot
esculentum) was examined for its safety for coating agro-crops.
Study design: Cross-sectional study.
Place and duration of study: Nigerian Stored Products Research Institute, Chemistry/
Biochemistry Laboratory, Km. 3, Asa-Dam Road, P.M.B. 1489, Ilorin, Kwara State,
Nigeria., between January 2007 and July 2007.
Methodology: Some minerals component of the emulsion were assessed and compared with their recommended safety standards.
Results: The emulsion was found to contain some health beneficial mineral elements
(sodium, potassium, copper, calcium, manganese, iron, and zinc) to human kind. Bicarbonate, fluorine, chlorine, nitrate, sulphate, and phosphate were also found at a level of 35.90 ± 0.09, 1.16 ± 0.04, 112 ± 3.13, 53.93 ± 2.99, 4.10 ± 0.03 and 5.64 ± 0.07 mg/L, respectively. The major minerals component of the wax emulsion were found to be calcium (108.1 mg/L), chlorine (112.93 mg/L) and to a lesser extent sodium (87.17 mg/L) and nitrate (53.93 mg/L).
Conclusion: Bemul-wax and its coated products may be considered safe for consumption from elemental point of view. It may also be a good source of health beneficial minerals.

In this paper, an experimental study and modeling by artificial neural networks were carried out to predict the generated microdroplet dimensionless size in a microfluidic system in order to formulate a water-in-oil emulsion. The various parameters that affect the size of microdroplets (flow rates, viscosities, surface tensions of both the two phases and the diameter of the microchannel) are studied and further grouped into dimensionless numbers; we used these numbers as input to the neural network and the dimensionless length as output. The better neural network architecture has 10 neurons in the hidden layer with a mean square error of 1.4 10 À 6 and a determination's coefficient near 1 value. The relative importance of inputs on the size of the microdroplets has been determined using the Garson algorithm and the results are in good agreement with other works.

Tissue engineering (TE) aims to regenerate critical size defects, which cannot heal naturally, by using highly porous matrices called TE scaffolds made of biocompatible and biodegradable materials. There are various manufacturing techniques commonly used to fabricate TE scaffolds. However, in most cases, they do not provide materials with a highly interconnected pore design. Thus, emulsion templating is a promising and convenient route for the fabrication of matrices with up to 99% porosity and high interconnectivity. These matrices have been used for various application areas for decades. Although this polymer structuring technique is older than TE itself, the use of polymerised internal phase emulsions (PolyHIPEs) in TE is relatively new compared to other scaffold manufacturing techniques. It is likely because it requires a multidisciplinary background including materials science, chemistry and TE although producing emulsion templated scaffolds is practically simple. To date, a number of excellent reviews on emulsion templating have been published by the pioneers in this field in order to explain the chemistry behind this technique and potential areas of use of the emulsion templated structures. This particular review focusses on the key points of how emulsion templated scaffolds can be fabricated for different TE applications. Accordingly, we first explain the basics of emulsion templating and characteristics of PolyHIPE scaffolds. Then, we discuss the role of each ingredient in the emulsion and the impact of the compositional changes and process conditions on the characteristics of PolyHIPEs. Afterward, current fabrication methods of biocompatible PolyHIPE scaffolds and polymerisation routes are detailed, and the functionalisation strategies that can be used to improve the biological activity of PolyHIPE scaffolds are discussed. Finally, the applications of PolyHIPEs on soft and hard TE as well as in vitro models and drug delivery in the literature are summarised.

The release of volatile compounds in an oil-in-water model system obtained from olive oil–whey protein (WP) pairing was investigated by considering the effect of phenolic compounds. Human saliva was used to simulate mouth conditions by retronasal aroma simulator (RAS) analysis. Twelve aroma compounds were quantified in the dynamic headspace by SPME-GC/MS. The results showed significant influences of saliva on the aroma release of virgin olive oil (VOO) volatiles also in the presence of WP. The interaction between WP and saliva leads to lower headspace release of ethyl esters and hexanal. Salivary components caused lower decrease of the release of acetates and alcohols. A lower release of volatile compounds was found in the RAS essay in comparison to that in orthonasal simulation of only refined olive oil (without addition of saliva or WP), with the exception of hexanal and 1-penten-3-one, where a significantly higher release was found. Our results suggest that the extent of retronasal odor (green, pungent) of these two volatile compounds is higher than orthonasal odor. An extra VOO was used to verify the release in model systems, indicating that WP affected aroma release more than model systems, while saliva seems to exert an opposite trend. A significant increase in aroma release was found when phenolic compounds were added to the system, probably due to the contrasting effects of binding of volatile compounds caused by WP, for the polyphenol–protein interaction phenomenon. Our study could be applied to the formulation of new functional foods to enhance flavor release and modulate the presence and concentrations of phenolics and whey proteins in food emulsions/dispersions.

The aim of this study was to find out the thermal and environmental performance of a four-stroke, single-cylinder, direct injection 10-kW CI engine at varying engine load conditions using different test fuels. The formulated fuels, viz. CeO2 nanoparticles-dispersed water-diesel-biodiesel fuel blend (CNWEDB) and water-diesel-biodiesel fuel blend (WEDB), were prepared using emulsification technique using CeO 2 nanoparticles and water as additives in diesel-biodiesel blend (B20). The measured fuel properties of CNWEDB and WEDB satisfied the criteria of Indian Standard for biodiesel indicating their suitability for use in CI engine. The engine was run at various loads (0, 20, 40, 60, 80 and 100%) randomly to assess its thermal and environmental performance with all test fuels. Thermal performance of CI engine was evaluated by measuring the parameters such as brake thermal efficiency (BTE), brake-specific fuel consumption (bsfc), exhaust gas temperature (EGT) and heat balance for all test fuels. The environmental performance of engine was assessed by measuring CO, HC and NOx emissions for all test fuels. Adding water and CeO2 nanoparticles into B20 improved BTE of engine by 7.65% over diesel. Also, the minimum heat losses were observed at 80% engine load for CNWEDB indicating a better conversion of fuel energy to useful work. EGT and bsfc of engine reduced with CNWEDB over WEDB and B20 fuels. Engine fueling with CNWEDB emitted 12.82%, 14.46% and 14.20%; and 30.77%, 43.67% and 26.80% lesser concentration of CO, HC and NOx emissions over WEDB and diesel, respectively.

A geometrical model describing reverse micellar systems has been developed. A single phase containing assembled
structures on two different length scales is described and the hydration of surfactants involved in each structure determined. By taking into account the waterÈsurfactant interface a transition from interconnected cylinders to spheres has been predicted and is conÐrmed by experimental data. Furthermore, interdigitation between reverse micelles can be predicted and observed experimentally.

This study focuses on the role of a hydrophobic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide, [BMIM] +[NTf 2] - in the preparation of emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) phase containing kerosene as solvent, Span 80 as surfactant, NaOH as internal phase and TOMAC (tri-n-octylmethylammonium chloride) a second ionic liquid as carrier. The first time used [BMIM] +[NTf 2] - in ELM was found to play the role of a stabilizer. The emulsion prepared using [BMIM] + [NTf 2] - has a long period of stability of about 7h (at 3% (w/w) of [BMIM] +[NTf 2] -) which otherwise has a brief stability up to only 7min. The stability of the emulsion increases with the increase in concentration of [BMIM] +[NTf 2] - up to 3% (w/w). Nevertheless, with further increase in concentration of [BMIM] +[NTf 2] -, a reduction in the stability occurs. The extraction experiments were carried out after holding the ELM for 2h after the preparation and a removal efficiency of approximately 80% was obtained for Cr. The destabilization of the emulsion was studied by observing the change in the interface height. An empirical correlation for the stability of the emulsion has been proposed. © 2011 Elsevier B.V.

http://ac.els-cdn.com/S030438941100327X/1-s2.0-S030438941100327X-main.pdf?_tid=8f80d766-0ca1-11e4-8821-00000aab0f01&acdnat=1405485056_f3aef836306a8c21880bfaca21598a0a 
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21962862 
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S030438941100327X

This paper focuses on the synthesis of micro scale Poly(methylmethacrylate-a crylic acid-divinylbenzene)
iron oxide Janus magnetic submicronic particles and the investigation of their interfacial properties and
demulsifying capacity. The surface morphology, polymerizat ion process and magnetic properties of the magnetic Janus submicronic particles were characterized by laser particle size analyzer, transmission electron microscopy, vibrating sample magnetometer. The interfacial activity and high hydrophilic
nature of P(MMA-AA-DVB)/Fe3O4Janus magnetic submicronic particles allowed them to be effectively attached to stable emulsified water droplets in heavy crude oil water emulsion . Janus magnetic submicronic particles tagged water droplets were readily removed by an external magnetic field. Our
experimental results showed ef ficient removal of the water from the heavy crude oil emulsion . I t was
found that external magnetic field enhances the coalescence of magnetically tagged water droplets in
an emulsion. The magnetic property of P(MMA-AA-DVB)/Fe3O4
allowed the used Janus magneticsubmicronic particles to be readily recycled by magnetic separation and solvent washing. The recycledP(MMA-AA-DVB)/Fe3O4was found to retain its interfacial activity and was effect ive in breaking the heavy
crude oil water emulsion. This study demonstrated that Janus magnetic submicronic particles demulsification represented a new route of removing emulsified water from crude oil and water emulsions.

The discharge of silver ions from nanosilver-based product into the environment has raised the ecological and human health concern due to the toxicity of silver ion, particularly on the release behaviour of ionized nanosilver from the wastage. Therefore, recovery of ionized nanosilver is highly necessary. In this research, emulsion liquid membrane technique was employed for ionized nanosilver recovery from the domestic waste. The liquid membrane consists of kerosene, Span 80, Cyanex 302 and acidic thiourea as the diluent, surfactant, carrier and stripping agent, respectively. The emulsion stability was investigated at different surfactant concentrations, agitation and homogenizer speeds. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied for the optimization of process variables including treat ratio, sulphuric acid (H 2 SO 4) and thiourea concentration in the recovery process. The results showed that the most stable emulsion was observed at 3% w/v of surfactant, 10,000 and 150 rpm of homogenizer and agitation speed, respectively. The optimum conditions obtained for the recovery process using RSM were: treat ratio (0.256), H 2 SO 4 concentration (0.75 M) and thio-urea concentration (0.85 M). At the optimized condition, the maximum recovery of ionized nanosilver was 84.74%.

We have studied how carboxylic modified latex (CML) microparticles adsorb at liquid surfaces and the preferred type of emulsion they can stabilise depending on the particle size and the surface density of carboxylic groups. We measured the particle contact angle by using the gel trapping technique (GTT) for CML particles adsorbed at air–water and oil–water interfaces. Using this method we obtained scanning electron microscopy (SEM) micrographs of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) replicas of the liquid interface with the particles, where the PDMS replicates the non-polar phase and measured the particle contact angle. We discovered that the particle wettability correlates well with the surface density of the carboxylic groups but is not very sensitive to the presence of electrolyte in the aqueous phase and the value of the particle zeta potential. We demonstrated that CML microparticles with a high surface density of COOH groups stabilise oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions while those with the lowest coverage of COOH groups favour the formation of water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. We found that this corresponds to a change of the CML particle contact angle from lower than 90° to higher than 90° upon decrease of the surface density of COOH groups. The findings confirm that the surface density of polar groups has a much bigger effect on the particle wettability and the preferred emulsion than the particle surface charge and zeta potential. Our results on the type of stabilised Pickering emulsion agree with other experimental studies with different particle materials. We propose an alternative explanation for the link between the particle contact angle and the type of stabilised Pickering emulsion.

A new type of emulsion liquid membrane (ELM) has been prepared to separate and concentrate chromium (Cr) from waste water. A hydrophobic ionic liquid 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide ([BMIM] +[NTf 2] -) is used in the membrane phase as a stabilizer to provide sufficient stability and a second ionic liquid Tri-n-octylmethylammonium chloride (TOMAC) as a carrier. The other components to prepare emulsion are kerosene as solvent, span 80 as surfactant and NaOH as an internal reagent. In the present experimental investigation, the effects of various parameters such as homogenization speed, carrier concentration, internal phase concentration, agitation speed, treat ratio, internal to membrane phase ratio, surfactant concentration, pH of the feed phase and ([BMIM] +[NTf 2] - concentration on the % removal of Cr have been reported. At an optimum condition, 97% percentage of Cr could be extracted. Results showed that the stabilizing effect of [BMIM] +[NTf 2] - keeps on decreasing as the extraction proceeds. However, the provided stability by the combination of [BMIM] +[NTf 2] - and span 80 has been found to be sufficient during the extraction process. © 2011 Elsevier B.V.

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http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0011916411004103#

Microgels with embedded binuclear copper(II) complex were prepared in the presence of galactose and man-nose as biomimetic catalysts for the hydrolysis of glycosidic bonds. The study was designed to elucidate matrix effects responsible for the high catalytic proficiency (k cat /K M × k non) of the microgels that reaches up to 1.7 × 10 6 upon hydrolysis of 4-methylumbelliferyl-β-D-mannopyranoside. The experimental results reveal differences of sugar coordination to the binuclear copper(II) complex in coordination sites, binding strength, overall geometry, and binding energies that differ by 7.1 kcal/mol and are based on experiments using UV−Vis spectroscopy and isothermal titration calorimetry. Accompanying computational analyses, based on density functional theory (DFT) at the B3LYP/m6-31G(d) level of theory, further support the experimental results of sugar coordination by suggesting plausible binding sites of sugar coordination and providing additional insight into the cause of substrate discrimination during microgel-catalyzed glycoside hydrolyses. Subsequent kinetic analyses correlate the catalytic proficiency of the microgels with contributions of the metal complex core, the surrounding cross-linked matrix, and strongly binding mannose; however, the data reveal minor contributions of a templating effect to the overall catalytic performance of the water-dispersed microgel catalysts.

Formation of emulsions during oil production is a costly problem, both in terms of chemicals used and due to production losses. For economic purpose, pipeline consideration and for efficient refinery operations, the produced emulsions must dewatered and necessary to separate the water completely from the crude oils before transporting them. The objectives of this study was to study crude oil emulsions stability using different volume ratio of water-oil and different types of crude oils as well as to examine the performance of microwave application in demulsification of water-in-crude oil emulsions in comparison to the conventional methods. Two types of crude oils with three volume ratios of water-oil 50-50%, 30-70% and 20-80% (w/o) were used and a type of surfactant was SDDS. Two different microwave powers of 180 watt and 720 watt were used. This study revealed that the stability of the water-in-oil emulsion stabilized by ionic surfactant increases as the surfactant concentration increased. Increasing the oil content of the emulsion resulted in increased emulsion stability. In terms of demulsification, microwave heating technology can be an alternative method for breaking water-oil emulsion. Microwave heating technology does not required chemical addition.

List of symbols b constant, dimensionless dp average bubble diameter, m Ci concentration of palm oil in the influent stream, ppm Co concentration of palm oil in the effluent stream, ppm DL diffusivity, m2/s g acceleration of gravity, m/s2 kL liquid-phase mass transfer coefficient, ...

Chemical demulsifiers that are used for breaking water in oil emulsions, are toxic and have adverse side effects for environment. So, biodemulsifiers have been suggested as an environmental friendly alternative. The aim of this study was to achieve biodemulsifier producing bacteria. For this purpose, biodemulsifier producing bacteria were isolated from deposits in oil reservoirs in petroleum refinery through enrichment in saline-based enrichment medium with liquid paraffin and screened in quantitative and qualitative screening methods. Optimum growth condition of the selected isolates as well as the effect of carbon source on biodemulsifier production were assessed and these isolates were identified based on phenotypic methods a sequencing of 16S rRNA gene. As a result, HS20 and HS22 isolates with 71.43 and 85.71percentage demulsification of water in kerosene were identified as Alcaligenes sp. strain HS20 and Alcaligenes sp. strain HS22, respectively. Optimum temperature, pH and nitrogen source for HS20 were as 40°C, 7 and NaNO3 and for HS22 were 35°C, 7 and NH4NO3. The HS20 biodemulsifier was extracellular while in case of HS22 was in both extracellular and cell attached forms. Both isolates were able to produce biodemulsifier in the presence of hydrophilic and/or mixture of hydrophilic and hydrophobic hydrocarbons. The results of this study showed that these isolates have appropriate biodemulsifier production and emulsion breaking. Therefore, evaluation of their potential to improve the breakdown of undesirable water in crude oil emulsions at industrial scale is proposed.

An experimental study was conducted to investigate the combustion behaviour of a constant speed, 5.5 kW, 4-stroke, single-cylinder, water cooled, direct injection (DI) diesel engine fueled with water emulsified diesel. Water emulsified diesel prepared with 20% water/diesel ratio, 0.9% surfactant amount at 2200 rpm of stirrer with hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) value 4.3 was checked for fuel properties. The cylinder gas pressure (CGP) was higher in water emulsified diesel as compared to diesel for similar engine loading. The peak CGP was found to be 95.86 and 95.18 bar for water emulsified diesel and diesel, respectively at full engine load. At higher engine load, better turbulence of combustible mixture and oxidation of soot particles by OH radicals in water emulsified diesel helped in raising the peak rate of pressure rise. A higher ignition delay was observed in the combustion of water emulsified diesel. Water emulsified diesel exhibited ignition delay of 23, 21, 19, 18 and 17 degree crank angle (°CA) at no load, 25, 50, 75 and 100% load, respectively as compared to 20, 20, 18, 14, and 9°CA with diesel for similar engine loading. The longer ignition delay period in water emulsified diesel helped in burning of more fuel leading to higher instantaneous heat release rate (Qn). At full engine load, its value was found to be 223.06 and 207.90 J/°CA for water emulsified diesel and diesel, respectively.

A study was conducted for fuel characterization of a stable nano-oxide added water emulsified biodiesel blend (NWEB) prepared with optimal emulsifying parameters. NWEB prepared with Hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) value 5.0 indicated the least separation from emulsion layer as compared to other HLB values 4.3 and 6.0. Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy was conducted in Mid-IR range to ensure the quality of biodiesel and emulsified fuel. The stability data of NWEB prepared with varying the emulsifying parameters were used in radial basis function neural network (RBFNN) for simulation of actual and predicted separation from emulsion. The well trained RBFNN model was coupled with particle swarm optimization (PSO) technique to find the optimal emulsifying parameters to produce a stable NWEB. The predicted optimal emulsifying parameters were found as 69.7 ppm nano-oxide concentration, 10% water, 1% surfactant and 2500 rpm of stirrer for a predicted separation of 0.90% after 30 h of emulsification against actual separation of 0.84%. The fuel properties of NWEB and base fuels were determined following the standard procedures. These properties were found within the limits of American, European and Indian Standards for diesel, biodiesel and biodiesel blends and thus indicating the suitability of these fuels in diesel engine.

Spray-dried polyphenols extracted from olive mill wastewater (OMW) were used to formulate 20% olive oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions stabilised with whey protein isolate (WPI) and xanthan gum at pH 7. The effects of olive biophenol extract (0.9e4.4 mM), whey protein isolate (0.13e0.5%) and xanthan gum (0.06 e0.2%) on the physical stability (creaming index), viscosity, emulsion droplet size and distribution, primary and secondary oxidation products were assessed over accelerated storage of emulsions. Response surface methodology (RSM) was applied for experimental design using three-factor central composite design (CCD) with 3 central points. The effects of OMW phenolics, WPI and xanthan gum were statistically significant on emulsion creaming rate, viscosity, PV, TBARS and cloudiness. Second-order polynomial models were obtained for predicting these responses, resulting in good performances especially for the first two responses. High coefficient of determination (R 2) values ranging from 0.847 to 0.973 were obtained for creaming and viscosity, acceptable R 2 values were obtained for lipid oxidation parameters (peroxide value and TBARS) and cloudiness value, while non-significant results were obtained for mean droplet size. The performance of the model was particularly good for creaming rate and viscosity. It has been highlighted that the interactions between OMW phenolic extract and the ingredients studied should be considered for the formulation of olive O/W emulsions. This research could be useful for the formulation of functional food products based on O/W emulsions, as well as understanding the physico-chemical interactions among olive biophenols, whey proteins and xanthan gum.

The present paper reports on the use of phenolic extracts from olive mill wastewater (OMW) in model olive oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions to study their effect on their physical and chemical stability. Spray-dried OMW polyphenols were added to a model 20% olive O/W emulsion stabilized with whey protein isolate (WPI) and xanthan gum, in phosphate buffer solution at pH 7. The emulsions were characterised under accelerated storage conditions (40 °C) up to 30 days. Physical stability was evaluated by analysing the creaming rate, mean particle size distribution and mean droplet size, viscosity and rheological properties , while chemical stability was assessed through the measurement of primary and secondary oxidation products. The rheological behaviour and creaming stability of the emulsions were dramatically improved by using xanthan gum, whereas the concentration of WPI and the addition of encapsulated OMW phenolics did not result in a significant improvement of physical stability. The formation of oxidation products was higher when higher concentrations of encapsulated polyphenols were used, indicating a possible binding with the WPI added in the system as a natural emulsifier. This paper might help in solving the issue of using the olive mill wastewater from olive processing in formulating functional food products with high antioxidant activity and improved health properties.

The percentage removal of phenol from aqueous solution by emulsion liquid membrane and emulsion leakage was investigated experimentally for various parameters such as membrane:internal phase ratio, membrane:external phase ratio, emulsification speed, emulsification time, carrier concentration, surfactant concentration and internal agent concentration. These parameters strongly influence the percentage removal of phenol and emulsion leakage. Under optimum membrane properties, the percentage removal of phenol was as high as 98.33%, with emulsion leakage of 1.25%. It was also found that the necessity of carrier for enhancing phenol removal was strongly dependent on the internal agent concentration. © 2010 Elsevier B.V.

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