White-Tailed Deer

Editorial pg. 2 EUROPE Genetic variability and its implications for conservation in the endangered Corsican and Barbary red deer (Cervus elaphus corsicanus and C. e. barbarus) pg. 3 NORTH AMERICA Los venados de Mexico pg. 7 Alimentación del venado cola blanca mexicano (Odocoileus virginianus mexicanus) en el sur de Puebla, México pg. 21 Alimentación del venado temazate rojo (Mazama temama), en un bosque mesófilo de montaña de México pg. 25 Situación actual del venado cola blanca en la zona centro del estado de Veracruz, México pg. 29 SOUTH AMERICA Research and Conservation of Huemul in Chilean Patagonia pg. 34 Translocation, semi-captive breeding and reintroduction of huemul in chile: an advance in its conservation or a political clash? pg. 35 V Taller Nacional de la Taruka pg. 37 Patrones de actividad de corzuelas pardas (Mazama gouazoubira) en cautiverio pg. 38 Situación actual del venado cola blanca en la zona centro del estado de Veracruz, México. White-tailed deer status in Central State of Veracruz, Mexico. Abstract White-tailed deer in Mexico is one of the most important game species. There are 14 subspecies in the country, two of them in the central part of the State of Veracruz: Odocoileus virginianus toltecus and O. v. veraecrucis.

This online symposium--organised by The Global War Against the Rat and the Epistemic Emergence of Zoonosis project in collaboration with Monica H. Green--is centered around the recent findings of the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 within white-tailed deer populations in the United States. The ability of the new coronavirus to transmit within captive animal populations (mink and zoo animals) was already documented in 2020. Transmission into wild animal populations, however, raises issues of broader consequence, both for present disease management and surveillance and also long-term control of the disease.

Entitled "From Zoonotics to Anthroponotics: The Past and Present of Disease Transmission between Animals and Humans," the symposium will feature a keynote by Professor Suresh Kuchipudi (Penn State University), and a panel and roundtable that will bring together and discuss evidence of documented cases of disease spread from humans into wild animal populations (and back again) from the perspectives of history, anthropology, and virology.

Date: 14 Dec 2021. Times: 14:00 to 18:45 GMT.
To register: The event is free but requires registration. To register, please contact Lynn Hynd at wwrat@st-andrews.ac.uk by December 9 15:00 GMT. Please use “From Zoonotics to Anthroponotics” as the subject of your message.

The exploitation and procurement of animal resources by any culture in the world is very important. Because of the lack of beasts of burden in the Pre-Columbian Americas, wild animals such as the white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and some domesticates such as the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), were highly regarded among the Mayas. Recent analyses have shown that there is a change in the exploitation patterns of both animals from the Pre-classic to the Classic Period, a change that has been associated with the emergence of a more powerful group of rulers. My objective will be to discuss the symbolic and the importance of the white-tailed deer among the Maya and interpreting its presence in the archaeological record. In order to do so, firstly I will discuss the symbolic role of the deer and dog in the Classic Mayan iconography, and how this information relate to the presence of both species in the archaeological record through time. Then I will discuss how the Classic Mayan elite had access and used these animals resources to create a social difference from the rest of the population, through the celebration of sacrifice and ritual feasts. I will proceed to compare and contrast the information available on feasting from different sites in the region to stress the fact that the use of animal resources by the Maya is not only limited to the environment, and chronological period, but it is also a consequence of a cultural selection of certain species for specific purposes, such as the validation of a new ruling system, during the Classic period. Finally, I will conclude that it is necessary to consider the symbolic, sociotemporal aspects, and the nature of specific contexts when studying the archaeofaunal remains.

Stable carbon–, nitrogen–, and oxygen–isotope analyses of animal bones and teeth from 28 archaeological sites are used to reconstruct human subsistence behaviour, i.e., increased maize horticulturalism, during the Late Woodland period (A.D. 1000–1650) in southwestern Ontario. The isotopic data provided dietary, seasonal, and geographic information, which was analysed within archaeological, symbolic, and ecological contexts and used to reconstruct the diets, hunting patterns, and animal processing practices of two neighbouring groups, the Ontario Iroquoian and Western Basin peoples.
Paleodietary and seasonality analyses focused on the following species: canids (domestic dogs, foxes, and wolves), wild turkeys and white-tailed deer, though additional fauna (including black bears, raccoons, and squirrels) were also analysed. Bone (n=324) and dentine (n=11) collagen provided dietary information, specifically concerning access to maize and trophic position. The carbon– and nitrogen–isotope composition of modern plants (n= 8) and animals (n=87) was used to expand the local food web and understand abilities of modern animals to access crops. Structural carbonate isotopic analyses for archaeological (n=126) and modern (n=28) individuals provided additional information about trophic position, post–mortem alteration, and geographic affiliation. Serially sampled enamel was analysed for several deer and a dog, and was successfully paired with x–radiographs to create an enamel formation sequence, which enables reconstruction of short term (seasonal) diets.
The domestic dog isotopic data expanded our understanding of human dietary change over the Late Woodland period for both Ontario Iroquoian and Western Basin peoples, including different emphases on protein sources (i.e., fish). Wild fauna, particularly foxes, wild turkeys, raccoons and squirrels, were able to access maize. The turkey isotopic data suggest a unique hunting strategy at some Ontario Iroquoian sites, i.e., the purposeful discard of maize to create a predictable field hunting zone. An unexpected relationship between the δ13Ccol and δ13Csc values of deer appears to reflect a post–mortem processing (i.e., boiling) practice. This thesis has expanded our understanding of Late Woodland diets, horticultural and hunting practices. It has also demonstrated that fauna may be used to reconstruct human behaviour and ideology in lieu of the destructive analysis of human remains.

En los bosquEs dE la siErra nEgra dE PuEbla habitan los vEnados temazate y cola blanca y la Boa constrictor, asociados con la renovación, los primeros por mudar sus astas y la última su piel. Esta vinculación les ha valido un importante sitio en la mitología y la ritualidad de la región.

The brocket deer (Mazama temama and M. pandora) are two of the Mexican tropical deer with great importance for subsistence and sport hunters. Brocket deer are considered species with preference for pristine habitats conserved, however at the landscape level, factors such as hunting pressure could influence the presence and abundance of these species. Campeche, is the only Mexican state where it has been authorized the exploitation of the brocket deer
for sport hunting. This hunting pressure along with the intense subsistence hunting that occurs in Campeche, could
have important effects on the conservation of the species. Establishing what factors determine the presence of the
species at the landscape level is essential to elaborate comprehensive management plans of these species to allow
their long-term conservation. The aim of this study was to determine the habitat variables at the landscape level that
influence the brocket deer presence in the central-western area of Campeche State in Mexico.

Se documentó la sostenibilidad y el manejo de la cacería del venado de cola blanca (Odocoileus virginianus, Zimmermann, 1780) a partir de los restos arqueológicos localizados en Aguazuque (2725±35 A.P.-5025±40 A.P.). Se analizaron cambios en la proporción de animales de diferentes clases de edad, en la proporción de sexos y en las tallas. Se encontró cierta tendencia hacia la cosecha de individuos de las clases
de edad adulto joven y adulto viejo. Se cazaron en la misma proporción tanto machos como hembras. No se halló evidencia de la reducción en la talla de los animales con el tiempo. Los resultados sugieren una tendencia al manejo de la cacería del venado de cola blanca en Aguazuque.

The large-scale reductions of predators and habitat fragmentation have resulted in hyper-abundances of herbivores in many ecosystems. Their effects of trampling and browsing pressure at high densities can negatively affect seedling recruit ment, which is a critical co mponent of forest regeneration and community structure. If the frequency of seedling disturbances is too high, forest regeneration and succession will be negatively affected. This may, in turn, introduce broader impacts beyond forest ecosystems, concerning stand biomass and the rate of carbon sequestration. As forests constitute major sinks for at mospheric CO 2 , the sizes of terrestrial carbon pools are of particular interest to ecologists, managers, and policy makers in relation to quantifying the amount of carbon sequestration rate. We experimentally tested these hypotheses within large pristine broadleaf forests in Virgin ia, North A merica. We utilized three 4-ha wh ite-tailed deer exclosures and open control plots, which were established over 18 years ago. We quantified five physical damage categories including falling canopy debris (limbfall), herbivory, tramp ling, frost heaving, and unknown that affected 360 experimentally placed artificial seedlings over the course of 11 months between both treatments. A survival analysis indicated significantly higher seedling "mortality" in the open control plot compared to those in the deer exclosure. Furthermore, the frequencies of herbivory and tramp ling were also significantly higher in the open control plot than in the deer exclosure. We then tested the effects of high deer densities on above-and below-ground carbon sequestration in trees and saplings . Our results demonstrated that white-tailed deer exerted top-down control significantly increasing carbon sequestration rate of saplings by 94% within the deer exclosures compared to the open control plots. Trampling and intense browsing by white-tailed deer limited forest regeneration and reduced the forest carbon sequestration rate. These perturbations from herbivore hyper-abundances occur in many ecosystems from North America to Eurasia, thus the cascadin g effect of predator reduction and extinction may have wide spread imp lications beyond forest health by affecting the global carbon budget.

Utility indices have long been used to interpret ungulate body part representation at archaeological sites. The use of return rates, which are a more appropriate measure for studies of foraging efficiency, have been used less frequently. Until recently, zooarchaeologists interested in the prehistoric use of whitetailed deer were forced to use utility indices developed from other species. In this paper, the derivation and application of utility indices and return rates for white-tailed deer are discussed and two recently derived white-tailed deer utility indices are compared.

Abstract: This thesis investigates the demographics of paleo-populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) as a means of testing the hypothesis that this species was domesticated or managed as a vital cultural and economic resource by the ancient Maya in Mesoamerica. To do so it employs a set of standardized bone measurements derived from a modern population and compares them with 1100 deer bone samples recovered by archaeologists from Maya sites dating from 450 B.C. to the late 16th century. These measurements were also applied to modern white-tailed deer specimens representing a discrete population from south eastern Florida of know age, and sex, for use as a baseline. The recorded measurements were used for side by side comparisons and to generate log ratios testing population stature and sexual dimorphism represented in the archaeological materials.
Changes in deer stature and mortality profile over time are examined and tested against standard methods for the detection of herd management strategies, that may potentially reveal deer domestication or resource management. Pathologies common to white-tailed deer are identified and their potential for assessing the ontological age of mature deer is investigated. The results show variations in white-tailed deer stature over time and space, suggesting dynamic alterations in prey selection that may be reflective of changes in Maya social complexity.

Odocoileus virginianus es un cérvido emblemático de los ecosistemas
de México con interés económico por el sector cinegético. Sorprendentemente,
existe conocimiento limitado de la relación filogenética
entre las subespecies. El objetivo del estudio fue establecer las relaciones
filogenéticas de las subespecies de O. virginianus distribuidas
en el Pacífico Mexicano, área donde son escasos los estudios de esta
índole. En Unidades de Manejo para la Conservación de la Vida Silvestre,
se recolectó tejido de ocho subespecies de O. virginianus, del
cual se extrajo ADN y se secuenció la región D-Loop del ADNmt en 105
muestras. Las secuencias fueron alineadas con el algoritmo de Clustal
X instalado en MEGA v.6; en este software se identificó el modelo
de sustitución de nucleótidos que mejor se ajustó a la distribución de
las secuencias, se construyó el filograma con el método de Máxima
Parsimonia, basado en el algoritmo branch-and-bound para identificar
el árbol más parsimonioso y el ajuste de las ramas del filograma
se evaluó con 1000 réplicas Bootstrap. El modelo de Jukes-Cantor
fue el que mejor describió el patrón de sustitución de nucleótidos
por presentar bajo coeficiente del Criterio de Información Bayesiana. En el filograma se formaron ocho clados monofiléticos representando a cada una de las subespecies, con valores de 100% de ajuste de las ramas por Bootstrap, infiriendo que cada clado desciende de linajes diferentes. Se concluye que cada subespecie debe considerarse como Unidad Evolutiva Significativa (ESU) y como Unidad de Operativa de Conservación (OCU).

Las unidades de manejo de fauna silvestre (UMAs) son una estrategia para el adecuado aprovechamiento y conservación de las especies, como es el grupo de los mamíferos para el trópico, en este estudio analizar la situación actual de las Unidades para la Conservación, Manejo y Aprovechamiento Sustentable de la fauna silvestre que mantienen mamíferos, en el Estado de Tabasco. Se hicieron entrevistas en 27 UMAs que tienen mamíferos nativos y exóticos en el estado, las preguntas fueron enfocadas recabar información de que especies mantienen y sobre su funcionamiento. Son 13 las especies, pero solo seis de ellas son originarias de la zona. De las 27 Unidades de manejo, solo 20 funcionan. El venado cola blanca es la especie más usada en las UMAs seguida del tepezcuintle y pecarí de collar. Solo 12 de las unidades entrevistadas indican que sean exitosas y se consideran criaderos intensivos. La gran mayoría de las UMAs no exitosas son ejidales. El 75% de las UMAs tienen asesoría técnica sin embargo el tipo de asesoría que reciben es principalmente sobre técnicas de manejo y asesoría médica. El 30% de las exitosas tiene apoyo municipal o federal, mientras que solo el 10% tiene ingresos por ventas. Las condiciones en las que operan las UMAs se pueden mejorar, se requiere una estrategia para que trabajen de manera estrecha con autoridades que van de municipales a federales y las comunidades interesadas para la obtención de recursos para las instalaciones, programas de capacitación, así como de mejorar la mercadotécnica para la difusión de su productos.

ABSTRACT Declines in hunter recruitment coupled with dramatic growth in numbers of white-tailed deer
(Odocoileus virginianus) have challenged our ability to manage deer populations through regulated hunting.
We review the efficacy of current regulated hunting methods and explain how they are unable to reduce deer
numbers sufficiently in some environments. Regulated commercial harvest would provide an additional tool
to help state wildlife agencies manage overabundant populations of white-tailed deer. We outline potential
means to govern regulated commercial deer harvest and explain how it is compatible with the North
American Model of Wildlife Conservation. We identified several benefits, including reduced overabundant
populations of deer; source of healthy, natural, green, locally produced protein; promotion of economic
growth, entrepreneurship, and market expansion; and public engagement and appreciation. We also address
expected concerns associated with this concept, such as privatization of wildlife; overexploitation; food safety;
competition with existing commodities; law enforcement; and challenges of changing laws, regulations, and
attitudes. We suggest developing a professional forum to address the issue of regulated commercial harvest of
white-tailed deer and other overabundant species of wildlife.
2011 The Wildlife Society.

In southeastern Mexico the White-Tailed Deer is an important source of food for the inhabitants of rural communities in the tropics, but little is known of this deer. In this study we determined the density, sex ratio and age classes of white-tailed deer, in two communities in eastern Tabasco. Scats were collected on 40 transects distributed in two rural communities, from January 2005 to January 2007. Using scats, we estimated density based on a mathematical model and the sex ratio and age classes were determined using the K-mean technique. In the Ejido El Caudillo we collected 61 fecal groups and estimated a density of 1.13 ±0.44 ind/km2. For the Ejido San Joaquin we collected 41 fecal groups and estimated an average density of 0.63 ± 0.43 ind/km2. The densities estimated in this study are considered low compared with studies in central and northern Mexico, but is similar to previous data for the tropical areas of Mexico. Estimated densities probably were due to the effect caused by the combination of factors; mainly the high degree of fragmentation, the high density of cattle, hunting and illegal burning. Despite the low densities, population structure indicates adequate conditions for the species in the area. The method used in this study could be replicated in other similar areas of the state, and the data presented represents the first progress on the knowledge about deer in Tabasco.

The white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus thomasi MERRIAM) is a species with high value throughout México, but little is known about the tropical subspecies. In this study, the habitat preferences of the white-tailed deer in areas with the presence of livestock production in two sites of the Southeast of México are analyzed, and for this purpose, the average livestock
density was estimated in ejidos San Joaquín y El Caudillo, in the municipalities of Tenosique and Balancán, Tabasco, México, respectively. The method of fixed-transect plots was used, where tracks of the species were recorded. The percentage of habitat availability was estimated, and the square Chi test was applied to identify whether
there were differences between the use and availability, as well as the Bonferroni intervals to contrast the expected and observed use. In San Joaquín, the white-tailed deer preferred the habitat of pucte semi-evergreen medium forest, while in El Caudillo it was the savannah-pastureland. Habitat preferences can be the result of protectioncoverage and food availability. Hunting is a factor that could influence the habitat preference of deer.

R e s u m e n El objetivo de este artículo es evaluar la cacería de O. virginianus en Aguazuque, un sitio de cazadores-recolectores tardíos de la sabana de Bogotá, a partir de elementos teóricos y metodológicos de la biología de la conservación, como lo es el concepto de sostenibilidad. Se utilizaron índices de diversidad comúnmente utilizados en ecología, además de índices normalmente empleados en zooarqueología como NISP y MNI.

The sustainable use of white-tailed deer in Mexico can only be performed in Management Units for the Conservation of Wildlife (UMA , for its acronym in Spanish) , based on a management plan for legal operation. Among the methods for population estimate harvest rates, highlights fecal count groups, depending on the frequency at which a deer excretes daily, and whose values are estimated from captive specimens and tolerant observer, but considering subspecies and different from the northern Sinaloa conditions. Using these rates of defecation can lead to overharvesting. This research was conducted in the farmed deer of the indigenous ejido (Mayo-Yoreme ethnic group) called “Los Capomos”, in the municipality of El Fuerte, Sinaloa, between October 2011 and May 2012, to estimate the rate of defecation counts from fecal groups, obtained from a confined deer population and in apparent equilibrium with its environment through adjustments to the model of Eberhardt and Van Etten. It was found that the lowest rate published defecation (12.7 deer fecal groups per day), the estimated population accounted for half of the known population, which would prevent excessive use of native deer in the wild. However, the pattern of random grouping of excreta in confinement, makes it advisable that it be used in conditions of freedom, since it presupposes the mathematical model used aggregate grouping patterns.

Resumen: En la mayoría de las especies, las hembras invierten más tiempo en el proceso reproductivo, mientras que los machos han sido seleccionados para invertir más tiempo y energía en las pautas de cortejo. En el venado cola blanca Odocoileus virginianus mexicanus (Gmelin, 1788), el macho presenta astas cuyas características, así como el tamaño corporal, son señales de la calidad genética. Las conductas sexuales (visuales, químicas, auditivas) contribuyen a incrementar el éxito a la hora de aparearse. Una de las pautas conductuales exhibidas por machos durante la etapa pre-reproductiva es el tallado de las astas contra arbustos (rubbing). Esta conducta es para
desprender el terciopelo (tejido muerto adherido a las astas) y para establecer áreas de dominancia entre los machos; así como un signo olfativo, auditivo y visual en la comunicación reproductiva con las hembras. En el ejido El Limón de Cuachichinola, en la Reserva de la Biosfera Sierra de
Huautla, Morelos, México, se registró el tallado en árboles durante octubre-noviembre, lo que representa el inicio de su proceso reproductivo. En el presente estudio se registraron los talladeros que eran visibles a lo largo de transectos de 400 m (14) previamente establecidos y se encontraron 25. Los talladeros son frecuentes en árboles y arbustos de entre 5 y 10 cm de diámetro. Nueve especies de árboles fueron utilizadas como talladeros. Los venados seleccionaron positiva y
significativamente al Tlahuitol (Lysiloma divaricada; 40%), y Guayacán (Conzattia multiflora; 16%), así como evitaron a la Ixtomeca (Euphorbia schlechtendalii) siendo altamente significativas las diferencias entre el uso y la disponibilidad de las especies arbóreas utilizadas. Se pudieron identificar las zonas importantes desde el punto de vista reproductivo y de conservación.

Ungulate mortality from capture-related injuries is a recurring concern for researchers and game managers throughout North America and elsewhere. We evaluated effects of 7 variables to determine whether ungulate mortality could be reduced by modifying capture and handling procedures during helicopter net-gunning. During winter 2001–2006, we captured 208 white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and 281 pronghorn (Antilocapra americana) by helicopter net-gunning throughout the Northern Great Plains. Of 281 pronghorn, 25 (8.9%) died from capture-related injuries; 12 were from direct injuries during capture, and 13 occurred postrelease. Of 208 deer, 3 (1.4%) died from injuries sustained during helicopter captures, with no mortalities documented postrelease. We used logistic regression to evaluate the probability that ungulates would die of injuries associated with helicopter net-gun captures by analyzing effects of snow depth, transport distance, ambient and rectal temperatures, pursuit and handling times, and whether individuals were transported to processing sites. The probability of capture-related mortality postrelease decreased 58% when transport distance was reduced from 14.5 km to 0 km and by 69% when pursuit time decreased from 9 minutes to ,1 minute. Wildlife managers and researchers using helicopter capture services in landscapes of the Midwest should limit pursuit time and eliminate animal transport during pronghorn and white-tailed deer capture operations to minimize mortality rates postrelease.

Modern Eurasian telemetacarpal deer represent a poor remnant of the rich evolutionary radiation of the subfamily Capreolinae from the past. The evolutionary radiation of capreolines took place during the Late Miocene in the middle latitudes of Eurasia, but their diversity was significantly depleted by the subsequent climate changes. The multivariate cluster analysis of diagnostic craniodental characters (including antlers) of modern and fossil telemetacarpal deer and some
cervid forms with uncertain systematic position demonstrates that such Late Miocene and Pliocene genera as Cervavitus, Pliocervus, and Lucentia should be regarded as capreolines, demonstrating
a diversified evolutionary radiation of the subfamily Capreolinae in the past. Lucentia represents the primitive two-pointed stage of antler evolution of Capreolinae and possibly belongs to the phylogenetic branch that includes Procapreolus and Pliocervus. The Capreolus-
Rangifer-Odocoileus phylogenetic branch has a more distant phylogenetic relationship with the Lucentia-Procapreolus-Pliocervus group. The cluster analysis shows that modern Capreolus may represent an early evolutionary off-shoot of the Rangifer-Odocoileus lineage. The obtained for Capreolus results do not fit the genetic data, suggesting that the set of recorded craniodental characters may be improved. The Cervavitus-Alces group is the most detached phylogenetic branch of Capreolinae. According to the present study, holometacarpal "Cervocerus novorossiae” from the Late Tertiary of China is nested within the subfamily Cervinae. Among the most notable plesiomorphic
craniodental characters of Capreolinae should be mentioned the parallel and sloped backwards long pedicles, the Palaeomeryx fold in lower molars, the protoconal fold in upper molars, and the high position of the first antler ramification.

Achieving state wildlife agency goals for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) management may conflict with hunter traditions and desires. Optimizing deer herd management given conflicting biological and social goals means that agencies will need to better understand what trade-offs can be made. In North Carolina, USA, the harvest of deer by hunters is skewed towards males <2.5 years old and all firearm hunting seasons begin prior to the rut. Both trends can have undesirable consequences for deer populations, hunters, and deer managers. To provide better information to mitigate the potential for undesirable consequences, we modeled deer hunter choice behavior using a discrete choice experiment to identify their preferences for regulatory components and policy alternatives. Discrete choice experiments explain the choice behavior of humans via preference elicitation. We obtained the data used in our analysis after contacting 171,880 resident deer hunters by email and postcard to encourage their participation in a web-based survey. We received valid responses from 25,508 resident deer hunters. Respondents identified gun season length as the most important regulatory attribute influencing their decisions about policy, followed by bag limits. Results also suggest that North Carolina's hunters may be more willing to make trade-offs when attributes least affecting their decision making, such as season opening date and blackpowder season length, are altered by decision makers to benefit the deer herd. By employing wildlife valuation methods, such as discrete choice experiments, agencies can gain deep insights into viable trade-offs between different attributes that underpin multidimensional policies, such as deer seasons, not achieved through attitudinal measures alone.

The rise in white-tailed deer populations has created the potential for increased deervehicle collisions (DVCs) throughout the country. The goal of this study was to use Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to identify spatial relationships of DVC events in Winona County, MN. Two public DVC datasets were acquired from state and local law enforcement for use in this study. One was from the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MNDNR) and the other from the Minnesota Department of Transportation (MNDOT). Each dataset contained DVC events recorded from 1995-2006. Linear referencing techniques and kernel density patterns were utilized to determine which roadways had higher DVC events and which portions of roadways had the highest deer densities. Seasonal effects were examined to investigate potential correlations between the volume of reported DVCs and deer seasons. Spatial patterns specified high density DVC areas along the Highway 61/14 roadway. Seasonal analysis of the possession permit dataset revealed the highest DVC volume occurred during the breeding season, while the unclaimed/unsalvageable report (UUR) dataset recorded the highest DVC volume during the fawning season. The spatial structure of high deer densities and seasonal trends in DVCs can assist in the targeting of "hot spots" for future DVC mitigation efforts.

One of the key factors aecting the integrity of forest ecosystems in portions of the eastern United States is heavy browsing by overabundant populations of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman). Deer impacts to upland forests of the Allegheny Plateau in northwestern PA, USA, have been especially intense: high levels of deer browsing over the past 60 years have strongly in¯uenced forest pattern and process. Riparian forests of the region are rich in herbaceous plant species, but virtually nothing is known about how deer browsing may in¯uence the structure and function of these systems. Moreover, reliable techniques for assessing and monitoring deer impacts on riparian forests are lacking. The goal of this study was to determine whether the common riparian herbaceous plant turtlehead, Chelone glabra L., is a useful indicator species with which to assess and monitor the intensity of deer browsing in the herbaceous layer of Allegheny Plateau riparian forests. The percentage of C. glabra stems browsed by deer was signi®cantly correlated with intensity of browsing on the herbaceous community during one sample period, but stem height, an attribute used widely in other studies of browse indicator species, was poorly correlated with intensity of browsing. Three other herbaceous plant species, Aster divaricatus L., A. prenanthoides Muhl. and Impatiens capensis Meerb., were preferentially browsed by deer and show promise for use as indicators of browsing intensity in riparian forests. Variability in deer browsing intensity on C. glabra across sites and sample periods suggests that use of an assemblage of herbaceous browse indicator species is preferable to sole reliance on C. glabra for assessing and monitoring browsing impact. #

Understanding the impacts of local and regional landscape characteristics on spatial distributions of wildlife species is vital for achieving ecological and economic sustainability of forested landscapes. This understanding is important because wildlife species such as white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) have the potential to affect forest dynamics differently across space. Here, we quantify the effects of local and regional landscape characteristics on the spatial distribution of white-tailed deer, produce maps of estimated deer density using these quantified relationships, provide measures of uncertainty for these maps to aid interpretation, and show how this information can be used to guide co-management of deer and forests. Specifically, we use ordinary least squares and Bayesian regression methods to model the spatial distribution of white-tailed deer in northern hardwood stands during the winter in the managed hardwood-conifer forests of the central Upper Peninsula of Michigan, USA. Our results show that deer density is higher nearer lowland conifer stands and in areas where northern hardwood trees have small mean diameter-at-breast-height. Other factors related with deer density include mean northern hardwood basal area (negative relationship), proportion of lowland conifer forest cover (positive relationship), and mean daily snow depth (negative relationship). The modeling methods we present provide a means to identify locations in forest landscapes where wildlife and forest managers may most effectively co-ordinate their actions.

Although bluetongue viruses (BTV) and epizootic haemorrhagic disease viruses (EHDV) are closely related, there are differences in susceptibility to these viruses both between and within a species. White‑tailed deer are susceptible to disease by both BTV and EHDV, sheep are susceptible to BTV, but resistant to EHDV, and cattle can be infected with both viruses but disease is usually subclinical. Host genetics probably play a role in the disease outcome, but cytokine and endothelial responses are likely to determine if subclinical or clinical disease develops. Dendritic macrophages deliver virus to lymph nodes following the bite of an infected Culicoides. The virus then disseminates to many organs replicating in mononuclear phagocytes and endothelium. Initially, an interferon‑1 response probably determines if the disease develops. Replication in mononuclear cells and endothelium results in the release of cytokines and vasoactive mediators, and may result in endothelial cell death leading to the clinical features of fever, hyperaemia, exudation of fluid, and haemorrhage. Disease outcome may also be linked to virus binding Toll‑like receptor‑3 and upregulation of endothelial surface receptors potentiating cytokine release and allowing transmigration of inflammatory cells, respectively. Despite a wealth of information, host genetics involved in resistance to BTV and EHDV and how variations in cytokines and endothelial responses determine clinical outcome still need further elucidation.

Claims that hunters are exemplar conservationists would likely come as a surprise to many. Hunters, after all, kill animals. Isn’t there a better way to appreciate wildlife than to kill and consume it? Yet there is no mistake: wildlife managers frequently make the claim that hunters, in the United States at least, are in fact some of the greatest conservationists. This article explores the complex historical and contemporary entanglements between hunting and wildlife conservation in the United States from a regulatory perspective. Such entanglements are multifaceted: hunting provides substantial financial support for conservation and hunters are the state’s primary tools for managing “big game” populations. Additionally, many wildlife officials are themselves hunters, and wildlife management programs are often geared toward the interests of hunters. Statutes, regulations, and governmental policies have been set in place that both reflect and reinforce this intimate relationship. This article draws on seven in-depth, semi-structured interviews, mainly with government wildlife managers, as well as on my own participatory observations accompanying a wildlife manager on a hunting trip, to trace the interconnections between hunting and conservation and the detailed regulatory regimes that have emerged around them. The management of the white-tailed deer in New York State will serve as a case study for these explorations of how American wildlife officials think about, and practice, their work of governing wildlife hunting.

With the extirpation of apex predators from many North American systems, coyotes Canis latrans have become the de facto top predator and are ubiquitous members of most ecosystems. Keystone predators aid in maintaining ecosystem function by regulating the mammal community through direct predation and instilling the landscape of fear, yet the value of coyotes regulating systems to this capacity is understudied and likely variable across environments. Since coyotes are common in the Midwestern United States, we utilized camera traps and occupancy analyses to assess their role in regulating the distribution of mammalian herbivores in a fragmented suburban ecosystem. Forest cover was a strong positive predictor of white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus detection, while coyote occurrence had a negative effect. Coyotes exerted a negative effect on squirrel (Sciurus spp.) and eastern cottontail rabbit Sylvilagus floridanus occurrence, while urban cover was a positive predictor for the prey species’ occurrence. These results suggest all three species behaviorally avoid coyotes whereby deer seek denser forest cover and squirrels and cottontails mitigate risk by increasing use of urban areas. Although previous studies reveal limited influence of coyote on the rest of the carnivore guild in suburban systems, we suggest coyotes play an important role in regulating the herbivorous mammals and hence may provide similar ecological benefits in urban/suburban forest fragments through trophic cascades. Furthermore, since hunting may not be allowed in urban and suburban habitats, coyotes might also serve as the primary regulator of nuisance species occurring at high abundance such as white-tailed deer and squirrels.

Stable isotope analyses of tissues and faeces offer an alternative to study the dietary ecology in wild animal populations. Faecal isotope analyses are composition is related to the food ingested and allow for documenting short-term diet variability. Therefore, we estimated diet-faeces trophic shifts in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fed on a constant diet. 13 C and 2.13‰ for 15 N) were different to the trophic shifts reported for other herbivores.

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Resource depression – a decline in encounter rates with prey due to the actions of a predator – has been documented for numerous species in North America. Yet it is not fully understood whether white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the most common prey species for Native peoples in eastern North America, were depressed prior to European colonization. To investigate whether white-tailed deer were depressed in precolonial eastern North America, I analyze zooarchaeological data from six sites in the Middle Tennessee River Valley. My results are equivocal, as different lines of evidence support conflicting interpretations. Declines in the abundance of deer in upland sites after ca. 4000 cal BP support depression of deer. However, deer did not decline in floodplain sites, perhaps due to anthropogenic environmental modification (i.e., burning). The upland decline coincides with a shift toward greater wetland patch use, which may have driven a reduction in deer hunting due to patch choice dynamics, not depression. Furthermore, declining deer abundance co-occurs with high terrestrial foraging efficiency, contrary to the expectation that greater exploitation of lower-ranked prey types should occur coincident with high-ranked deer declines. I find no clear support for resource depression of white-tailed deer in this region, but further analysis is needed.

As co-director of the 1974-1975 Inland Waterway Survey and Excavation Project in the northern part of Michigan’s Lower Peninsula, William Lovis and colleagues acquired considerable archaeological data pertaining to landscape history and resource potential for the area. Additional archaeological investigations have provided complementary information on human-environment interactions in northern Michigan. Although the inland shore fishery was of critical importance for local populations, large terrestrial mammals also provided significant sources of meat, as well as hides. In addition to the 1960s excavations at the Juntunen site, recent discoveries of caribou (Rangifer tarandus) remains have been made at three other Late Woodland sites in northern Michigan. By illustrating some key osteological distinctions between white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and caribou, we call attention to the importance of accurate identifications of fragmentary cervid remains and their implications for a better understanding of human adaptations and subsistence for the region.

Terrestrial gastropods were collected from wetland, grassland, and forest-ed habitats throughout eastern and southcentral South Dakota from May-August of 1999 and 2000 to assess the role of gastropods in transmission of meningeal worm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) to white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations throughout the state. A total of 4,063 gastropods representing 14 species, five of which were known intermediate hosts for P. tenuis, were collected throughout South Dakota during the summers of 1999 and 2000. Significantly more (P < 0.0001) gastropods were collected from eastern than western South Dakota. Six species of snails (Zonitoides nitidus, Z. ar-boreus, Discus cronkhitei, Succinea ovalis, Gastrocopta pentadon, and Vallonia sp.) and one slug species (Deroceras laeve) accounted for 87% of the gas-tropods collected. A total of 3,468 gastropods were examined for presence of P. tenuis larvae. Three species of snails (Z. arboreus, Z. nitidus, and D. cronkhitei) and one slug species (Deroceras laeve) accounted for 93% of the total number of infected gastropods (i.e., 66 of 71). Significantly more (P = 0.005) infected gastropods were collected from semipermanent wetlands than from grasslands or forested habitats, suggesting that wetland habitats are important transmission sites of P. tenuis from gastropods to white-tailed deer in South Dakota.

The impacts of introduced or overabundant large herbivores are a concern for the conservation of forest plant communities and the sustainability of ecosystem function.  White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are considered ecologically overabundant in much of North America. Previous work suggests that impacts of deer overabundance are broadly negative and are consequently degrading forests at multiple ecological and taxonomic levels. However, no quantitative synthesis currently exists to verify the generality or magnitude of these impacts. Here, we report the results of a meta-analysis quantifying the effects of deer exclusion on the diversity, cover and abundance of woody, herbaceous, and whole community components of forest understories in North America. In addition, we explore the relationships of environmental and experimental factors on the direction and magnitude of plant community outcomes using meta-regression.  Using 119 calculated effect sizes sourced from 25 peer-reviewed articles, we constructed 10 community-specific datasets and found strongly positive diversity, cover and abundance responses of the woody community to deer exclusion, but no significant effects for the herbaceous or whole community components of forest understories. Local deer density and time since exclusion were significant moderators of both whole community and woody community richness. Local deer density also moderated the effects of deer exclusion on whole community cover. Plot area, in contrast, showed no relationship to any of the community response outcomes. We suggest that the use of inadequate diversity indices, non-native species replacement, or legacy effects of chronic deer overabundance might explain why the herbaceous and whole community components of forest understories showed no diversity or cover responses to deer exclusion. We also suggest some strategies to increase opportunities for future quantitative syntheses of deer impacts on forests, including providing better access to existing and future data. Ultimately, we show that white-tailed deer have strongly negative impacts on forest understory plant communities in North America, but these impacts are not ubiquitous for all components of the plant community.

Decades of chronic browsing by overabundant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus Zimmerman) has strongly influenced forest pattern and process on the Allegheny High Plateau Ecoregion of northwestern Pennsylvania, USA. Previous research has found that riparian forests contain the greatest herbaceous plant species richness of regional plant communities but little is known about the impacts of deer browsing on the structure and composition of the herbaceous layer (all vascular plants < 1 m tall) of Allegheny High Plateau riparian forests.  We examined browse preference and browsing intensity by white-tailed deer on the herbaceous layer of five riparian forest study sites in the Allegheny National Forest during the summer growing season (July, September). Browsing intensity was low to moderate and differed significantly among sites and sample periods.  Deer selectively foraged on a few preferred plant species during certain sampling periods, particularly Aster divaricatus, A. prenanthoides, Chelone glabra, Impatiens capensis, Pilea pumila, Polygonum virginianum and Ranunculus hispidis. We found that plant species richness and composition, and browsing intensity by white-tailed deer, are highly variable across riparian forests of the region. In order to assess or predict deer browsing impacts to regional riparian forests, we suggest that riparian sites be studied individually, perhaps on a watershed basis, as the surrounding landscape and available habitat may influence deer densities and foraging activity in an individualistic manner.