1.

CAD, CAM and Alphabet Soup

Introduction The CAD/CAM industry has developed a diverse set of jargon (mostly alphabet soup) to describe its various parts. Normally, this condition would not present a major problem except that the CAD/CAM industry affects so many other industries, such as woodworking, sign-making, plastics fabricators, etc. In this brief overview, we will attempt to organize and clarify the alphabet soup by looking at CAD, Illustrator and CAM programs. CAD CAD stands for Computer-Aided Design and, as the name implies, its programs are meant primarily for engineering drawings and drafting. These programs typically provide dimensioning information and the ability to draw geometric shapes, and produce drawings based mostly on lines, arcs, spline curves and, more recently, 3-D surfaces. Packages such as AutoCAD, CADkey and ProEngineer are some of the more commonly used CAD programs on the market today.

effects, and that the drawing remains 2-dimensional. Examples of illustrator programs include Adobe Illustrator, and Corel Draw.

CAM CAM programs (Computer-Aided Manufacturing) take the drawing to the final stage to produce machining instructions or toolpath instructions to make the part on a router, milling machine, lathe or any CNC (Computer Numerically Controlled) machine. These programs have limited provisions for drawing compared to CAD programs, but this capability is improving as the three families of programs start to converge. The primary capability of CAM programs is the generation of toolpaths to produce parts, taking into account tool shape and diameter. Various applications require large diameter tools for the roughing work and small diameter tools for the detail work. Other applications might require tools with flat bottoms, round bottoms, angled cutters or even specially-shaped tools (e.g., to cut decorations in cabinet doors). Among the top choices for CAM packages are Mastercam, ArtCAM and Enroute.

Illustrator Programs Illustrator or drawing programs are similar to CAD programs, but are more artistically oriented. These programs are used to develop illustrations, graphics, fonts, etc. They typically are based on lines, arcs and Bezier curves. Bezier curves are special shapes that produce very smooth curves. These illustration or drawing programs can only produce 2D drawings with optional 3-D effects such as extrusions and perspectives. Note that these are strictly

Sign-Making Software There is yet another class of software that is a hybrid between illustration software and CAM software: Sign-Making Software. There are a number of excellent packages (SCANVEC Machine Shop being our preferred selection) that provide the drawing capabilities, fonts and special effects usually found in illustration programs, as well as toolpath and routing capabilities usually found only in CAM programs. The specialized tools developed to perform these functions are usually much more efficient than trying to combine existing packages together to perform similar functions. Specifically, our experience is that one could, for example, use a combination of Corel Draw and Mastercam to make virtually any sign desired, but the SCANVEC Machine Shop package can accomplish the same task in far less time, with far less effort, by using tools that are better designed for these specific applications.

and drawing features. This method of redrawing is extremely accurate but can be time-consuming. When high accuracy is not an important consideration, redrawing is not an efficient use of time. Tracing This process involves tracing a piece of artwork with a stylus or cross-hair-based digitizing tablet. The artwork is taped to the surface of the tablet and the user can click on key points such as corners or points along curves to enter the coordinates into the CAD program. Note that the program can be in a mode where it is accepting a line, an arc or a series of points along a spline curve.

2. Producing the Drawings

The first step in any type of CAD/CAM application is to generate a computer model of the part that you wish to develop. There are many different methods and software packages that can be used to accomplish this task. The following is a listing and description of some of the more commonly used approaches. Drawing Drawing, of course, is the old-fashioned way. Adapted to working with a CAD program and a mouse, this process is the electronic age equivalent of pen + paper + ruler. The designer, using a drawing as a reference, creates a CAD file. Different programs offer different approaches to user interfaces

2-D Scanning There are now a number of low-cost (under $100.00) scanners capable of accepting original artwork and scanning it to produce a computer model. This process, actually, consists of 3 steps: scanning, vectorizing and, usually, editing. It is only after these steps that the part is ready for the CAM operation. There are several types of scanners available. Hand scanners tend to be extremely inexpensive, but their drawback is that it is very difficult to drag a scanner in a straight line at a constant speed. Variations in speed or straightness result in a distorted image output. Another type is the rolling scanner or sheet-feed, in which rollers move the artwork across the scanning elements. These usually produce better results than hand scanners, and are quite acceptable. Flat bed scanners generally produce the finest quality images. The operating mechanism is a scanning head that moves under (or over) the stationary artwork. In any case, the output from any of the scanners is a bit-map, or sea of points. In the case of a "line art" type scan, the data points are a series of 1's

and 0's that indicate a "dot" is or is not present. A "gray scale" type scan is usually used for photos and each dot has an intensity, typically ranging from 0 to 255, to represent how dark the dot is. The bit map must be vectorized, namely, converted into a collection of lines and arcs since CAD/ CAM programs do not work on the bits produced by scanners. There are two distinct approaches to this process, depending on whether the original art was line art or filled art. The easier of the two processes involves finding the boundary of filled areas, or blobs. The conversion of line art involves converting a collection of bits into lines and arcs. This process tends to be a little more difficult since the software has to filter the information and make decisions about the nature of lines. Some packages will perform only one of these processes while others will perform either, or a combination of the two. Regardless of which software package is used to create the artwork, the bit-map is usually vectorized with a single command. A good software package will automatically vectorize the image so that the resulting lines and arcs are fairly smooth and continuous, which saves endless hours of editing time.

ing off corners, making lines horizontal or vertical, adjusting curves, etc. This process, however, is largely a matter of personal preferences rather than objective evaluation and should be thoroughly examined by the end user. The final step in the design process involves placing and adjusting the image. Often, this means importing the image and resizing, or introducing special effects such as mirroring, rotating, shadowing, etc. 3-D Scanning It is now within the realm of the practical budget, under $10,000, to actually scan 3-dimensional models and produce a CAM or CAD drawing. This process generally has two distinct approaches: probe type scanners, and hand-held pendant type scanners. In both cases, a series of (X,Y,Z) coordinates are collected from the object and are then brought into a CAD or CAM package. Once in the software package, the user will generally filter the points or create special features such as circles, lines or edges based on the shape of the sea of points. Some effort is required to accomplish this task, but far less than alternatives to reverse-engineering a complex shape. The family of Probe Type Scanners includes touch probes, ultrasonic displacement measurement devices and laser type displacement devices. Each of these devices are typically mounted onto a CNC machine or a Techno type positioning table. The device is then moved over the part along a grid of X-Y locations, and the height of the object (actually, the distance from the object to the probe) is recorded. In effect, a sea of (X,Y,Z) coordinates is collected. The denser the grid, the finer the detail that can be measured. This approach is ideal for reverse-engineering a smooth, varying surface that does not have any (or at least many) hard edges. The probes can collect a great deal of accurate points on the surface, but unless the grid is extremely fine, edges and crisp lines will not be easily or accurately determined. The family of Hand-Held Pendant Scanners are like 3-D versions of digitizing tablets. A pen or stylus is positioned by the user at various locations on the part and the (X,Y,Z) coordinates of the pen tip are recorded on a PC. Because this is a manual process, it is difficult to collect large quantities of data

or

Corner?

Curve?

Example of filtering-type decisions faced by vectorizing programs Once the image has been vectorized, a critical and necessary step is editing, or cleanup. This step involves straightening crooked lines, fixing corners, getting rid of noise, etc. Our experience is that this step is the most critical step, in that the most time can be lost here depending on the efficiency of the editing tools. Any evaluations of this type of software should concentrate on the editing process, with special attention paid to ease of use and available features. Critical features include smoothing, squar-

over uniform grids. This, however, is possible using the Techno 3-D digitizer and Rhino 3-D software to collect your data points (more details, starting at page 95). These devices do have an advantage in that special features such as edges, boundaries and crisp lines can be directly measured and recorded because of the direct interaction of the person. 3-D digitizing can substantially reduce the time and effort required to duplicate or reverse-engineer parts.

Each software package has a number of ways in which the drawings may be described and stored. These varieties are called either format types or file types. The name of the drawing is usually followed by an extension which can use up to 3 characters; e.g., LONGFILENAME.EXT. The nature and flexibility of these data formats becomes critical when sending information back and forth between different software packages, as not every file format can be understood by every package. Different formats representing a drawing are like different languages (French, English, Japanese, etc.) representing an idea.

Techno 3-D digitizer Universal Formats There are a number of universally accepted for3. Conquering the Tower of Babel mats or industry standard file types for CAD, IllusEach of the various types of software packages trator and CAM packages, such as .DXF, .AI and has its own unique internal representation of a draw- .NC, respectively. A brief description and backing. These packages can also import or read in ground for each is given below: various formats of drawings and they can also export or output various formats of a drawing. There Extension: DXF AutoCAD, the originator of this format, has are a large variety of import and export formats and each has its own characteristics. The following sec- changed the definitions slightly, creating some contion will describe the various advantages and disad- fusion. This format is still the most universally used, but is limited with respect to 3-D drawings. Also, it vantages of each of these formats. is virtually impossible to transfer font information via .DXF, since only the font name is provided, not Introduction One of the most formidable tasks involves mak- the font geometry. Another serious drawback of this format is that ing a number of different programs work together; drawing programs tend to linearize curves when usi.e.: ing this format to export drawings. That is, a Bezier curve is usually converted to hundreds and thousands CAD programs with CAM programs of line segments. This process results in simple draw illustrator programs with CAD and CAM ing files producing huge .DXF files with thousands programs of entities. A .DXF file with thousands of entities sign programs with CAM programs usually slows down the target software (CAD or other combinations that can get kinky.

CAM) and can result in a shoddy finished product if the .DXF file is machined or routed. Curiously, a .DXF file produced by a CAD program can be read by most drawing programs without losing the arcs from the .DXF file. Extension: IGS The IGES (International Graphics Exchange Service) format is generally used almost exclusively by CAD programs. This format is the most universally accepted and consistent. Similar to .DXF, it is limited in its font information since only the font name is provided and not the details about the font geometry. IGES is the best for transferring information about 3-D surfaces because of the large variety of surface types that can be described. Extension: AI, EPS Adobe Illustrator and Encapsulated Post Script are general graphics languages developed by Adobe which are used to generate printing instructions for Post Script type printers. Output is in the forms of text characters, lines and Bezier curves. These two formats are virtually identical and are excellent for transferring information between drawing programs and sign software. Very few CAD programs use this format (although Auto CAD and a few others have begun to do so) and virtually no CAM programs use this format. Extension: PLT This format is usually used for plot files, and can be considered a back door approach to transferring drawing information. Since a plotter is a natural output medium, virtually every package outputs to the industry standard HP plotter. The language for this is HPGL, which stands for Hewlett Packard Graphics Language. Most drawing programs also have the capability to import this format, so it is a convenient way of getting information into drawing programs and sign-making packages. The major drawback with this format is that curves are usually converted to a large number of short line segments, slowing down the software and producing curves that might not appear smooth.

Extension: NC This extension usually, but not universally, refers to standard G-code programs using EIA-274 standard CNC commands. Most CAM type programs can import or reverse post this format to create a drawing from a toolpath. Proprietary Formats In addition to the universally accepted file types, each software company has its own proprietary formats to describe and store the drawing information. These formats are generally used internal to the software of origin. A few of the more common types are listed below. Extension: DWG Internal AutoCAD format for drawings. Extension: CDR Corel Draw internal format for drawings. Extension: CDL CADkey internal format for drawings. Extension: GE3 Mastercam internal format for geometry. Extension: NCI Neutral Cutter Information describing toolpath in a generic format. Internal to Mastercam. Extension: BMP, MSP, PCX, TIF Various formats all of which refer to bit mapped images produced from scans or paint type programs. TIF is the most universal format, found in both PC and MAC systems. The Exchange of Information and Its Limitations It is sometimes desirable to use several different software packages in combination to achieve a desired result. For example, you may wish to begin by scanning a drawing into Adobe Streamline; then use AutoCAD for its drafting capabilities; then use SCANVEC Machine Shop for its powerful editing features and toolpath generation capabilities. At first, this process seems like quite a task; but, with some practice, it becomes a common and easy thing to do,

Female Cavity Male Inlay Internal fonts and clipart All internal corners are Sharp outside corners Often, these are only specified by name, rather rounded to the shape of can be cut but will not than by description of shape. Thus, fonts often canthe cutter fit into female cavity not be transferred between programs. The desire/ need for fonts and clipart has produced a tremenThe user must go through the drawing and fillet dous migration of software to the Windows environ- or round all corners to ensure a proper fit.

even for beginners. Each of these software packages has the ability to import files from or export files to other packages, which is also known as the reading and writing of files. This exchange usually involves a translation of formats, but nearly all software packages will allow the user to initiate simple menu-driven commands to perform the task. The exchange of information consists of two parts. First, the proprietary format (all images are displayed and manipulated in the packages proprietary format) must be converted into a universal format and exported into a common directory, which is performed from within the first package. Once the second software package has been accessed, the universal format from the common directory can be imported. The importing software package actually converts the file into its own proprietary format and then displays the image. The drawing is now ready for manipulation in the second package. This compatibility allows most all packages to be used in combination with each other, although limitations do exist. Some formats lend themselves well to specific types of information, while others do not. Here are a few examples of some of the limitations one can encounter, although hands-on experience with file and drawing manipulations will prove to be the best teacher. .PLT: This approach is limited in that the curves and arcs are usually converted to a series of line segments, resulting in very large files. This method should be considered a last resort when transferring font geometry from one program to another. .DXF output from illustration programs: This format usually results in curves being broken into thousands of lines, slowing down programs and producing a jagged output. .AI, .EPS formats usually cannot be imported into CAD programs.

ment. The fonts and clipart are readily available and there is far less difficulty sharing them between applications. Windows provides the "clipboard" as universal language translator to transfer text, fonts, drawings, etc. between packages.

4. Toolpath Generation
Once the part to be machined is represented by a computer model, a set of machining instructions must be produced. These instructions are needed to guide the path of the cutter over the raw material. The toolpath is always created with a CAM software package. This type of software allows the user to input parameters such as cutter size, finish quality, and number of passes over the material. Based on the specified parameters, the CAM program then calculates the toolpath. Inlays Inlay work requires special consideration of corners prior to the toolpath generation. When a round tool is used to cut an inside corner, the corner will have a radius equal to at least that of the cutter. The corresponding corner on the mating part is an outside corner and must match the radius of the inside corner to fit properly.
Desired Shape Rounded Corners

Working with Scanned Images Drawing and CAM programs often have the ability to vectorize scanned images. When it is necessary to include a logo or some unique artwork in a machined part, a scanner is extremely useful. There are any number and type of scanners available. There are several factors to consider when working with scanned images. The resolution, or amount of detail in the scan, is determined by the quality of the device used. Low end scanners typically have resolutions of 300x300 dots or pixels/inch. Higher quality models usually have 600x1200 pixels/inch, while professional quality scanners have pixel densities of 2400x2400 or better. Another scanner feature to consider is color resolution. Scanners are available in both monochromatic and color versions. Color scanners are equipped with an additional parameter which indicates the number of available colors which can be scanned. Lower end color scanners have either 8 or 16 bit color resolution, resulting in either 256 or 65,536 different colors that can be resolved, respectively. Newer models now feature 24 and even 32 bit color resolution, meaning that either 16 million or 4 billion colors can be scanned. High color resolution is critical for capturing subtleties of shading, such as skin tones. Monochromatic scanners usually feature 8 bit resolution, or 256 levels of grey shading which can be scanned. Higher end monochromatic scanners will often have 16 bit shading, meaning 65,536 degrees of grey. The type and quality of scanner selected depends largely upon the applications and frequency of use. Line art tends to need higher resolution to prevent jaggies, or jagged lines, from appearing. On the other hand, filled art (artwork made up of black and white or colored regions as opposed to lines) can often be scanned and worked with moderate resolutions. One important consideration is that the size of the scanned file grows enormously as the pixel and color resolution increases. e.g., image - 4" x 4" at 300 x 300 dpi = 1,440,000 bytes at 600 x 600 dpi = 5,760,000 bytes

Note that these figures are for 8 bit grey scale images. If the images are stored as pixels, both file sizes reduce by a factor of 8. Also, scanned images are usually stored in a compact format that takes into account large blocks of blank area or large blocks of black area. Thus, the actual file sizes would usually be smaller but the geometric increase in file size still remains. Machine Code and Post-Processing CAM programs store toolpath information, in a separate file, as a set of executable motion instructions. The format of these commands can be unique to a particular program or a universally accepted standard. The most common standard format is the Gcode machine tool command language. G-Code is a universal standard set of motion commands used by CNC machine tools. This set of commands is sometimes called APT, but in either case it is a standard way of specifying linear and circular motions. Once the toolpath is written to a G-code file, the user can exit the CAM program to begin machining. The toolpath created in the CAM software package is most often translated into G-Code with the use of a post-processor. Post-processing software accepts the toolpath information and allows the user to customize the toolpath commands for a particular CNC controller or machine. This post-processing allows for machine specific instructions such as tool changers, canned cycles or special format requirements.

5. Fixturing & Dust Collection

Several different methods exist for securing the raw material to the work surface of a CNC router table. Vacuum tables allow for quick and easy fixturing of materials. This type of table is extremely useful in production operations where speed and ease of operation is required. The surfaces of nonvacuum tables are usually slotted to allow for the mechanical fixturing of workpieces. The T-slots on the table accept T-nuts which the operator can use to secure clamps and bars. Vacuum cups can also be secured to a T-slotted surface to create a vacuum table. Machines, as well as their operators, can be adThus, doubling the resolution increases the file versely affected by the waste products the machinsize by a factor of 4.

ing process generates. Dust, which shortens the life of a machine, reduces the effectiveness of lubrication. Also, particles in the air generated by some materials can be harmful when breathed into the lungs. In order to keep the work environment free of damaging dust and debris, a collection system is required. Most often this type of system consists of two parts, a vacuum and a vacuum shroud. The vacuum shroud is fitted over the cutting head to collect the dust during the cutting process. A hose is attached to an intake on the side of the shroud and a vacuum is applied, collecting the dust. AC motor type dust collectors are recommended because of their increased air flow and because the motors are much more quiet than conventional shop-vac type systems.

6. Tool Selection
Once a part has been programmed and the raw material fixed to the table surface, the operator must select the cutting tool. Cutters are available in a great variety of shapes, sizes and materials. Several factors must be taken into account when choosing the type of cutting tool to utilize. The type of material to be cut, the finish quality required, and the shape of the desired cut are some of the factors which must be considered. The material to be cut directly affects the shape of the cutting flute selected. Standard helical flutes work best with metal, while straight flutes are used for optimal performance in wood cutting operations. The straight flute provides for high chip clearance which improves the surface finish. Oflute cutters (used for plastics) provide space for waste chips, reducing the amount of material which is remachined and consequently remelted on the surface. Evacuation of waste chips and their effects on the material surface is an important concern when choosing the spiral direction of a cutting tool. Spiral up tools are ideal for plastics, solid woods, and metals because they provide fast, efficient evacuation of material. Cutting of laminated materials is best achieved by spiral down tools because the downward pressure of the spiral keeps the laminate from separating and producing a jagged edge. This effect is especially im-

portant on laminations and in surface cuts on MDF, particle board, and plywood. "Through cuts" on MDF and plywood require a hybrid up/ down spiral cutter. This compression type cutter produces downward pressure on the top surface and upward pressure on the bottom surface, thereby cutting both edges cleanly. V-shaped cutters (v-cutters), available in a wide range of angles, are useful when engraving wood and plastic. V-cutters, when used in 3D engraving, produce a "handcarved" look with square corners. When used for shallow engraving, V-cutters are available in both a "half round" and "quarter round" configurations. The half round cutter, a full round blank split in half, is excellent for engraving plastics and other soft materials. This type of tool allows for high cutting speeds and high material removal rates which produce clean finished engravings. Engraving metals such as stainless steel and titanium calls for a quarter round shaped cutting tool. The quarter round shape allows for even more chips to be evacuated from the cutting area, producing the best possible finish. The material of the cutter is also directly affected by the material which is to be cut. Carbide is a common tool material which is used on most woods and plastics. Carbide tends to hold an edge longer, especially with abrasive materials, such as woods. High speed steel is utilized when cutting metal, especially aluminum. There are any number of coatings applied to cutters to enhance performance and tool life, including cobalt and TiN (or titanium nitride). The scope of these coatings goes beyond this introduction to tooling.

7. Lubrication and Cooling

Finally, we cannot have a discussion on tooling without discussing lubrication and cooling; some materials require a great deal of both, while others can be cut without any cooling or lubrication. Woods in particular do not require either. When plastics are cut they generally can be cut dry, but the harder plastics such as Lexan, Delrin and ABS fare much better with mist or flood type coolants.

We have found in particular that a major consideration is the removal of heat and the chips which helps prevent remelt on the cut surface. We have used inexpensive mist coolers with very high air-to-liquid ratios to produce extremely nice cuts in plastics. Metals tend to vary much more greatly in their cutting properties. Even among aluminum alloys, one can see large variations in the metals cutting properties. With most metals, we have found that at least a mist coolant is required. The lubricant/cutting fluid also can greatly affect the quality of the cut. There are any number of specified fluids for different metals including steel, aluminum, magnesium and titanium, among others. Each of these metals and their alloys require special cutting fluids. We have successfully used dishwashing liquid containing lanolin (such as Palmolive) for light cuts in stainless steel and aluminum. We have also found that nothing short of a flood coolant with a high flow rate would work for titanium. This metal in particular seems to heat up and we have even seen chips ignite when the pieces did not have flood cooling. The only specific recommendation that could be made is that a great deal of investigation might be necessary to find the best cutting fluid for a specific metal. One of our customers, cutting gold, searched for weeks until he came on the right combination of tooling and cutting fluid. In the end, the result was sensitive to the point where supposedly equivalent competitive brands of cutting fluid did not produce the same results. Finally, we must mention that, in cases where fluids are not an option, air cooling often works well. As was mentioned earlier, removing the chips and the heat are the main concerns and although flooding is often the most effective, high air flow rates will often work as well. There is, in fact, an air chiller available for this purpose. This device utilizes the principle that expanding air absorbs heat. This type of cooling jet can produce temperature drops of 50 to 100 F and blow the chips away at the same time. Finally, we must emphasize that caution be used with any cutting process. Besides the obvious physical dangers, many metals become highly reactive and, in fact, explosive when heated and cut into small

parts. Titanium, mentioned earlier, and magnesium are two of just many reactive metals that should be used with great care. Even woods have to be handled with care, as the dust produced by many exotic woods is extremely toxic.

8. Tool Changing Systems

Tool changing systems, generally, fall into 3 categories: A. Manual B. Manual Quick-Change C. Automatic The 3 systems become progressively more complicated and consequently more expensive. A. Manual Tool Changer This is the simplest, least expensive, and requires the most attention and care when tool changes are required on a single workpiece. The major difficulty in manual tool changing is inserting the cutters to a uniform depth. The difficulty stems from the fact that most collet systems tend to "pull" the tool slightly when the tool is tightened. Some common approaches to consistent tool length adjustment are as follows: Tool Shank Collars A collar, usually made from a hard plastic, is press fit onto the tool shank, a precise distance from the tool tip. This provides an automatic height gauge as well as a block to prevent the tool from being pulled in too far as the collet is tightened. Gauge Block This approach involves using a hard surface as a height reference. The tool is inserted into the collet and then the tool is allowed to slide down till the tip hits a gauge block. Assuming the spindle is at a standard height, this assures that the tool length remains constant. Care must still be taken to make sure the tool is not pulled up as the collet is tightened.

 Tool Touch-Off Sensor This method requires a sensor system to actually locate the tool tip. Thus, even if the tool is not inserted to a consistent length, the tool tip is located precisely by the sensor. This method is, of course, the simplest to use, but is technically more complex and expensive than the previous 2 methods. B. Manual Quick-Change This method provides a very quick and reliable system for changing tools and assuring consistent tool lengths, quick-change tooling usually involves a special tool holder. This system, generally, has the parts as shown in the diagram below. A "holder" is inserted in the spindle to adapt the spindle to the quick-change mechanism. The collet chuck or taper is designed to be quickly inserted and removed from the holder. The collet chuck holds some standard collet (e.g., ER16) which grips the cutting tool. The collet nut is used to retain and tighten the collet. The benefit of this system is that tools can be preadjusted in the collet chuck to precise lengths. The preadjusted tools can then be quickly inserted and removed from the spindle by hand, with a press of a switch. Note that the collet chuck fits into the tool holder in a precise and consistent way. C. Automatic Tool Change This type of system is similar to the quick-change system but usually has a pneumatically controlled system for securing and releasing the taper or collet chuck. For safety reasons, these system are generally designed to be fail-safe so that, in case of loss of air pressure, the tool is not accidentally released. Generally, a wave washer spring system is used to grab the taper and a pneumatic cylinder is used to compress the spring and thus release the taper. The tapers are available in a number of "standard" configurations. We, at Techno, use the SK standard tapers with industry standard ER collets. Just as in the quick-change system, the advantage of this system is that tools can be preset in the tapers to precise

lengths. Furthermore, an important benefit of the auSpindle motor tomatic tool change system is that long programs can be run with minimal attendance by operators, unlike the manual methods. Finally, an alternative tool change system must be mentioned for comTool holder pleteness. This automatic tool change system has a pneumatic collet for automatic release and capture, but it uses the plastic collars rather than a taper sysCollet tem for holding the tools. This dramatically reduces Collet the cost of the mechanisms nut and the overall system. Its primary limitation is that this system was designed Tool for the electronic circuit board industry and is consequently limited to tools of 1/4" shank, typically. We, at Techno, offer such a system (see pages 98 and 99) and it is very useful for fine applications requiring less than 1 HP and tools up to 1/4" shank, such as engraving, circuit board applications, small molds and patterns.

Reference
Machinery's Handbook, 24th Edition. Industrial Press, 200 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016 Onsrud Cutter, Inc., Catalog WP-8: Production/ Routing Tools. Onsrud Cutter, Inc., 800 Liberty Drive, Libertyville, IL 60048 Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, SME, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, NY American Machinist's Handbook, Colvin, F.H. and F.A. Stanley, McGraw-Hill, NY Manufacturing and Machine Tool Operations, Pollack, H.W., 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall, NJ

Vacuum Table Basics

When selecting a vacuum table, it is most important to remember how vacuum tables work: 1) Atmospheric pressure is approximately 15 psi. This means that each square inch of surface area has a load of approximately 15 pounds on it (more below sea level and less at the tops of mountains).

being held. For example, if the area of the hole is 1.2 square inches, then the vertical hold-down force is: 15 x 1.2 = 18 pounds force. 4) It is critical to realize that if the object is being Object being held
Clamping hole in vacuum table. The area of this hole determines the clamping load on the object, not the surface area of the object.

Atmosphere 15 psi 15 psi 15 psi

15 psi

Vacuum Table

15 psi 15 psi

Atmosphere 15 psi 15 psi

2) When we have a box that has no air in it; i.e., a complete vacuum, this means that the top (and all other sides of the box) are being loaded with 15 pounds of pressure on each square inch of surface. If the top of the box is 6"x6" then there is 6x6x15 pounds of load, evenly distributed on the surface. If the box is not strong enough, it will collapse or possibly bend in. 3) When we have a vacuum table; i.e., a box with holes in it, the "holes" are pulling down the

Atmosphere

15 psi

0 psi 15 psi 0 psi Vacuum 0 psi 15 psi 0 psi 15 psi

object above it with a pressure of 15 psi, assuming there is a complete vacuum. Note that this pressure on the object is based on the surface area of the hole in contact with the object being held, not the total surface of the object

machined; i.e., undergoing a side load, then the actual force holding the object in place against the cutting force is now the friction between the object and the vacuum table. The magnitude of this relative friction force depends on the coefficient of friction between the object and the table and the actual vertical force on the object. Therefore, if the surface of the vacuum table is very slippery; e.g., teflon coated, then the object will tend to slip no matter how much downward force is being applied to it. If the surface of the table is nonslippery; e.g., it is rubber coated, then the object will tend to stay put, assuming there is enough downward force being applied by the vacuum. Note that for small pieces; e.g., small brass letters that have a surface area less than .5 square inch, it is unlikely that they can be held reliably with a vacuum table because the downward pressure on this object would only be about 7.5 pounds. It is important to keep in mind both factors with respect to secure holddown: a) the size of the contact surface area between the actual vacuum holes and the object; b) relative coefficient of friction between the object and the vacuum table surface (even a rubber coated vacuum table is unlikely to hold down a teflon coated object). 5) A final point to consider is the air permeability of the object being held down. The permeability is the amount of air that the object allows to

pass through it. For example, a sponge is very permeable, while a piece of aluminum is usually not. The permeability of the object determines whether a vacuum blower or a vacuum pump should be selected. A vacuum pump usually generates a very high vacuum; i.e., there is virtually no air in the vacuum chamber, but vacuum pumps tend not to draw or pull a great volume of air quickly. A vacuum blower tends to pull a great volume of air very quickly, but it does not necessarily create a very "complete" vacuum. Vacuum pumps are recommended for holding down nonpermeable materials such as plastics, metals and hardwoods, while vacuum blowers are recommended for permeable materials, such as foam, MDF and particle board. 6) How big a vacuum pump or blower should I select? This is an extremely difficult question to address. Some of the concerns are: a) How large a part is being held down? b) How large is the vacuum table and its chambers? c) How much leakage will there be in the system? d) How permeable is the material? e) How quickly will you need to clamp and unclamp the material? The main point to consider is that it is always better to be slightly oversized than undersized. Too much vacuum will not hold down "too tight" but too little vacuum will not hold down. The one drawback to oversizing is that the vacuum blowers and pumps are constant power motors, that is they are constantly drawing their rated current while operating and so oversizing too much can be an expensive proposition.

AC Spindle Motors
AC Spindle Motors generally fall into 1 of 3 categories those with automatic, "quick-change" and manual tool change capability. Besides the speed with which the tooling can be changed, price is the main difference between these 3 families of spindle motors. Automatic tool change spindles are much more expensive than manual tool change spindles $8,000 to $12,000 as compared to $200 to $4,500.

The Components of a Regular AC Spindle Motor Set An AC spindle motor set consists of the following components: AC Spindle Motor This is the actual motor that spins the tool. These motors typically are available in either 220V AC or 440V AC rated voltages. The Columbo motors provided by Techno can be wired for either voltage rating. Note that motor inverters are only available for a specific voltage and therefore require correct voltage specifications. Collet Nut This is the nut on the end of the motor that holds the collet in place on the motor. Collet This is the clamping device that actually holds the cutting tool in the motor as the motor shaft is turning. Some spindle motors use proprietary collets. The Columbo spindle motors use widely available, standard ER-type collets. Line Reactor This is a safety device that is connected between the spindle motor and the inverter. It helps prevent damage to the inverter in case the tool is suddenly stopped by accident. Note that Techno AC spindle motor sets always use a line reactor for safety reasons. Inverter This is the electronics that takes the input voltage (220V AC or 440V AC) and produces the signals necessary to spin the spindle motor shaft. Note that there are 3 kinds of inverters: 220V AC single phase 220V AC 3-phase 440V AC 3-phase Most residential and commercial facilities have 220V AC single phase power. Most commercial and industrial facilities have 220V AC 3-phase power and the larger industrial facilities have 440V AC 3-phase power. The inverters provided by Techno, for motors up to 3 HP, can run off either 220V 3-phase or single phase power. 440-Volt and all other motors above 3 HP require 3-phase power.

The components of an Automatic Tool Change Spindle Motor Set The automatic tool change spindle motor set has the same basic components as the regular spindle motor set with a few additional components:

Taper This is a cone-shaped device that is only used with automatic tool change and quick change type spindles. It is the device that is picked up and re- Pneumatic Controls leased by the spindle motor. The taper holds the The automatic tool change spindle set comes with collet and collet nut and the actual cutting tool. a pneumatic control box that contains the solenoids Tapers come in a number of standard sizes and to control the spindle operation. Note that the tapers "styles". The Columbo tool changers use a taper are picked up and released by pneumatic actuators. that is called the "SK" type taper. (Please note that The Techno system also contains a pneumatic cone Columbo refers to them as ISO tapers, but here in cleaner system to blow out the particles from inNorth America ISO actually refers to a different style side the spindle and from off the taper before the of taper). The different sizes of spindle motors use taper is picked up. different size tapers. The tapers used by Techno tool change systems all use the industry standard Standard Features of Columbo Motors "ER" style collet. Note that the different size tapers The Columbo spindles are available as standard all use different size collets as well. The following spindles. Techno stocks them in 3 standard sizes of table summarizes the sizes of tapers and collets: 3 HP, 5 HP and 7 HP for the nontool-change variety and in 4 HP and 7 HP in the automatic tool change Motor Size 7 HP 4 HP 1 HP variety. Taper Size 30 25 15 These spindles feature sealed angular contact bearCollet Size ER32 ER25 ER11 ings for long life and high load capacity. Max. Shank Dia. .75" .625" .250" The normal recommended operating speed on these spindles is 6000 rpm to 24000 rpm. Please note that the HP increases and decreases as Electric Controls the rpm increases and decreases for a given motor. The automatic tool change spindle set comes with The normal motor HP is rated at 18000 rpm. For an electronic control system and sensors to coordiexample, a 7 HP rated spindle running at 9000 rpm nate the tool change operation. The Techno autowill only have about 3.5 HP at the lower speed. matic tool change system incorporates a number of This same 7 HP spindle running at 6000 rpm will safety features to prevent damage to the system and only have about 2 HP remember that the power to the user. Among the safety features are a sensor is proportional to the rpm. built into the system to detect that the spindle has stopped spinning. This is in addition to the sensor Special Features of Columbo Motors built into the inverter that indicates the tool has These motors are available on special order with stopped. NO TOOL CHANGE CAN TAKE 10-week delivery with a number of special features. PLACE WHILE EITHER SENSOR INDI- High RPM CATES THE TOOL IS SPINNING. In addition, The Columbo motors are available with speeds of there are sensors to indicate that the tool has been up to 30000 rpm and 60000 rpm. picked up/released, and there is another sensor to Low RPM indicate the presence and proper seating of the taper. The Columbo motors are also available with low speed ranges down to 1500 to 3000 rpm.

The Techno software also features safety interlocks to prevent the tool from being released while the sensors indicate that the tool is spinning and safety interlocks to prevent the inverter from turning on if there is no tool present or the taper is not present. The Techno electric controls also contain speed controls to allow for up to 8 spindle speeds to be automatically selected under program control.

Note the 1 HP and the 3 HP routers can be used with 220V AC single phase. The 5 HP router normally operates off 230V 3-phase, but can operate off a single phase supply with a single to 3-phase converter. Note that the outlet must have at least 30A capacity. A vacuum shroud is included in the above part numbers. To order a vacuum shroud separately, please use Positive Pressure Sealed Bearings All the routers from Columbo are normally sealed. the following part number: The routers are also available on special order with H24X30-SHROUD002 an air inlet that allows the bearings to be pressurized and thus completely sealed against abrasive This shroud has a pivot arm which allows it to be dust and even liquid spray such as mist or flood coolants. Note that the customer must supply clean easily swung out of the way for quick manual tool dry air at about 20 psi. change. The arm also allows for vertical adjustment of the shroud so that it can be adjusted for different tool lengths. The shroud comes complete with a 25' hose Small Sized Routers The Columbo routers are also available in small and adapter kit to let it easily attach to a standard 4" sizes down to .1 HP and .5 HP where size is a con- hose outlet. sideration. This small physical size is especially NOTE: the vacuum shroud will not mount directly important where the application requires multiple to previous Columbo mounting plates. A Techno drawspindles and space is the prime concern. The following part numbers are for the manual ing, TB048 can be supplied which will show exactly Columbo Spindle Sets. Each complete set include: where to place the mounting holes on the existing Spindle, Inverter, Line Reactor, Collets, Mounting mounting plate. Bracket, Collet Nut, Vacuum Shroud and Wrenches. Plastic Trimming Router There is a special 2 HP router available from Columbo that has 40000 rpm rating and is designed with ceramic bearings for use with a special cutter designed specifically for trimming plastic molded parts. Part Number H24G53-RV902-30 H24G53-RV902-50 H24G53-RV902-75 Power 3 HP 5 HP 7.5 HP Max. Shank Dia. .5" .5" .5"

10 Tips To Know Before Investing In A CNC Router

Increasingly, manufacturers are turning to automation in order to meet their profitability goals, and their success rate is amazing. Right now, you may be sitting there, thinking: "I'd love to automate but I can't afford it". Considering what CNC (Computer Numerically Controlled) routers have already done for so many industries around the world, you can't afford not to automate. What Does a CNC Router System Consist Of? Most CNC router systems available today consist of a motorized XYZ router table, a control unit, computer, and programming software. Here's How a CNC Router Works: A CNC router enables you to design a part on your PC, and then make it in minutes. There are three basic steps: 1). Generate a computer image of the part, by drawing or scanning. 2). Create a tool path using simple menu-driven commands. 3). Run the program on the router and make the part. This Is What a CNC Router Can Do: In most cases, a CNC router system needs to be extremely versatile in order to be a true asset! A good system will be able to easily handle different applications such as contouring, drilling, milling, routing, inlays and cutouts, and even engraving with little or no system configuration changes. On the other hand, a cheap CNC routing system that does not easily lend itself to the everchanging and increasing needs of today's businesses and customers is of little value. How a CNC Router Can Make You More Money: A CNC Router can produce parts much faster and more accurately than doing it by hand. This type of automation has a high repeatability, and thus greatly increases a manufacturer's yield and consistency. There is a minimal number of steps involved, again improving the manufacturing process. The precision, accuracy and flexibility of a CNC router allow you to take on projects that might not have been considered either feasible or economical using manual techniques. The fact is, the initial cost isn't nearly so imposing when you begin to realize how a CNC router can revolutionize the way you manufacture, and how CNC can open up new possibilities for your business. In fact, we have had many customers tell us that one job paid for the CNC router itself. Just as the manual router improved upon earlier manual techniques, a CNC router takes things a giant step further. Think of a CNC router as a tool in your shop, albeit one that outstrips all the other tools. A CNC router turns a good craftsman into a great one by bringing precise artisan skills to any operator. Craftsmen know that their work will only be as good as the tools used in the product's design and manufacturing. Likewise, any professional knows that the quality of the product is what makes or breaks a reputation. It doesn't take much to realize that if you are working with shoddy or inadequate tools, your product and your profits are going to suffer. In short, an economy style or bargain brand routing system may cost less initially, but sacrificed quality and problematic production runs will expose the true cost of the cheap solution to be enormous. When shopping around for the right CNC router, there are many things to consider

Remember, you get what you pay for!

before making a decision. In order to help make 2) Is It Accurate Enough to Make this search easier, Techno has come up with the Circles and Inlays? following guide. Not all CNC routers are created equal. Many routers, especially ones that use acme screws, or 1) Do You Have the Right Tool for the racks or belts, have backlash. Backlash is the Right Application? hesitation in the motion of the machine when the Does the router's software suit the requirements motor changes direction due to loose or imprecise of the application? Different applications require mechanisms that connect the motor to the machine. different tools, and no single tool can serve all If a motor has backlash, circles will not close applications efficiently. There is an old adage accurately, arcs will have "steps", and inlays will not which says: "When the only tool you have is a fit. Make sure that the CNC router you choose hammer, everything looks like a nail." This lack of delivers the precision and quality that your business flexibility does not make for efficient or productive demands. Techno routers all have anti-backlash ball manufacturing. Different applications require screws for play-free motion that will remain playdifferent software. For example, programming free. With these anti-backlash ball screws, Techno and carving intricate 3D surfaces such as violins, is routers can produce circles that are accurate to the a complex geometric surfacing problem. On the resolution of the machine, .0005". You can also other hand, making signs requires the ability to make inlays with as small a clearance as you want, create a wide variety of fonts, as well as logos and down to the machine resolution, .0005". artwork. Techno offers three different types of software to meet these diverse needs. Routing 3) Is the Router Durable? applications that are geometric in design, in either The accuracy and reliability of a CNC routing 2D or 3D, can be done using Mastercam software. system begins with the individual components used For those applications which are more artistically to build the system, and how they are integrated oriented, such as lettering, sign-making, engraving together. The use of acme lead screws is generally a or routing of logos or artwork, we offer CASmate- warning sign of a poorly designed system. The Pro software. Our newest software package, friction from sliding contact between the screw and ArtCAM , offers tremendous 3D carving nut creates constant wear which causes inaccuracies capabilities. There is no comparable package on and the need for replacement parts. It also offers very the market in terms of capability or ease of use. poor power transmission, which results in overloading With ArtCAM, a simple 2D piece of artwork can of the motors. Other components that hint towards a be scanned and converted into a true 3D relief in poorly designed table are rack and pinion drives, minutes. And like all our other software packages, belts and pulleys. All of these drives contribute to it is extremely user friendly. system backlash and the inaccurate reproduction of

parts. The Techno CNC routing systems are built for longevity, precision and efficiency. Each axis is driven by precision ball screws, which have excellent power transmission due to the rolling ball contact between the nut and screws. This type of contact also ensures low friction, low wear and long life. The screw is driven by the motor shaft through an antibacklash coupling. As a result, the Techno tables are more accurate, more heavy-duty and durable, and less problematic, which translates into a greater value. Over 10,000 units are being used worldwide, and of course, Techno is always there to provide free telephone support, if needed.

4) Is It Open Architecture? Open architecture is a term used to describe the control unit's ability to accept different types of software output formats. If a controller can only accept G-codes, for example, the user will be limited to use only those packages that produce G-codes, which can be quite inconvenient. The Techno controller is open architecture, which allows the user to interface with most of the industry standard output formats. Via software interface, the Techno controller can accept FANUC, Excellon, G-code, DXF and HPGL commands, as well as others. The versatile 6) Is It Easy to Install? nature of the controller makes it a perfect hub for a The sooner you can install a CNC router, the CNC Routing center. sooner it can begin paying for itself. If the router cannot be installed easily, this will impact on 5) How Good Is the Software? productivity and waste valuable time. When you The heart and soul of any CNC router is software. unpack a Techno CNC router from its box, simply Software is indeed critical, since the usefulness of the plug it in and load the software onto your PC. It's that router is limited by the software's capabilities. When easy. No need for alignment of machine parts, examining software, keep these questions in mind: Is building machine frames, or even assembly of bits it easy to use? Does it have bugs? Is it slow? How and pieces. The machine is ready for immediate use, many units have been sold? Can it be used with other with no additional assembly other than the installation packages? What kind of support can I expect? How of your tooling. easy is it to upgrade it? We, here at Techno, try each type of software before we sell it. We look for ease 7) How Long Does It Take to Learn? of use, ease of learning, bugs, etc. We support all It doesn't matter how many complicated functions software we sell so we have to make sure it can get a CNC router can perform if nobody can figure out the job done, and done well. Mastercam has sold how to use it. Don't just look at the machine when thousands of copies worldwide, in machine shops shopping around. If the software is cumbersome, we and woodworking shops, and CASmate-Pro is guarantee that you won't get very far. Mastercam, being used by thousands of sign-making shops ArtCAM or CASmate-Pro software can be learned worldwide. Mastercam is the software available in just a few days, even if you are starting out with no for most well-known routers. Techno has sold computer experience whatsoever. In conjunction

hundreds of copies of Mastercam and provides free phone support for all our customers. Mastercam can import and export files with DXF, IGES, ASCII, CADL, and ANVIL formats, and can handle just about all of the industry CAD/CAM files available. It can take 3D digitized files and read them in as either points or 3D surfaces. CASmate-Pro also has very powerful import and export features, with the additional capability of converting postscript .EPS files from Illustrator packages. CASmate-Pro takes full advantage of Windows clipboard, and can use any font available through Windows applications. Both Mastercam and CASmate-Pro are highly refined programs which allow rapid drawing, editing and routing of work pieces. These packages increase overall efficiency, and allow for easy and efficient trials. Our experience with ArtCAM is equally pleasing. It is an easy to use, clear software package that provides unmatched capabilities. This software easily and quickly makes true 3D relief carvings and signs from scanned 2D artwork. It is unique in its capabilities for producing jewelry, molds, wood carvings and engravings on molds.

with Mastercam, CASmate-Pro and ArtCAM Techno provides "Application Manuals" with the software. The Mastercam book of exercises was developed by a university as part of a class, teaching the students the use of Mastercam. The CASmatePro and ArtCAM manuals include training sessions and a series of tutorial exercises. Each exercise shows you step-by-step and screen-by-screen how to draw and machine the indicated sample. Our experience has been that you learn by doing, and that our customers go through 2 or 3 exercises, at which point they start making their own parts. 8) How Long Does It Take to Program? Chances are that if your business is making an investment in a CNC router, you plan to use it heavily. If the software requires you to go through too many steps, or is awkward, it will directly affect the speed at which you work. One of the key benefits of a CNC router and software is the ability to quickly try what ifs and just as quickly fix problems and make last minute changes. This, of course, requires a powerful edit capability. All of our software packages provide quick and easy edit capabilities, in addition to simple and clear program and toolpath generation capabilities. 9) How Fast Can It Cut? The average machine will perform millions of cycles in its lifetime. If it takes too much time to run each program, the cumulative loss in terms of time wasted will be staggering. If you plan on using your machine a lot, it had better do the job fast enough for you each and every time out. With a Techno CNC router, you can rapid move and cut at 200 ipm on our stepper machines. You can even cut circles at 120 ipm. Our servo machines will rapid move at up to 700 ipm on the

5' x 8' and cut up to 400 ipm. Note that we have noticed rampant spec inflation, (competitive machines suddenly becoming faster and stronger). 10) What Is the Actual Cost, in Terms of Production Capabilities? This final point is really just the sum of the first nine. In the final analysis, you have to ask yourself which machine will be the most profitable, according to your needs. Initial machine cost is only a small part of the daily operating cost. Reliability and production time ultimately become at least as important in determining what a machine really costs. You need to find a machine which will perform all the necessary functions you desire, at a level which meets your high standards. The machine should be user-friendly, reliable, fast and affordable. We, at Techno, believe that our CNC routers, in conjunction with Mastercam, CASmate-Pro, or ArtCAM software packages provide the best value of any comparable routers available, in terms of price, performance and versatility. Give our Application Engineers a call, at (516) 328-3970 and we will be glad to discuss the Techno routing system in more detail, analyze your application and cut you a sample piece.

Culin/Collela designs and produces custom furniture using a Techno routing system. See the feature story at page 25.

Affordable CAD/CAM Series Choosing Between Stepper and Servo Motors

Cost Comparison In general, stepper motor systems tend to be less expensive than servo motor systems. Stepper and servo systems often become comparable in price when the stepper system uses motors larger than NEMA 23 or when microstepping is used. Servo motors in the NEMA 23 frame size tend to be 10% to 30% more expensive than similar stepper systems. Brushless servo motor systems tend to be 50% to 100% more.

Stepper Technology
Stepper motors are brushless. They experience little or no wear, and are virtually maintenance-free.

Servo Technology
Brush-type servo motors require a change of brushes, typically, every 5,000 hours. Like steppers, brushless servo motors have virtually no servicing requirements.

Reliability and Maintenance

Resolution and Accuracy

For a given screw pitch, typical four phase stepper motors can produce 200 full steps, 400 half steps, and up to 25,000 micro steps per revolution. It is significant to note that since the stepper motor is open loop, it does not necessarily achieve the desired location, especially under load. Particularly poor positional accuracy can result when using microstepping, which is primarily useful for smoothness of motion. Servo motor resolution depends upon the encoder used. Typical encoders produce 2,000 to 4,000 pulses per revolution, and encoders with up to 10,000 pulses per revolution are available. Since servos, which are closed loop, can and do achieve the available resolution, they are able to maintain positional accuracy.

Speed and Power

Steppers have very poor torque characteristics at higher speeds. This condition is improved somewhat by microstepping. However, unless the stepper is used in a closed loop mode, it does not usually perform as well as a servo. Servos can produce speeds and powers two to four times that of similarily sized steppers. This improvement is a direct result of the closed loop (i.e., constant position feedback), which allows for higher speed and greater reliability. The closed loop nature of the servo also allows such a system to better utilize peak torque capabilities.

Closed Loop Vs. Open Loop

Stepper motors are almost always used in an open loop configuration. If used in a closed loop, they typically become as, if not more, expensive than servo motor systems. The open loop nature of stepper motors is their principal drawback. Commands are issued to move prescribed amounts, and barring unforeseen circumstances, the motor moves the amounts prescribed. In rare cases, resonances or unexpected forces can cause a stepper motor to lose steps or stall out. Although rare, this is an ever present possibility. By nature, servo motors have constant positional feedback. The positional feedback is used to correct any discrepancy between a desired and an actual position. This constant corrective action results in faster speeds (up to three times the throughput), and increased power (up to three times the torque) at high speeds. The closed loop nature of the servo also ensures that stalling cannot occur unless there is an immovable object in the path.

Choosing a system In general, we recommend stepper systems for cost-sensitive applications requiring low-to-moderate volume production capabilities. Servo systems are recommended for high-speed, high-volume, high-reliability applications. A typical Techno servo gantry system sells for about $2,700 more than a stepper system. Servos can perform high-speed continuous motion reliably, making them particularly superior in three-dimensional contouring applications. We have found time reductions of up to 80% on some applications. The continuous motion also results in better finish quality without the fine faceting that is found with stepper systems. In addition, the servo's reliable high-speed continuous motion can reduce the possibility of scorching and melting when working with woods and plastics.