Ingot Structure

Ain Shams University
Faculty of Engineering
Ingot Structure
March 2008
Solidification
Solidification is a comprehensive process of transformation of the
melt of an alloy into a solid piece of the alloy, involving
crystallization of the liquid phase, segregation of impurities and
alloying elements, liberation of the gases dissolved in the melt,
shrinkage cavities and porosity formation.
Structure of ingots and castings
Fine and homogeneous grain structure is the most desirable for the
common castings and ingots.
It is achieved when the crystallization proceeds under the following

conditions:
Formation of a large number of stable nuclei;

Fast extraction of latent crystallization heat and the superheat of the
liquid.
These conditions are realized when a melt comes to a contact with a

wall of a cold metallic mold. Small equiaxed grains (chill crystals)
form at this stage. Latent crystallization heat, liberating from the
crystallizing metal, decreases the under cooling of the melt and
depresses the fast grains growth.
At this stage some of small grains, having favorable growth axis,

start to grow in the direction opposite to the direction of heat flow. As
a result columnar crystals (columnar grains) form. Length of the
columnar grains zone is determined by the constitutional
undercooling. When the temperature of the melt, adjacent to the
solidification front, increases due to the liberation of the latent heat,
constitutional undercooling will end and the columnar grains growth
will stop.
Further cooling of the molten alloy in the central zone of the ingot
will cause formation of large equiaxed grains.
Formation of the grain zones of an ingot is presented in the figure.
The crystals, growing as a result of solidification of ordinary alloys,

are in dendrite form.
Segregation
Composition of solidified alloy is not uniform. Concentrations of
impurities and alloying elements are different in different parts of
the casting. This difference is a result of different solubility of
impurities in liquid and solid phases at the equilibrium temperature.
Segregation is a result of separation of impurities and alloying

elements in different casting regions.
Microsegregation is a segregation of impurities between the dendrite

arms. This kind of segregation may be considerably diminished by
diffusion of the impurities atom into the dendrite arms during
homogenizing annealing.
Macrosegregation
Advancing the solidification front towards the ingot center causes
enrichment of the liquid in the central zone by impurities and
alloying additives, rejected by the solidifying metal and pushed by
the solidification front. Segregated impurities are arranged as V-
shape marks on the vertical section of the ingot. This effect is called
normal macrosegregation.
Gravity segregation is a segregation caused by precipitation of

primary crystals, which are heavier, than the melt.
Gas pores
Gas pores, entrapped in the solid structure of a casting, arise from
different origins:
Gas (Hydrogen) dissolved in the liquid during melting (from damp

materials, atmosphere, oils, etc). When the melt cools down and
solidifies hydrogen solubility decreases and it is forced out from the
melt. The gas bubbles are trapped by the dendrites, forming gas
porosity.
Gas pores, called blowholes, may be a result of chemical reaction

occurring in the solidifying alloy. If a liquid steel was not deoxidized
by deoxidizers (aluminum, silicon), Oxygen and carbon, which are
solved in the steel, form carbon monoxide by the reaction: C + O =
CO. The bubbles of CO, trapped by the dendrites, form blowholes.
Surface blowholes may form as a result of the decomposition of some

constituents of mold dressing.
Shrinkage
Shrinkage is a contraction of alloy volume caused by:
Contraction of the melt when it cools down to the liquidus

temperature;
Contraction of the alloy owing its solidification (cooling from

liquidus temperature to solidus temperature). All metals except
bismuth have higher density in solid state, than in liquid.
Contraction of the solid alloy cooling from the solidus temperature to

the ambient temperature.
Shrinkage cavity
When a large isolated region of liquid phase remains within solid,
surrounding it, shrinkage cavity will form in this region. The
common mold structure includes a riser – a “head”, in which the
melt solidifies last and “feeds” the main casting with liquid alloy,
compensating the casting shrinkage.
Shrinkage porosity
This shrinkage defect is a characteristic for the central regions of
castings (ingots) of the alloys with a wide temperature range of
solidification. In these castings “feeding” melt is not able to infiltrate
through the interlacing dendrites. The local micro-spaces between
the dendrites arm remain isolated from the melt in riser forming
micro-cavities or shrinkage porosity.

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Ain Shams University

Structure of ingots and castings

It is achieved when the crystallization proceeds under the following

Formation of a large number of stable nuclei;

These conditions are realized when a melt comes to a contact with a

At this stage some of small grains, having favorable growth axis,

Formation of the grain zones of an ingot is presented in the figure.

The crystals, growing as a result of solidification of ordinary alloys,

Segregation is a result of separation of impurities and alloying

Microsegregation is a segregation of impurities between the dendrite

Gravity segregation is a segregation caused by precipitation of

Gas (Hydrogen) dissolved in the liquid during melting (from damp

Gas pores, called blowholes, may be a result of chemical reaction

Surface blowholes may form as a result of the decomposition of some

Contraction of the melt when it cools down to the liquidus

Contraction of the alloy owing its solidification (cooling from

Contraction of the solid alloy cooling from the solidus temperature to

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