EUROPEAN SPECIFICATION FOR SPRAYED CONCRETE

GUIDELINES
FOR SPECIFIERS AND CONTRACTORS
Association House, 99 West Street, Farnham, Surrey, GU9 7EN, United Kingdom
tel: +44(0)1252 739147 Fax: +44(0)1252 739140
www.efnarc.org
i
EFNARC was founded in March 1989 as the European federation of national trade associations
representing producers and applicators of specialist building products. Membership has since
widened and now includes many of the major European companies who have no national trade
association to represent their interests either at national or European level. EFNARC members
are active throughout all the countries of Europe, more particularly in Belgium, France, Italy,
Germany, Norway, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, and the United Kingdom.
EFNARC main activities at European level and at CEN Technical committees are in flooring,
the protection and repair of concrete, in soft ground tunnelling and in sprayed concrete. It
provides a common voice for the industry to make known its position and view to the European
Commission departments dealing with the CPD, CEN Technical Committees and other Groups
dealing with European harmonisation of Specifications, Standards, Certification and CE making
relevant to our industry.
In each product area it operates through specialist Technical Committees which have been
responsible for producing Specifications and Guidelines which have become recognised as
essential reference documents by specifiers, contractors and material suppliers throughout
Europe and beyond.
Acknowledgements
EFNARC wishes to acknowledge gratefully all the contributions and comments made by users
of the Sprayed Concrete Specification published in 1996 and to the subsequent extensive work
undertaken by members of its Sprayed Concrete Technical Committee.
Although care has been taken to ensure, to the best of our knowledge that all data and information
contained herein is accurate to the extent that it relates to either matters of fact or accepted practice or
matters of opinion at the time of publication, EFNARC assumes no responsibility for any errors in or
misrepresentation of such data and/or information or any loss or damage arising from or related to its
use.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, recording or otherwise, without prior
permission of EFNARC.
ISBN 0 9522483 6 0 1999 EFNARC
ii
CONTENTS
FOREWORD ...................................................................................................... 1
G2. REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 1
G4. CONSTITUENT MATERIALS............................................................................... 1
G4.1 Cements............................................................................................... 2
G4.2 Aggregates ........................................................................................... 2
G4.3 Mixing water ......................................................................................... 2
G4.4 Steel reinforcement ............................................................................... 2
G4.5 Fibres................................................................................................... 2
G4.6 Admixtures ........................................................................................... 4
G4.7 Additions .............................................................................................. 5
G4.8 Curing agents ....................................................................................... 6
G5. REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE COMPOSITION........................................... 6
G5.1 General ................................................................................................ 6
G5.2 Cement ................................................................................................ 6
G5.3 Additions .............................................................................................. 7
G5.4 Aggregates ........................................................................................... 7
G5.5 Admixtures ........................................................................................... 8
G5.6 Fibres................................................................................................... 9
G5.7 Consistence.......................................................................................... 9
G5.8 Working temperature............................................................................. 9
G6. REQUIREMENTS FOR DURABILITY................................................................... 9
G6.1 General ................................................................................................ 9
G6.2 Chloride content .................................................................................... 10
G6.3 Alkali content ........................................................................................ 10
G6.4 Requirements related to environment conditions ..................................... 10
G7. MIX COMPOSITION............................................................................................ 11
G7.1 General ................................................................................................ 11
G7.2 Designed mixes .................................................................................... 11
G7.3 Prescribed mixes .................................................................................. 11
G7.4 Combined mix design............................................................................ 11
G8. EXECUTION OF SPRAYING............................................................................... 12
G8.1 Preparatory work................................................................................... 12
G8.2 Spraying operations .............................................................................. 13
G8.3 Equipment ............................................................................................ 15
G8.4 Application of wet-mix sprayed concrete for rock support ......................... 16
G8.5 Scaffolding .................................................................................................. 17
G9. REQUIREMENTS FOR FINAL PRODUCT............................................................ 18
G9.1 Compressive strength............................................................................ 18
G9.2 Flexural strength................................................................................... 19
G9.3 Toughness properties ............................................................................ 19
G9.4 Modulus of elasticity.............................................................................. 19
G9.5 Bond strength....................................................................................... 19
G9.6 Fibre content......................................................................................... 19
G9.7 Permeability.......................................................................................... 20
G9.8 Frost resistance.................................................................................... 20
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G10. TEST METHODS................................................................................................ 20
G10.1 Test panels and samples ....................................................................... 20
G10.2 Compressive strength and density ......................................................... 21
G10.3 Flexural strength and residual strength................................................... 21
G10.4 Energy absorption class (plate test)........................................................ 22
G10.5 Modulus of elasticity.............................................................................. 22
G10.6 Bond strength....................................................................................... 23
G10.7 Permeability.......................................................................................... 23
G10.8 Frost resistance.................................................................................... 24
G10.9 Determination of fibre content ................................................................ 24
G11. QUALITY CONTROL........................................................................................... 24
G11.1 General ................................................................................................ 24
G11.2 Preconstruction tests............................................................................. 24
G11.3 Quality control ....................................................................................... 24
G12. HEALTH AND SAFETY ....................................................................................... 25
GUIDELINES TO APPENDIX 1 - Admixtures for Sprayed Concrete: Definitions, Specifications,
Requirements, Reference Concrete Mixes and Test Methods............................................... 28
ANNEX A Determination of energy absorption capacity of slab specimens ......................... 30
1
FOREWORD
The EFNARC European Specification for Sprayed Concrete was published in 1996 following a draft that
had been produced three years earlier. During the intervening period, over 1000 copies of the draft
version had been circulated and the comments received were taken into account in the final published
specification. The Specification has since been used widely and has rapidly become a standard reference
document in the industry around the world.
The Specification sets out the essential requirements for a successful sprayed concrete installation.
Subsequently the section of the Specification on the Execution of Spraying has been amplified and issued
separately.
The Guidelines presented here provide a commentary on the Specification by giving an explanation of the
requirements. To aid cross-referencing between these Guidelines and the Specification, the clause
numbers are generally those of the Specification to which the Guidelines relate: those in italics are sub-
divisions of the Guidelines (eg 8.2.1).
G2 REFERENCES
The following CEN test methods represent the latest guidance relevant to sprayed concrete and supersede
the list given in Section 2 of the EFNARC specification:
ISO 6784 Concrete - Determination of static modulus of elasticity in compression (1982)
prEN 12356 Testing concrete - Shape, dimensions and other requirements for test specimens
and moulds
prEN 12359 Testing concrete - Determination of flexural strength of test specimens
prEN 12363 Testing concrete - Determination of density of hardened concrete
prEN 12364 Testing concrete - Determination of depth of water penetration under pressure
prEN 12378 Testing concrete - Sampling fresh concrete
prEN 12379 Testing concrete - Making and curing specimens for strength tests
prEN 12382 Testing concrete - Determination of consistency - slump test
prEN 12390 Testing concrete - Determination of compressive strength - specification for
compression testing machines
prEN 12394 Testing concrete - Determination of compressive strength of test specimens
prEN 12399 Testing concrete - Determination of pull-out force
prEN 12504 Testing concrete - Cored samples - taking, examining and testing in compression
prEN 1542 Products and system for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test
methods - Pull-off test
prEN 13057 Products and system for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test
methods - Determination of Capillary water absorption
Additional references to published work:
Austin S. A. and Robins P. J. (eds) 'Sprayed Concrete: properties, design and installation', Whittles
Publishing, Latheronwheel, UK (ISBN 1-870325-01-X) and McGraw Hill, USA (ISBN 0-07-057148-1), 1995.
McLeish A., 'Standard tests for repair materials and coatings for concrete', CIRIA Technical Note 139,
Construction Industry Research and Information Association, London, 1993.
Opsahl O.A., 'Steel fibre reinforced for rock support', BML Report 82.205, Division of Building Materials,
The Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, September 1983.
Melbye T., 'Sprayed concrete for rock support', 4
th
edition, January 1996
G4 CONSTITUENT MATERIALS
The constituent materials should be selected to satisfy technical and health and safety criteria. Strength
requirements as well as any other requirements concerning mechanical characteristics, thickness, shape,
finishing, etc. of sprayed concrete should be clearly described in the project specification.
2
G4.1 Cements
European Standards classify cements as different types and classes, depending on composition and
performance. Economic considerations may influence the choice of cement but it has to conform to the
given technical specifications. Traditional Portland cements (CEM 1) are used for most sprayed concrete
applications.
Taking into consideration that every single batch of cement can differ in reactivity, depending on
composition and fineness, preliminary tests are recommended to verify performance. As a general rule the
higher the C
3
A content and the higher the specific surface (Blaine) and the class, the higher the reactivity
in terms of setting time and early strength gain, particularly in combination with set accelerators.
For certain aggressive conditions, like sulfate bearing groundwater or where there is a risk of alkali-silica
reaction, a different type of cement can be specified. These cements normally have a lower C
3
A content
(normally less than 5%), and therefore a lower reactivity.
Modified cements or other kinds of binder can be used for sprayed concrete, once their suitability has been
determined.
G4.2 Aggregates
Aggregates comprise the major component of concrete both in volume and in mass. In addition to the
specified concrete strength their selection should take into account aspects such as potential rebound and
good interlayer bond. Besides shape, particle size and grading, the composition, moisture content,
washing treatment and organic contents should be considered. The possible susceptibility to alkali-silica
reaction must also be investigated.
If wet mix sprayed concrete is used, its pumpability is an important factor and must be considered in the
choice of aggregates. In practice, local restrictions and/or specific jobsite circumstances often limit the
availability of suitable aggregates.
Sprayed concrete mix design differs from that of traditional concrete in terms of maximum aggregate size
and grain size distribution (see 5.4).
In extreme weather conditions the temperature of the aggregate has a major influence on the final mix
temperature. This has to be taken into consideration when site logistics are planned.
G4.3 Mixing water
Potable water is suitable for sprayed concrete mix. Table 1 may be used to check the suitability of other
sources where there are no standards for mixing water. It should be taken into consideration that the
temperature of the mixing water influences the final mix temperature.
G4.4 Steel reinforcement
Steel reinforcement is used to increase the flexural strength and reduce cracks. Steel reinforcement is
normally in the form of fabric and its use is recommended for thick layers ( 50 mm). For most uses,
reinforcing steel fabric with a mesh of 100 to 150 mm and a wire diameter of no more than 10 mm is widely
accepted.
G4.5 Fibres
Fibres are generally used to increase the toughness of concrete, which is specified by residual strength or
by energy absorption capacity estimated from the load-deflection curve from a beam or plate test, or to
reduce or control cracking.
Fibres are normally supplied collated with a fast-acting water-soluble glue, or as uncollated individual
fibres.
3
Table 1: Assessment of mixing water
Assessment
Test Testing method
Suitable
without
comparative
concrete tests
Suitable
for use in
certain cases
1)
Not suitable
1. Colour Visual test in graduated
measuring vessel (wait
until all suspended
particles are
precipitated)
colourless to
slightly yellow
dark or
coloured
( red, green, blue)
2. Oil and
grease Visual test traces
oil film,
oil emulsion
3. Detergents
shake sample
strongly (Half fill
measuring vessel)
slightly
generating foam:
Foam stability
2minutes
strongly
generating foam:
Foam stability
2minutes
4. Suspended
particles
80 cm
3
measuring vessel
4 ml > 4 ml
5. Odour
Addition of HCl none - slight
strong (e.g.
hydrogen sulfide)
6. pH value suitable indicator 4 < 4
7. Chloride
2)
(Cl
-
) 500 mg/l > 500 mg/l
3)
Steel reinforced
concrete
1000 mg/l > 1000 mg/l
3)
Not reinforced
concrete
4500 mg/l > 4500 mg/l
3)
8. Sulfate
2)
(SO
4
2-
) 2000 mg/l > 2000 mg/l
9. Sugar,
Glucose
2)
100 mg/l > 100 mg/l
Saccharose 100 mg/l > 100 mg/l
10.Phosphate
(P
2
O
5
)
2)
100 mg/l > 100 mg/l
11.Nitrate (NO
3
)
2)
500 mg/l > 500 mg/l
12.Zinc (Zn
2+
)
2)
100 mg/l > 100 mg/l
13.Sulfide (S
2-
)
4)
100 mg/l > 100 mg/l
14.Sodium (Na
+
)
5)
Potassium (K
+
)
Total
1500 mg/l > 1500 mg/l
15.Humic
substances
Add 5 ml

of 4-5 %
NaOH to 5 ml

of
mixing water. Shake
well. After 3 minutes -
visual test
paler than
yellowish
brown
darker than
yellowish
brown
1)
"Suitable for use in certain cases only"; means final assessment depends on case-by-case assessment
and/or comparative concrete testing.
2)
Use of fast test method permitted.
3)
Favourable assessment may be possible in individual cases. If the entire chloride content of all
concrete constituents does not exceed the limits specified in ENV 206, It 5.5.
4)
Required for prestressed concrete/grouting mortar only.
5)
Required only if there is a risk of alkali silica reaction.
4
G4.5.1 Steel fibres
Steel fibres are straight or deformed cold-drawn steel wire, straight or deformed cut sheet fibres, fibres
milled from steel blocks or melt extracted fibres which can be homogeneously mixed into concrete and
mortar. Steel fibres are divided into five main groups and are defined in accordance with the basic material
used for the production of the fibres.
Group I cold-drawn steel wire
Group II cut sheet fibres
Group lIl milled from steel blocks
Group IV melt extracted fibres
Group V other steel fibres
G4.5.2 Synthetic fibres
Synthetic fibres are mainly produced from organic polymers, with any of several cross sections, and are
sufficiently small to be randomly dispersed in a fresh concrete mix using conventional mixing procedures
and sprayed with conventional equipment.
G4.6 Admixtures
A sprayed concrete mix may include admixtures such as plasticizers, retarders, etc., (just as conventional
concrete does to improve the fresh mix properties and the hardened concrete quality), to ensure a good
spraying application and to meet early strength requirements.
The designation 'chloride-free' for admixtures implies that the chloride ion content does not exceed 0.1%
by mass of the admixture.
Plasticizers are used to achieve pumpable concretes with a minimum water content. Large additions of
water should be avoided because it decreases cohesion and final strength, and has adverse effects on
concrete quality (e.g. water permeability) and on the extent of rebound; it may also retard the setting time,
which may also result in an increased demand for an accelerator, if used. Plasticizers based on
lignosulphonates may have a set retarding effect at higher dosages and this should be taken into
consideration. Because of these disadvantages, superplasticizers are preferred in many situations.
Superplasticizers are used in sprayed concrete to minimise the amount of water in the mix, thereby
improving the final quality. At the dosages recommended by the supplier, they do not normally retard the
setting time and can therefore be used at higher dosages than plasticizers, giving more significant water
reduction. They are mainly used to give the required consistence for spraying and to aid pumpability.
Retarders are usually added to retard the setting of the concrete. High dosages of retarding admixtures
can cause severe concrete stiffening, flash set and influence the early strength of the sprayed concrete.
When retarders are used, the accelerator dosage rate can be higher than for conventional sprayed
concrete without any retarding admixtures, in order to achieve fast setting and to spray thick layers.
With the use of retarders, preconstruction tests on site with the actual materials and mix design should be
conducted prior to commencement of the work, in order to verify the dosage rate of an accelerator (early
strength and ability to produce thick layers).
The use of traditional retarders is generally not recommended for sprayed concrete.
Hydration control admixtures (available commercially as proprietary materials composed of suitable blends
of superplasticizers/ retarders/ stabilisers) are usually added to sprayed concrete in order to maintain
workability and extend the open time during transportation and application without reducing concrete
quality (e.g. consistence, setting, early and final strength).
They can maintain workability, without influencing the hydration, from a few hours to three days depending
on dosage rate ("puts the concrete to sleep"). To reactivate and neutralise the hydration control effect, a
suitable sprayed concrete set accelerator is added during spraying.
In general, hydration control admixtures have no negative influence on the accelerator dosage rate. The
concrete mix can be reactivated at any time with the same accelerator dosage rate and with the same
setting time, early and final strength development. The stored sprayed concrete should be re-mixed
thoroughly before use and be protected against evaporation with a cover in order to avoid any change in
5
the initial quality and consistence.
Thixotropic admixtures (sometimes also called Sagging prevention admixtures) may be used to reduce
rebound and prevent sagging of fresh sprayed concrete. Under certain circumstances, when early loading
of the sprayed concrete is not required, this type of admixture may also be used to reduce the amount of
accelerator and may increase the thickness of the individual layers. These admixtures can reduce
concrete slump or can be used in a combined thixotropic/accelerator admixture.
Accelerators are added to concrete during spraying to increase the stiffening rate, to produce a fast set
and to get sufficient early strength development. A fast setting concrete may be necessary to build up the
lining at the required thickness and to ensure overhead security. The dosage should be adjusted to ensure
good cohesion between individual passes producing a single layer.
Four different types of accelerator are available commercially:
- alkali-free accelerators
- aluminates
- waterglass (silicates)
- modified silicates
Whilst alkali containing accelerators are available, Alkali-free accelerators (see 5.5.3 for definition) are
preferred because they give a better working environment; a less hazardous material; lower risk of skin
burns; have less negative impact on the environment and improve concrete durability. These accelerators
have little effect on the final strength of the concrete. For permanent sprayed concrete, it is recommended
to use alkali-free accelerators.
Aluminates take part in the hydraulic reactions of cement and show good stiffening and hardening effects.
Significant decreases in final strength and durability occur when aluminates are overdosed. Their caustic
characteristics (high pH > 12) require particular care including personal protection against eye burns, skin
burns and inhalation. The use of aluminate based products should therefore be restricted.
Waterglass (silicates) generally have pH values above 12, the alkali content (Na
2
O
equiv
) being between
10% and 18%. These accelerators show very fast stiffening, but they also have secondary effects,
especially when overdosed, such as significant final strength decreases, increased porosity values and
efflorescence. Therefore the dosing rate has to be limited to minimise these secondary effects.
Modified silicates are special types of silicates with a pH < 11.5 and a low Na
2
O
equiv.
< 8.5%. They give a
better working environment due to the lower pH value and less reduction in final strength compared to
aluminates and traditional waterglass based products. The dosing rate has to be kept within the limits set
out in the specifications.
Bond improvers - internal curing admixtures are special admixtures added to the basic mix of the sprayed
concrete or at the nozzle to improve the bond between the sprayed concrete layers and/or adhesion to the
substrate surface of the sprayed concrete.
They are used instead of external curing agents or other types of curing: the effect should be determined
in preconstruction tests on site with the actual mix design, material and specific site conditions. Dosage
rate and method of addition should be in accordance with the manufacturer's recommendations. Normally
they are added to the wet mix for wet sprayed concrete.
G4.7 Additions
Additions (described in 4.7.2 to 4.7.4) can be introduced directly into the sprayed concrete mix. These
additions can be used to optimise the aggregate particle size distribution, and hence the concrete
compactness, and/or improve the performances of both fresh and hardened concrete.
Many products used as additions increase the formation of the hydrating calcium silicates of the cement
and these hydrates grow in a way which can improve the mechanical and physical properties. Use of
pulverised fuel ash (pfa) and/or silica fume increases fresh concrete cohesion and results in a lower
rebound and improved pumpability. Some slags show the opposite effect, which may need to be
compensated.
Additions like pulverised fuel ash and silica fume show a pozzolanic reaction with the cement's calcium
6
hydroxide to produce additional calcium silicates that contribute to strength development and a reduction in
permeability. The pozzolanic reaction and those associated with slags have a longer time scale than the
normal cement hydration, thus contributing to the long term strength and durability.
Inorganic Pigments can be specified when particular aesthetic requirements have to be met. Attention has
to be paid to ensure consistent dosage and thorough dispersion to avoid significant colour variations from
batch to batch. Pigments are generally inert and do not contribute to long term strength or durability.
G4.8 Curing agents
Curing agents should be specified to maximise hydration of the cement by reducing uncontrolled water
evaporation.
There are two types of curing agent: External curing agents and internal curing admixtures. Both types
should be used in accordance with the manufacturer's technical instructions.
External curing agents are sprayed onto the surface of the sprayed concrete shortly after it has been
applied. When set accelerators are used, an external curing agent should be applied within 15 minutes
after the end of spraying. When no accelerators are used it should be applied within 30 minutes.
Solvent based curing agents should be avoided, especially when used in closed spaces such as tunnels.
The curing agent selected should not affect the bond of further layers/coatings or be easy to remove.
Internal curing admixtures are special admixtures added to the mix (see 4.6). Compatibility of curing
agents with cements, hydraulic binders, accelerators and other admixtures should be verified in site trials.
Particular care must be taken to ensure adequate mixing when used in the dry-mix process.
G5 REQUIREMENTS FOR CONCRETE COMPOSITION
G5.1 General
The concrete mix, including all the components, should satisfy the performance and Health and Safety
criteria.
G5.2 Cement
The type and content of cement should be selected to meet the specified requirements for concrete
strength and durability. Any material proposed as a binder which is not included in EN 197 must first be
tested for suitability and should comply with the minimum requirements for traditional cement.
The cement content should normally be between 350 and 450 kg/m
3
of concrete for the dry process and
between 400 and 500 kg/m
3
for the wet spraying process.
The initial setting time should be long enough to give sufficient workability, but not so prolonged as to
prevent sufficient early strength development to provide safe support. Normally, the initial setting time will
be between 1.5 and 3.5 hours for a cement grain fineness higher than 350 m
2
/kg.
The cement performance should be evaluated by preliminary tests together with the other concrete
components intended to be used on site. Its compatibility and reactivity with the admixtures should be
checked during preliminary tests and for each subsequent consignment.
Maximum temperature of the cement in the mixing plant silos should be limited to 70C and it should not
exceed 50C at the time of mixing. Cement should be fresh and stored in a dry area and/or in a suitable
silo.
Where there is a risk of sulfate attack or of alkali silica reaction, special cement types (Sulfate resisting
cement; SRC) should be used. These cements have a low C
3
A content which minimises chemical attack,
but may also show long setting and hardening times. Nevertheless, the use of an SRC does not
automatically guarantee good concrete durability since physical characteristics, such as porosity and
permeability of the cement matrix, will also influence the durability of the sprayed concrete. The addition of
silica fume can also contribute to improved sprayed concrete durability.
7
G5.3 Additions
Only additions with established suitability should be used. Additions to be batched as individual
components at the mixing plant should be mixed homogeneously with the other materials.
When using additions, particular attention must be given to their compatibility with the admixtures proposed
to be used, especially the sprayed concrete accelerators. If in doubt, the compatibility must be verified by
site trials.
Additions which have chemical reactions with cement can partially substitute the cement content. The type
and amount of an addition should be carefully evaluated in preliminary tests and should comply with
national standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the sprayed concrete.
Pigments can be specified as for traditional concrete and should comply with European standards or local
regulations. They also should be assessed with the materials on site.
Pulverised fuel ash (Fly ash): the source of the pfa should be selected with care to ensure that the free
alkali level is not excessive.
Ground granulated blastfurnace slag (ggbs): minimum value of the specific surface (Blaine) should be
45025 m
2
/kg.
Silica fume: can be added as a powder or as a slurry. The normal level of addition is 3 - 8% (by dry mass
of the Portland cement) unless otherwise directed by the client or his representative. Higher levels may
require additional precautions to minimise shrinkage.
The following additional requirements should be met:
- Content of amorphous SiO
2
85% (by mass)
- MgO 5%
- Ignition loss 4%
- Specific surface (BET) > 2.10
4
m
2
/kg
G5.4 Aggregates
For sprayed concrete the quality of the aggregates is of major importance, in relation to the performance of
both the fresh and the hardened concrete.
The proportion of aggregate larger than 8 mm in size should not exceed 10% to minimise rebound and
penetration into the already placed concrete. Aggregates in excess of 12 mm should be avoided as they
can block the nozzle and cause dangerous rebound.
Aggregates based on crushed materials should be selected with care. Their angular shape may adversely
influence the pumpability of the fresh concrete or the rebound of the sprayed concrete.
Aggregates should be clean and checked for potential chemical reactions like alkali silica reaction, (see
G6.3), and deleterious organic materials. If the analysis indicates potential problems, the source of the
aggregate should be changed or, if this is not possible, its use must be approved by the responsible
engineer, after evaluation of its influence on the quality and durability of the sprayed concrete.
Figure 5.4.1 in the Specification provides guidance but the aggregates gradation curve should be
established and checks made to ensure it is compatible with the requirements of concrete strength,
pumpability and rebound.
The moisture content should be taken into consideration when determining the water demand of the
concrete mix. Each aggregate should be stored separately and, if possible, in a covered area. Being the
major component of the concrete mix, aggregates have the major influence on the temperature of the
mixed concrete. Under high or low temperature ambient conditions, aggregates should be stored in
suitably protected areas and should be either cooled or heated to keep the concrete mix temperature
within the specified range.
8
G5.5 Admixtures
G5.5.1 General
Admixtures for purposes not covered by this EFNARC specification should only be used with the written
approval of the responsible authority. The contractor will be required to provide full and sufficient
documentation to support the use of such admixtures.
The required characteristic values and consistency of delivery to the site should be agreed in writing with
the manufacturer of each admixture before the commencement of spraying.
Storage conditions and usage of admixtures should comply fully with the manufacturer's
recommendations. Many admixtures will have stability problems if exposed to frost, which can result in
reduced performance. Written confirmation of the stability of admixtures with the mixing water should be
obtained from the manufacturer by the contractor prior to the commencement of site trials.
Water-soluble glue or other additives used to collate steel fibres must be compatible with other sprayed
concrete components, including admixtures.
All admixtures should be trial tested to evaluate performance, compatibility between the different
admixtures and their overall effect on the concrete quality and durability.
Sulfate resistance of sprayed concrete should be established in reference sprayed concrete tests, if
required.
The impact of admixtures on the health and safety of the operatives and on the environment should be
carefully investigated. Admixture suppliers should be asked to give all necessary information and data on
admixture dosage, suitability, effect on finished sprayed concrete, including previous experience,
references and comprehensive safety data.
G5.5.2 superplasticizers, plasticizers, retarders, hydration control / thixotropic / bond improver and
internal curing agents /- admixtures
The effects and optimum dosages of these admixtures should be determined by site trials in accordance
with the specifications and should not exceed the maximum recommended by the manufacturer.
Plasticizers and retarders should be checked regularly or as required, for setting time, water reduction and
development of strength as compared with the reference concrete.
Compatibilities of the admixtures with cements, binders and accelerators should be verified in site trials.
G5.5.3 Accelerators
As mentioned earlier, alkali-containing and alkali-free accelerators are both widely used. Generally, all
accelerators should be used at the manufacturer's recommended dosages.
When alkali-free accelerators are used the following requirements should be met:
- The maximum Na
2
0 - equivalent of the accelerators is limited to 1.0% by mass.
- The dosage (by mass of the binder) is preferably:
powder accelerators: 4 - 8 %
liquid accelerator: 4 - 10 %
- The pH value of liquid accelerators is preferably between 2.5 and 8.
Alkali-containing accelerators should comply with the following dosage limits:
powder accelerators: 4 - 8 % (by mass of binder)
liquid accelerators: 4 - 12 % (by mass of binder)
The decrease in compressive strength (at 7 days or 28 days) of the accelerated sprayed concrete should
not exceed 25% for both powder and liquid accelerators.
When aluminate accelerators are used in the presence of water with an SO
4
2-
content of more than 600
mg/l, the content of water soluble AI
2
O
3
should not exceed 0.6% by weight of cement and/or binder in the
appropriate dosage. If the limit is exceeded, testing against reference sprayed concrete is to be performed
at the maximum permissible site dosage.
9
G5.6 Fibres
Fibres may be specified in sprayed concrete to reduce the amount and spacing of traditional reinforcement
or to eliminate the need for it completely. In this latter case the location of construction joints must be
specified in the design, since overlapping of reinforcing fibres is not possible at construction joints.
Fibre reinforced sprayed concrete should be specifically described in terms of performance requirements
by the project engineer.
Fibres differ in material, length and shape. Different fibre types normally require different addition rates,
which should be recommended by the supplier of the fibres and then confirmed by site trials.
A change in the fresh concrete quality will affect the quantity of fibres rebounding and therefore the final
amount of fibres in the sprayed concrete.
Fibres are normally added to concrete at the mixing plant by means of a suitable dispenser and thoroughly
mixed, following the supplier's instructions.
Steel fibres are the most commonly used; fibres with lengths of 12 mm to 50 mm have been sprayed and
tested. The shorter ones are easier to mix, to shoot and they rebound less: the longer ones give better
results in terms of concrete toughness and post-crack resistance. Fibres are mostly specified in the length
range of 25-35 mm. As a general rule the length should normally not exceed 50 mm.
Steel fibres should be stored in dry sealed containers until ready for use to protect them against corrosion,
oil, grease, chlorides and deleterious materials which will reduce the efficiency of the mixing or spraying
processes, or which will reduce the bond between the fibres and the sprayed concrete. Fibres which tend
to form "fibre balls'' during batching and mixing cannot be used.
G5.7 Consistence
The necessary concrete consistence for the wet process depends on practical aspects, like pumpability.
The concrete slump should be maintained between 80 and 200 mm to produce better fresh and hardened
concrete qualities. The slump of the different concrete batches should be measured and variations should
be limited to 30 mm. Alternatively, the EN 206 spread table test can be used for higher workability mixes.
Test values for concrete containing fibres may differ from those of ordinary concrete. Water reducing
admixtures are used to reduce the water content and achieve the required consistence. Bleeding and
segregation phenomena must always be avoided.
G5.8 Working temperature
Low temperatures retard both setting and hardening and concrete will not then achieve the early strength
requirements unless higher accelerator dosages are used, but this normally reduces the final strength.
High temperatures shorten workability time and accelerate concrete stiffening and setting, losing the
necessary "plasticity" to get good adhesion and cohesion of sprayed concrete.
The mix temperature should preferably be in the range +10C to +25C. If the temperature is outside of
this range, suitable measures should be taken, such as different storage for the aggregates, heating or
cooling of aggregates and/or the mixing water.
G6 REQUIREMENTS FOR DURABILITY
G6.1 General
A durable concrete is one which, without deterioration, withstands the conditions for which it was designed
for its required lifetime. These conditions include the environment to which the concrete is exposed and
activity within the concrete itself.
The main environmental aspects are listed in Table 1: Exposure classes of prEN 206: 1997 as:
carbonation, chlorides, freeze/thaw attack and chemical attack. Other sources of deterioration are
weathering, abrasion and attack by aggressive liquids.
10
Within the concrete, durability is highly dependent on reducing the ingress of liquids and gasses that cause
deterioration and on slowing down chemical reactions such as that involving the cement and certain silicas
in aggregates (ASR). Low permeability is achieved mainly by having a low water content commensurate
with compaction. Sprayed concrete usually has a high cement content, which results in a high water
content; hence it is important to keep the water/cement ratio as low as possible.
The permeability of the concrete also governs the rate of carbonation. When the cover zone has been
carbonated the reinforcing steel becomes unprotected from corrosion by the action of oxygen and water. A
dense concrete will also resist the ingress of chlorides when these are in contact with the concrete, such
as on bridges where de-icing salt is used and in structures close to the sea. Chlorides are agents of
electrochemical corrosion of steel reinforcement.
a) Suitable constituents are governed by section 4 of the Specification. Care has to be taken when
specifying combinations of admixtures, that they do not interact to the detriment of the fresh or hardened
concrete. Normally, if this is the case, the admixture supplier will have relevant information that should be
used to guide the producer of the concrete.
b) Requirements for performances of the final product are governed by section 9 of the Specification.
Performance here also relates to all the activities within the spraying process, from mixing through to
placement in position. The designer should determine the class designation, from Table 1 of pr EN 206,
and then be guided by Table D1, in the determination of maximum w/c ratio and minimum cement content
with the provisos noted in clause 6.4 of the Specification.
G6.2 Chloride content
As stated earlier, chloride ions are the driving force that cause rusting of reinforcing steel due to
electrochemical action. And whilst salt may penetrate hardened concrete, some can be taken into fresh
concrete in the mixing water and on the sand and aggregates if these are from a marine source. Table 11
of pr EN 206: 1997 gives limiting values for chloride ion Cl
-
content of the concrete as placed, for plain,
reinforced and prestressed concretes. The producer should satisfy himself that the total chlorides coming
from all other constituents such as water, aggregates (including sand) and admixtures do not exceed these
limits.
The limits given in table 11 may seem high to those familiar with the investigation of failures and the
implementation of repair schemes, where values in excess of 0.2% Cl
-
by mass of cement are considered
unacceptable, but the crystal formation resulting from the reaction of cement and water in fresh concrete
locks in a proportion of the chlorides in the original mix.
G6.3 Alkali content
Alkali-silica reaction can take place in hardened concrete when the aggregate contains a certain type of
(reactive) silica, there is sufficient alkali in the mix from the cement (generally sodium and potassium
oxides) and there is sufficient water available. The easiest way to overcome this is to use a low alkali
cement, such as sulfate resisting Portland cement or one where Portland cement is blended with ggbs or
pfa, if the aggregate to be used has reactive silica in it. Sprayed concrete generally has a high cement
content which can produce a high alkali content.
For conventional concrete, local long-term experience can be taken into account, but sprayed concrete
accounts for only a small percentage of the market and this experience is not likely to be available.
G6.4 Requirements related to environmental conditions
(NOTE: The reference to the European Standard should be Section 4 of pr EN 206: 1997)
(i) At w/c ratios greater than the value quoted, the residual void content of hardened concrete
increases rapidly and the strength decreases at a commensurate rate, giving a progressively less
durable concrete. Note that the water content of any admixture must be taken into account when
determining the total w/c ratio. This clause really only applies to wet mix concretes. With the dry
mix process, the w/c ratio is mainly governed by the process itself and, as a result, is almost
always lower than this value.
11
(ii) The minimum cement content quoted here is to ensure durability, together with the restriction on
the w/c ratio. Should a higher minimum value be required by the exposure condition quoted in
table 1 of section 4 of prEN 206, then that guideline must be followed. Minimum cement contents
are specified in table D1 of Annex D of prEN 206 or in the National complementary standard. The
limit quoted is in place, not as mixed. Whilst this limits is somewhat higher than the bare
minimum, it allows for variations inherent in sprayed concrete.
(iii) Physical testing for freeze-thaw resistance is appropriate to sprayed concrete. Air content is often
misleading as freezing takes place within the interstices of the concrete as well as in any
entrapped air.
(iv) It has been suggested that electrochemical corrosion does not occur between fibres within the
cover zone and their presence limits the action of corrosion product when they are in carbonated
concrete.
G7 MIX COMPOSITION
G7.1 General
A designed mix is one where the purchaser (the designer or specifier) is responsible for specifying the
required performance of the concrete and the producer (the dry mix sprayed concrete contractor) is
responsible for selecting the mix proportions to produce the specified performance. A prescribed mix,
where the purchaser specifies the mix proportions, is inappropriate for the dry process, considering the
amount and variability of the rebound material, and hence in situ proportions. Even with the wet process
there is often a certain amount of rebound material and the designed mix approach is to be preferred.
G7.2 Designed mixes
The sprayed concrete contractor has the freedom to produce his own concrete, provided it meets the
performance requirements specified to him. As listed in this clause, the specifier can require the hardened
concrete to have various physical characteristics, which are checked by the appropriate testing regime
covered in section 9 of the Specification.
G7.3 Prescribed mixes
The usual procedure for prescribed mixes for conventional concrete is for the purchaser to specify the mix
proportions. With any type of sprayed concrete an experienced contractor has knowledge of the process
and the materials, their interactions and the expected end product. Once again, the amount of rebound
can be variable yet critical and one of the main reasons for not using a prescribed mix in the dry process is
the uncertainty of the eventual mix proportions. It is therefore recommended that the specifier takes
account of this knowledge and is guided by the contractor when determining the concrete mix for a
particular application. Note that no mention is made of strength; there is a danger of over-specifying
concrete in that minimum cement strength class coupled with a maximum w/c ratio is sufficient to ensure a
particular minimum strength of concrete.
For structural work, prescribed mixes should be avoided or otherwise there should be frequent verification
tests on actual performance.
G7.4 Combined mix design
As noted above, there are dangers in over-specifying concrete and the flexibility allowed by this clause
should only be needed on rare occasions.
12
G8 EXECUTION OF SPRAYING
These Guidelines relate to the revised Section 8 which has been issued as a separate and later
document to the Specification.
G8.1 Preparatory work
Good preparation is essential to sprayed concrete work. The clauses in this section are therefore
particularly important and must be implemented.
G8.1.1 Substrate
Sprayed concrete is normally placed in thin layers compared to conventional concrete, which makes it
vulnerable to heat loss. If the substrate is cold at the time of spraying it will quickly rob the sprayed
concrete of its heat and will retard or stop the hydration of the cement. Strong winds rapidly evaporate
water from concrete surfaces, yet in sprayed concrete the water content is usually low, with little tolerance
on loss to the atmosphere. Because sprayed concrete has a large surface to volume ratio and because it
is built up in layers, the effect of heavy rain is detrimental.
G8.1.2 For rock support
For tunnel headings and for caverns being driven through rock, the rock face is generally freshly broken
and solid. Adhesion becomes problematic in the case of friable, flaky or shale-type stone and rock
surfaces that suffer decomposition on exposure to air or moisture. Outdoor rock surfaces are generally
badly soiled and weathered to various depths. Such surfaces should be thoroughly and painstakingly
cleaned if the sprayed concrete is to adhere properly. They should be washed; which may require the use
of high-pressure water, steam or grit-blasting.
There are many ways of dealing with water ingress and include grouting, drilled holes, channels, chases,
pipes. Unless it is stopped, the water is normally taken to the invert or to the groundwater drainage
system.
G8.1.3 For concrete repair
Removal of concrete
The edges of a cut-out are required to be at 45 to avoid rebound being trapped in right-angled corners
and thus ensure a proper build up during spraying.
It has been found in practice that a minimum gap of 20 mm is required behind rebars to ensure complete
encapsulation during spraying. This, of course, is affected by the size of the bar and the technique
employed by the nozzleman.
When removing concrete with chisels it has been found that because the rebars are hidden, they can be
damaged easily, reducing their cross-sectional area. The use of chisels in the vicinity of and directly on the
rebars should not be permitted. Hydrodemolition is the preferred method for concrete removal as, with any
form of mechanical removal, it is possible to create micro-cracking in the substrate and to damage the
reinforcement.
The specification for the work should indicate whether hydrodemolition should be carried out within
specified areas and to specified depths, or if selective hydrodemolition of inferior concrete should be
undertaken. Fully automated robots are preferred for selective hydrodemolition and the equipment should
be calibrated using a reference area. The calibration should include water flow, water pressure, size of
nozzle and dynamic pattern. Calibration should be done using the specified depth of demolition. The
results from the reference area should be approved by the Engineer prior to further demolition.
After hydrodemolition, the resulting concrete should have no loose concrete on it and the coarse aggregate
should be soundly embedded (when knocked with a hammer it should split rather than come loose) and
pin holes should cover less than 5% of the area.
Rebars
Hydrodemolition should provide the required cleanliness and no additional rebar cleaning should be
necessary provided that the spraying is carried out within the time agreed with, or specified by, the
Engineer: dirt and rust being the two main factors. Otherwise, rebars should be cleaned prior to spraying,
13
by grit blasting or by high pressure water cleaning. In marine or other chloride-contaminated environments
special precautions will need to be taken.
It is normal for rebars with reduced cross-sectional areas to have additional bars welded or tied in, as
appropriate and as determined by the Engineer.
G8.1.4 Quantities
Rock quality is assessed and recorded so that it can be used as a basis for the evaluation of the total
concrete volume needed for rock support.
Areas to be sprayed should be designated by profile number and location within the profile. A volume
estimate should be based on area, specified average thickness and the roughness factor. The roughness
factor is empirical and gives an overall characteristic of the:
- actual rock surface divided by the theoretical area, and
- volume for filling hollows and cracks versus volume for even distribution.
The roughness factor varies from 1.0 for full face tunnels to 1.3 -1.8 for blasted tunnels. The factor may
further vary depending on layer thickness. (Ref: Norwegian Sprayed Concrete Guidelines, Publication No.
7)
G8.2 Spraying operations
G8.2.1 Spraying technique
The sole objective of sprayed concrete is to obtain a compact, dense and firmly adhering layer with the
lowest possible rebound loss. Rebound is affected by a number of factors, such as the force and
impingement angle of the jet. Since the velocity of the material emerging from the nozzle is usually not
variable, the force of impact depends on the distance between the nozzle and the substrate surface, and
on the angle of incidence. If this distance is too short, it will not be possible to build up a layer on the
surface because the deposited material will be continuously washed away by the jet. If the distance is too
great, the impact force will be too weak to provide proper adhesion and compaction of the concrete. In
either case, the rebound quantity will be excessive, because little material will adhere to the surface.
Conversely, the rebound is kept to a minimum when the distance between the nozzle and the substrate
surface stands in proper relation to the exit velocity of the material. It is very important for the nozzleman to
maintain this distance precisely.
Recommended spraying distances:
dry-mix wet-mix
Repair works 0.5-1.0 m 0.5-1.0 m
Rock support, manual --- 0.5-1.5 m
Rock support, robot --- 1.0-2.0 m
The angle of rebound of the mix from the substrate surface is the same as the angle at which it strikes it.
The more oblique the angle of impingement of the jet, the more material will be lost. Hence the nozzle
should always be held at right angles to the substrate surface, except as necessary to ensure proper
embedding of items such as lattice girders and reinforcing bars.
Strength, compaction and adhesion of the sprayed concrete are greatly affected by cavities and porosity.
Defects of this type occur when rebound collects, for instance, on rock projections or in fillets, or when the
encasement of reinforcing bars is inadequate. Such defects behind reinforcing bars are referred to as
'shadowing'. It is the duty of the nozzleman to manipulate the nozzle skilfully enough to avoid any rebound
pockets or accumulations of rebound. Because it is not always possible to spray in the rebound compactly
or blow it away with the jet, the hose-dragger often has to assist by removing the rebound continuously
with a blow pipe.
G8.2.1.1 Layer thickness
If the freshly sprayed concrete is to adhere properly to the substrate, its dead weight should exceed neither
the internal cohesion nor the strength of adhesion to the surface. If the fresh sprayed concrete layer is too
thick, and therefore too heavy, it will break away from the surface under its own weight. In the case of
overhead work, any poorly adhering sprayed concrete layer will fall down. Judgement is required in the
14
case of vertical or sharply inclined surfaces. A thick, and hence excessively heavy, sprayed concrete layer
applied to such a surface will often sag only slightly, without falling off, because a self-supporting effect
acts in such cases. Serious defects of this type can easily go unnoticed. They are discovered only after
the sprayed concrete has hardened, when the material is checked for cavities and lack of bond with the
hammer.
The use of a sprayed concrete set accelerating admixture allows a thicker layer to be applied in each pass.
G8.2.1.2 Spraying with steel fibres
Depending on the required final thickness, the application of steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete may
be undertaken in two phases to minimise rebound, the first phase being a 50 mm layer. For repair works
refer to 8.2.6.
G8.2.1.3 Measurement of rebound
When required, the rebound is checked by spraying a controlled volume of at least 0.75 m
3
and collecting
the rebound. A ground area of 40-50 m
2
is covered with plastic sheeting. The sprayed concrete should be
placed in one continuous operation, with a total thickness of 40-60 mm, built up in two layers of 20-30 mm.
At the beginning of the test the pump or gun hopper must be full, and the level in the hopper must be
identical at the end of spraying. The rebound is collected from the plastic sheeting and weighed. Its
quantity is recorded as the percentage by mass of the total sprayed concrete.
G8.2.6 Spraying for repair works
Recommended thickness of sprayed layers - without the use of any type of set accelerating admixture:
- Behind and around reinforcing bars:
Overhead faces: 10 mm past the rebars
Vertical faces: 20 mm past the rebars
- Additional layers or where there are no rebars:
Overhead faces: max. 30 mm
Vertical faces: max. 50 mm
Prior to the application of subsequent layers the sprayed concrete of the previous layer should have
reached adequate strength. At a temperature of approx. 20C and without the use of any type of sprayed
concrete set accelerating admixture, the waiting time will be approx. 3-5 hours.
Due to the increased risk of not completely encased reinforcement and poorly compacted concrete, steel
fibres should not be used when spraying behind rebars, and special precautions should be taken when
using other types of fibres. Steel fibres may be used when spraying outside rebars.
Reinforcement cover should be controlled either by establishing a reference plane prior to spraying or by
the use of a cover meter after spraying. The method should be as agreed by the Engineer.
Where finishing and alignment control is required, this should be carried out using a screed-board or piano
wires.
For structures subject to chloride exposure, i.e. sea water or road salting, the curing agent should be
capable of forming a barrier against chloride intrusion.
G8.2.7 Proficiency of operators
Nozzlemen shall hold relevant certificates of competence issued by the Contractor or written evidence of
previous satisfactory work indicating compliance with CITB-NVQ scheme (UK), ACI 506.3R-82 (USA) or
similar national standards to the approval of the Engineer.
15
G8.3 Equipment
G8.3.2 Wet-mix process
Pumping equipment should ensure the continuous conveyance of base concrete with minimal pulsation.
The recommended pump types are as follows:
Piston
Mono
Peristaltic
In general, the air compressor should have a capacity of 1 m
3
/min at 700 kPa (7 bar) for each m
3
/hr of
spraying capacity and its supply rate should be controlled by the operator.
The compressed air demand may increase by as much as 50% depending on how well lines and nozzle
are suited to the spraying capacity. Too low an air flow results in low spraying velocity and hence in poor
compaction, poor density and low strength.
G8.3.3 Dry-mix process
The recommended dry-spraying machines are as follows:
Wheel feed
The feeder of the wheel feed pump is located inside the pressure chamber into which the dry material is
fed. The output is varied by adjusting the rotation speed of the cell feeder and the wheel.
Rotor machine
With the rotor machine, the dry mix is filled into the feed hopper. As the rotor revolves, the mix falls under
its own weight, through a feed slot, in turn into each of the rotor chambers below. While one of the
chambers is being filled, compressed air is blown from above into another (full) chamber. The mix is
discharged into the outlet opening and blown at a pressure of 3-6 bar through the conveying pipeline to the
spraying nozzle where the mixing water is added. The top and bottom of the rotor are sealed with rubber
discs.
Pulsation of the concrete flow created by the rotor principle is undesirable and can be reduced by
extending the hose line and by the selection of the correct rotor type (volume of rotor chambers). The
output is varied by adjusting the speed of revolution and the volume of the rotor chamber.
Common to both types is that the diameters of line and nozzle must be suited to the spraying capacity.
Double chamber type
The double chamber system consists of two connected chambers arranged one above the other, with the
discharge outlet at the bottom of the lower chamber. The procedure starts with the dry mix being fed into
the upper chamber while the bell valve between the two chambers is closed. Next, the feed-opening is
sealed and the pressure in the upper chamber is equalised to that of the lower one. The valve between
the two chambers is then opened, allowing the mix to pass from the upper into the lower chamber. When
this is completed, the valve between the two chambers is closed and the pressure is released in the upper
chamber to permit re-opening of the charging port. In the meantime, the dry mix is discharged from the
lower chamber by a pneumatically driven feed wheel and is picked up by the air stream in the discharge
line.
Compressed air
The necessary air volume is governed by the required production rate and length of hose line. As a rough
guide, 2m
3
/min of compressed air is required per m
3
/h of spraying capacity. The air velocity in the hose
line should be 40-60 m/s. To obtain an even material flow, the length of the hose line should be not less
than approx. 30 m.
For wheel feed the air pressure in the pressure chamber should be approx. 60 kPa (0.6 bar) at free air flow
through an open hose line. When dry materials are added the pressure will increase to approx. 230 kPa
(2.3 bar). As a rough guide, the air pressure should be increased by approx.:
2.2 kPa (0.022 bar) per m for horizontal conveying
4.5 kPa (0.045 bar) per m for vertical conveying
The maximum conveying distance is approx. 500 m for horizontal lines and 100 m for vertical lines.
16
Mixing water
The water is added at the nozzle at a pressure of 400-4000 kPa (4-40 bar), at somewhat more than the
theoretical minimum water/cement ratio necessary for hydration of the cement.
Recommended line and nozzle dimensions
Sprayed concrete Line and nozzle Compressed air
output diameter requirement
[m
3
/hr] [mm] [m
3
/min]
1 25 3
2 32 4-5
4 40 8
6 50 12
9 65 17-20
G8.4 Application of wet-mix sprayed concrete used for rock support
G8.4.1 General
When the concrete arrives at the work location, both the slump and the temperature should be
measured and recorded in the delivery note and on a special form. After interruptions of more than 15
minutes, the slump should be checked before starting the spraying operation again.
The location and operator who is spraying the concrete should also be noted on the special form.
The recommended slump should be between 100 and 200 mm.
Before starting up, a cementitious slurry should be mixed and fed into the concrete hose.
Spraying should always start from the bottom to avoid any entrapment of rebound.
Rock support should always start by filling holes and cracks in the surface. In practice this is very
important, as it stops any movement of the crack.
The distance between the nozzle and the surface to be sprayed should be kept in accordance with the
recommendations of G8.2.1. When reducing the spraying distance, the nozzle should be moved faster.
The nozzle should point to the surface at a right angle to ensure optimal compaction and fibre
orientation. If kept in a wrong direction, this results in a poorer concrete with a low density.
The relationship between air pressure, accelerator and concrete stream should always be observed.
With high dosages of accelerator, the sprayed concrete surface will be 'dead' (no movement because of
flash set); the coarse aggregates will not penetrate into the sprayed concrete surface and will return as
rebound; the concrete stream will be more dusty than normal. High over-dose of accelerator may give
a wet appearance to the sprayed concrete on the wall, but setting is very quick and the surface will look
like glass. 'Shooting' in the nozzle means too much accelerator. The dosage of accelerator should be
kept at a low level, between the limits specified by the supplier. On a vertical wall less accelerator can
be used than for the roof surface.
The first layer should be thin to avoid sagging of the fresh concrete, preferably about 60 mm (max. 100
mm). The following layers should be 50200 mm, depending on the final thickness (and on the type of
set accelerating admixture used).
As far as practicable all sprayed concrete for rock support should be applied using remote controlled
spraying equipment appropriate to particular applications. Remote controlled spraying equipment should
be provided with as long reach as possible and allow the operator to observe the nozzle at all times during
spraying from a position of safety and provide the operator with full and effective control of the nozzle
articulation and other functions.
G8.4.2 Clay zones
(Ref: Norwegian Sprayed Concrete Guidelines, Publication No. 7)
Lesser clay zones may be safely stabilised with steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete in combination with
bolts and strips. The sprayed concrete will then form a strip-reinforced bridge across the clay zone and is
anchored by bolts in solid rock on either side.
The width of the clay zone and possible presence of swelling minerals will determine if sprayed concrete or
poured concrete is more appropriate. If the clay zone exceeds 1 m or runs at a sharp angle, a specialist
should be consulted. If swelling of any significance is anticipated, a cushion of compressive material (e.g.
mineral wool) may be placed between the clay and the sprayed concrete.
17
If the clay zone has a limited swelling pressure, or if the zone mainly consists of crushed rock, it may be
suitable to install reinforced sprayed concrete ribs rather than using poured concrete. The rebar diameter
may vary, but mostly a diameter of 20 mm is used.
The width, thickness and spacing of the ribs depend on the anticipated support stress. The first layer
usually is 100 -150 mm and may be steel fibre reinforced. It is also used for levelling. The next layer may
also be fibre reinforced provided that spraying is not done against rebars placed after the application of the
first layer.
Sprayed concrete applied after placement of rebars should be done with care especially when fibre
reinforced due to the increased risk of incompletely encased reinforcement and poorly compacted
concrete.
G8.4.3 Spraying on rock subject to high pressure
(Ref: Norwegian Sprayed Concrete Guidelines, Publication No. 7)
Under conditions of rock scaling due to high rock pressure, steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete in
combination with bolts is often used. It is important to place the steel plates of the bolts on the surface of
the sprayed concrete and that large plates be used in order to spread the pressure and thus avoid cracking
of the sprayed concrete. Usually, triangular plates with sides of 400-500 mm are used. Sprayed concrete
bonds poorly to steel plates.
It is important to carry out the sprayed concrete application in even layers to avoid shear failure and
scaling. Under such circumstances the concrete deformation energy and plastic deformation capacity is
more significant than the compressive strength.
G8.4.4 Thickness control for rock support
Where specified on the drawings the minimum layer thickness should be controlled by proprietary
fluorescent plastic thickness control markers pushed into an initial sprayed concrete coating. Thickness
control markers should be used at a frequency of at least one marker per 2 m
2
of sprayed area and should
in general be located at points of maximum protrusion of the excavated surface into the tunnel void.
Thickness control markers should be removed from sprayed concrete immediately after spraying to leave
open small holes through the thickness of the sprayed concrete as a permanent pressure relief provision.
Detailed proposals of type, material and method of use of thickness control markers should be submitted
by the Contractor to the Engineer for his approval.
The Contractor should verify the thickness of any sprayed concrete layer by drilling 25 mm diameter
percussion probe holes at any location and at an agreed time if required to do so by the Engineer. The
Contractor should provide every necessary facility to the Engineer to allow inspection of the probe holes.
Inspection holes may be left open subject to the approval of the Engineer.
G8.4.5 Rounding of edges and corners for rock support
Sprayed concrete may follow the contours of the rock surface with appropriate rounding of edges and
corners, provided that protruding blocks of sound rock, still firmly part of the rock mass, have a sufficient
sprayed concrete cover.
G8.5 Scaffolding
Scaffolding should be of sufficient width to allow the nozzleman to be correctly located.
18
G9 REQUIREMENTS FOR FINAL PRODUCT
G9.1 Compressive strength
G9.1.1 Concrete strength classification
Concrete for spraying applications may be classified otherwise than as stated in EN 206, but should be as
close to the standard as possible. Full compliance cannot be obtained due to the specific requirements of
the spraying operation.
In addition to the initial strength potential, the final strength is influenced by the use of sprayed concrete set
accelerating admixtures. The spraying operation itself and the degree of compaction also has a
considerable effect.
The required minimum strength should be according to this Specification: 9.1, tables 9.1.1 and 9.1.2, as
shown below:
40 MPa x 0.8 x 0.84 = 27 MPa (see Specification: table 9.1.2)
| | |
| | |_ conversion factor for in situ sampling
| |
| |_ conversion factor for cube/cylinder specimen
|
|_ requirement for cast cube specimen
The characteristic strength for cast samples can be calculated and evaluated. For drilled cores the required
minimum (according to Specification, table 9.1.1) applies to each sample consisting of a minimum of 3
specimens.
It may be desired to base the strength control on testing after 7 days instead of 28 days. The early strength
depends on temperature as well as cement type, additives and the use of silica fume, and the correlation
between the 7 day and the 28 day strengths should be established in each case. The strength reduction
caused by the use of accelerator should be taken into account during the planning.
Unless otherwise agreed between the sprayed concrete contractor and the concrete supplier, the concrete
as delivered at site should have a minimum strength classification as shown in the Specification: tables
9.1.1 and 9.1.2.
G9.1.2 Compressive strength tests
Compressive strength tests should be carried out in accordance with the Specification: 10.1, 10.2.
24 hour testing should only be carried out where sprayed concrete set accelerating admixtures have been
used (rock support). For repair works and where no set accelerating admixture has been used, earliest
testing should begin at 3 days.
Tests for 1 day strength should be carried out at 24 hours 2 hours. Cores required for 28 day strength
tests should be obtained at the same time as those for 1 and/or 7 day tests and stored in the laboratory in
accordance with this Specification: 10.1, 10.2.
The frequency of coring should be such as to obtain 3 cores each for 1, 3, 7 and 28 day strength. The
testing intervals depend on the type of work and have to be agreed/specified by the Engineer. Depending
on the compliance of test results, circumstances of application and importance of construction, the
frequency may be reduced or increased as approved or directed by the Engineer. The cores should be
cored through the whole thickness of the sprayed concrete and visually inspected to verify that the sprayed
concrete is dense and homogeneous without segregation of aggregate and/or fibre or other visible
imperfections.
For repair works it is recommended to only measure the compressive strength on cores taken from test
panels. In the event of failure to meet the requirements, the Engineer may require verification from a core
taken from the permanent works. Precaution must be taken to avoid damage to the structural
reinforcement during coring.
19
G9.2 Flexural strength
When specified, the flexural strength shall be determined in accordance with 10.3.2. Unless otherwise
required, tests shall normally be performed at 28 days. When the flexural strength is specified for fibre
reinforced concrete, it shall be determined from the first peak strength in the load deflection curve.
The flexural strength shall normally be determined as the mean value of three test specimens. Testing
intervals depend on the type of work and should be agreed with, or specified by, the Engineer.
G9.3 Toughness
Toughness is the ability of fibre reinforced concrete to sustain loads after cracking of the concrete. It is the
most important characteristic of fibre reinforced concrete and is specified either by residual strength (from
a beam test) or by energy absorption capacity (from a plate test).
G9.3.2 Residual strength class
The residual strength shall be determined in accordance with 10.3.3. When the residual strength class of
fibre reinforced concrete is specified, it shall be measured for a specified deformation level, that is up to a
specified beam deflection. (see Figure 9.3.1 and Table 9.3.1) The stress deflection curve shall be
determined for three samples. Testing intervals depend on the type of work and should be agreed with, or
specified by, the Engineer. Unless otherwise required, tests shall normally be performed at 28 days.
G9.3.3 Energy absorption class
The energy absorption shall be determined in accordance with 10.4. the energy absorption shall be
determined on three samples and the mean value shall meet the specified energy absorption for the
required class. Testing intervals depend on the type of work and should be agreed with, or specified by,
the Engineer. Unless otherwise required, tests shall normally be performed at 28 days.
G9.4 Modulus of elasticity
The modulus of elasticity may be specified by the Engineer, particularly in repair work where a close match
with that of the substrate is desirable. The specification refers to ISO 6789 for concrete, but standard tests
also exist for repair materials.
G9.5 Bond strength
Random checking by tapping on the sprayed concrete surface with a hammer, crow bar or similar is a
simple and practical way to check bond to the substrate. However, in order to assess the actual bond
values, drilled cores have to be tested
Testing should consist of one test (meaning the average of results on 6 specimens from the same general
area of the works as approved by the Engineer). Testing intervals depend on the type of work and should
be agreed with, or specified by, the Engineer.
Testing of the strength of the bond between sprayed concrete and rock should be carried out by testing of
substrate/sprayed concrete bonded cores in situ (by a core pull off test) or in the laboratory (by a tension
test)).
The apparatus to carry out the tests and detailed test methods should be approved by the Engineer. Tests
should be carried out on cores greater than 50 mm and less than or equal to 60 mm in diameter. Drilling for
in situ testing must penetrate the substrate by at least 15 mm. Special precautions should be taken that
the core is drilled at a 90 angle to the plane of application in order to ensure axial loading. For repair
works precaution must be taken to avoid damage to the structural reinforcement during coring.
Cores taken for laboratory testing should be cured in a manner representative of site conditions (not in
water) and protected until the time of testing.
G9.6 Fibre content
The addition of steel fibres significantly improves the concrete toughness and may have a positive effect
on the bond between concrete and rock (Ref. Opsahl). The flexural, tensile and compressive strengths as
20
measured in laboratory tests are only marginally influenced provided there is no change in the mass ratio.
Compared to laboratory tests, full scale tests give similar values for the flexural and tensile strengths of
fibre reinforced concrete while it is substantially reduced for non reinforced concrete. The steel fibres
should be kept dry during storage to avoid corrosion and balling.
For sprayed concrete in sub-sea tunnels or other marine environments, galvanised or stainless steel fibres
are used in some cases to obtain extra protection against corrosion. This, however, involves the risk of gas
formation caused by a chemical reaction between zinc and the de-chromatised cement paste. Galvanised
steel fibres may also be used for temporary support in coal mining.
The reinforcing effect of steel fibres is different from the effect of rebars or fabric reinforcement. The main
effects of steel fibre reinforcement are the enhancement of:
The bond between concrete and substrate
The toughness, i.e. load-bearing capacity subsequent to initial cracking.
Polypropylene fibres are little used in sprayed concrete for rock support. They are, however, widely used
in sprayed concrete repair where they are mainly used for crack reduction. Polypropylene fibres are
available in different types. Common practical dosage is 0.75-1 kg/m
3
; mixes with higher dosages are
difficult to spray because of balling and poor compaction.
G9.7 Permeability
Three 150 mm diameter cores must be obtained by dry rotary diamond drilling from each site trial in
accordance with this Specification: 9.7.
For each core the following information should be recorded:
Date of coring
Core number
Direction of spray
For repair works precaution must be taken to avoid damage to the structural reinforcement during coring.
G9.8 Frost resistance
If frost resistance is specified, the test methods and requirements set out in this Specification: 9.8 should
be followed.
G10 TEST METHODS
Whilst the nature of sprayed concrete requires specific test methods, the majority of relevant properties
can be measured by well established methods. The crucial difference is mainly in the making and
preparation of the sample. Samples for all tests can be taken from a test panel sprayed during the works.
Alternatively some tests can be carried out on samples taken from the in situ sprayed concrete, which have
the advantage of being more representative. The option largely unavailable to engineers is to prepare
samples cast into steel moulds, because of the difficulty of spraying a properly compacted sample into a
confined space. Samples must therefore be cut by sawing or coring from a test panel or from the in situ
material.
European standard methods appropriate for testing sprayed concrete are being developed and are
referred to in this text. For work outside of Europe, appropriate local standards may be substituted if
approved or specified by the Engineer.
G10.1 Test panels and samples
Samples can be taken from either fresh or hardened sprayed mortar/concrete, depending on the property
to be measured and its associated test method.
Fresh samples may be extracted from the basic mix, the in situ material or from a test panel. Hardened
samples may be cut from the in situ material or from a test panel. It should be appreciated that the
properties at each of these locations may be different, due to the spraying process. The most appropriate
sample type and location should be used, which will depend on the purpose of the quality control and on
the specimens required for the property or properties to be measured.
21
It is important that panels and samples cut from the panels are carefully labelled and referenced to record
all relevant information (such as location and time of spraying, operative name, mix type and orientation)
and that they are properly cured as small concrete samples are prone to rapid drying.
G10.2 Compressive strength and density
The compressive strength of sprayed concrete is normally measured by compression testing of cores.
Generally, there is no need for special provisions when testing sprayed concrete in compression as there
are suitable existing EN test methods.
Fresh concrete from the basic mix in the wet process should be tested in accordance with prEN 12394.
Take, examine and test cores in accordance with prEN 12504 (which refers to prEN 12356, 12390 and
12394), which could be augmented by examination requirements to reflect the nature of sprayed concrete.
Core samples can be from in situ (preferred method as most representative) or from test panels.
It should be noted that the prEN 12504 standard has moved away from the use of conversion factors for
h/d ratios between 1 and 2 (as given in Table 10.2.1) and states that the preferred h/d ratios should either
be 1.0 (for comparison with cube strengths) or 2.0 (for comparison with cylinders strengths). This is
because of the difficulty in converting cube and cylindrical specimen strengths due to the complex effects
of samples size, h/d ratio, aggregate size and strength level. It is therefore recommended that a decision
should be made at the start of a contract as to the type of comparison (i.e. to cube or cylinder strength) and
core samples cut to the appropriate length for an h/d of 1.0 or 2.0 respectively. Note that relatively thin
layers may restrict choice to a cube comparison, depending on the choice of preferred core diameter. It
may be desirable in some circumstances to allow sawn specimens that meet the requirements of prEN
12356.
Early compressive strengths (30 min to 12 hours) are frequently specified in tunnelling and mining
applications and in deep excavations in unstable ground. Measurement of early strength is often of
interest in accelerated concrete and two methods are used, one a penetration needle test (eg Meyco) for
strengths up to 1.0 MPa and the other a bolt-driving test (eg Hilti) for strengths in the range 1-15 MPa. A
correlation may be found between the measured penetration or force and compressive strength, although
the relationship may be unique to each mix and must be determined during pre-construction testing.
Density should always be measured routinely using the hardened samples for compressive strengths.
Cored samples should always be inspected thoroughly to confirm the quality of the application.
G10.3 Flexural strength and residual strength
Sprayed concrete is often subjected to flexural loading in service, and therefore flexural strengths are
frequently determined by performing standard beam tests on specimens cut from a test panel. Flexural
strength is an indirect measurement of a concrete's tensile strength, as direct measurement of a concretes
tensile strength is difficult (though a core pull-off test can be used in situ).
Steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete is usually tested for toughness, in addition to flexural strength. The
EFNARC test method covers both properties and the latter is based on a residual strength concept i.e. the
post-crack stress and pre-defined values of beam mid-span deflection.
G10.3.1 Testing arrangement
A fibre reinforced prism specimen, sawn from a test panel in accordance with Section 10.1, is subject to a
bending moment by the application of load through upper and lower rollers under deflection control to
obtain its load/deflection response (the latter exclusive of non-bending deformations). The flexural strength
and residual strength class are determined from the load/deflection curve.
The test specimens are sawn prisms, cut from sprayed panels as shown in Figure 10.3.1 and should be
prepared to meet the requirements of prEN 12356. The bottom uncut mould face should be identified on
the specimen (indicating the direction of spraying). Beams are tested with the bottom uncut moulded face
in tension, unless otherwise specified.
Bending deflection, excluding any support deformations and twist, is measured by means of an electronic
transducer mounted at mid-span to a yoke that is held to the beam at mid-height of the beam (the neutral
axis) and directly over the supports. The testing machine is controlled from the transducer in order to load
the specimen at a constant rate of deflection at the mid span of the beam. The load-deflection curve is
22
continuously recorded or logged and where two transducers are used the average mid span deflection can
be determined.
G10.3.2 Determination of flexural strength (beam test)
The EFNARC test effectively covers the determination of flexural strength for both plain and fibre
reinforced sprayed concretes, using the testing arrangement and procedure for residual strength testing
under deflection control. Unlike ASTM C1018, no distinction is made between the so-called first crack
and peak flexural strengths. The EFNARC test method identifies a first peak strength (within a 0.1 mm
deflection band that limits the maximum value of the first peak load (P
0.1
) in the case of fibre concretes with
a large yield plateau). It is assumed that designers will work to this first-peak strength with an appropriate
factor of safety, either on the loading (ultimate limit state) or the flexural strength (serviceability limit state
at working loads).
In the case of a plain sprayed concrete it may be more appropriate to conduct a test in accordance with
the standard method for the modulus of rupture of plain concrete, prEN 12359 Testing Concrete -
Determination of flexural strength of test specimens. This method will give flexural strength values that are
comparable to other conventionally cast concretes, whereas in the EFNARC test the values are not
directly comparable because of the different span/depth ratio and load control which are known to
influence the specimen behaviour. It should be noted that the prEN 12359 standard allows sawn
specimens that meet tolerances of prEN 12356, but no method stated of achieving this is given and they
may be too demanding for sprayed concrete applications.
G10.3.3 Determination of residual strength class (beam test)
The test requires the specimen to be loaded at a constant rate of central bending deflection of the beam,
which requires a feedback loop in the control system. It is important that this is adhered to because if
crosshead control (as opposed to central deflection control) is used, the machine is able to dissipate stored
strain energy into the specimen as it freely cracks and deflects, and so the shape of the load deflection
curve is dependent on machine stiffness.
There are five residual strength classes for sprayed concrete which are defined from the shape of the
beam stress/deflection curve, and at least two of the three beams must maintain a flexural stress on, or
above, the required class boundary up to the deflection limit appropriate to the deformation class and the
third must not fall below the next lower class.
G10.4 Energy absorption class (plate test)
The EFNARC specification outlines a plate test designed to determine the absorbed energy from the
load/deformation curve as a measure of toughness. The test is designed to model more realistically the
biaxial bending that can occur in some applications, particularly rock support. The central point load can
also be considered to replicate a rock bolt anchorage. This test has proved to be of considerable benefit
and a detailed procedure in given in Annex A.
It is clearly very important that equal support must be applied on each edge. Before placing the plate
sample on the test frame, the supports must be levelled out with a cement mortar or plastic layer.
The plate test is appropriate in the pre-construction test programme to check all the parameters affecting
the steel fibre reinforced sprayed concrete quality requirements as specified in the project documents. For
routine quality control, cube tests to determine strength and wash out tests to check the steel fibre content
in-place should be carried out. The plate test is also appropriate for a comparison of different fibre types
and dosages and it allows a comparison between mesh-reinforced and fibre-reinforced concretes.
G10.5 Modulus of elasticity
It may be necessary to determine the elastic modulus of sprayed concrete, for instance in rock support
design or in repair applications where it is desirable for the repair and substrate to have similar values in
order to avoid stress concentration effects.
The test sample must be cut from a test panel of suitable dimensions. The EFNARC specification requires
testing to ISO 6784, which is particularly suited to thick layer applications involving coarse mortars or
concretes. A smaller prism specimen (160 x 40 x 40 mm) may be appropriate for repair mortars.
23
It is anticipated that the elastic modulus will normally be evaluated during pre-construction testing, rather
than routine quality control. There is a reasonable correlation between compressive strength and elastic
modulus, and therefore the former is usually acceptable for routine testing.
G10.6 Bond strength
Routine testing of the bond strength of sprayed concrete is common, due to the dependence of the
installation on composite action with the substrate.
Bond strengths for rock support will depend on the local rock condition and must be defined in each case.
The test procedure and the bond required must then be agreed locally.
The most common technique is a partial core test in which a tensile load is applied to a steel dolly glued to
the end of the core that has been drilled down through the concrete into the substrate below. Several
suitable test apparatus are available and CIRIA have published guidance on standard tests for repair
materials, including pull-off tests (McLeish, 1993).
The most detailed guidance for pull-off tests is contained in prEN 1542 which is designed for repair but is
applicable to other applications. The most crucial aspects of the test are: the avoidance of eccentric
loading which will underestimate the bond strength; coring at least 15 mm into the substrate to avoid stress
concentrations affecting the bond plane; and careful identification of the failure mode.
When a pull-off test is carried out, three failure modes are possible: failure in the substrate; failure at the
bonding surface; and failure in the sprayed concrete layer. Strictly, it is only failure at the bond surface
which gives information on bond strength. Unfortunately, reported bond strengths often include the other
failure modes (particularly substrate failure), making meaningful comparisons of results problematic.
Bond strength can also be measured in the laboratory from a composite core of sprayed concrete and
substrate, as indicated in Figure 10.6.1. This avoids the often difficult environment that occurs with an in
situ core pull-off test. Again, the most important part of such a test is ensuring axiality of loading.
However, there is no existing or draft detailed method for such a test.
Typical bond strengths for sprayed concrete are in the range 0.5 -2.5 MPa, measured from 60 - 100 mm
diameter core pull-off tests. It might be expected that the presence of mesh can reduce the bond of
sprayed concrete to a substrate by obstructing the jet of material being shot at the surface and also by
allowing the formation of sand pockets behind the bars. There are also reports of reduced bond strength
when using high dosages of accelerator, which is not unexpected due to their detrimental effect on other
properties including compressive strength.
G10.7 Permeability
There are a variety of tests that produce a measurement of a transport mechanism in concrete, the latter
including: absorption by capillary suction, permeation and diffusion. The choice of property and hence test
depends on the climate, local environment, the pore structure and its degree of saturation and the likely
aggressive actions.
Where the sprayed concrete will be exposed to a high head of pressure (e.g. in a water retaining or
underwater structure) it would be appropriate to measure the water permeability. This can be done using
a fixed head pressure cell to determine the intrinsic permeability, or coefficient of water permeability,
usually by the empirical formula of Darcy. There is no widely accepted standard test method, but many
laboratories can conduct such tests on cylindrical core specimens under controlled steady-state conditions
and produce reproducible results. An alternative method is prEN 12364, which is based on ISO 7031,
referred to in the EFNARC Specification. This test also subjects a cylindrical (including core) specimen to
a water pressure (of 500 kPa for 72 h), but measures the maximum depth of penetration as an indirect
indicator of water permeability.
In low pressure environments, such as natural atmospheric exposure, it may be more appropriate to
measure the capillary suction of the cover zone of sprayed concrete using prEN 13057. In this test slices
(at least 20 mm thick) cut from 100 mm diameter cores are conditioned and then the weight gain from
immersion of one face in 2 mm of water is monitored over a period of up to 24 hours. From this data the
sorption coefficient can be determined (in kg/mm
2
.h
0.5
) using an empirical equation that represents a
simplified form of the modified Darcy law for non-saturated flow of water.
24
G10.8 Frost resistance
The favoured EFNARC test is the Swedish standard SS 137244, which is a scaling test that can be
conducted with salt solution (3% NaCl) or water. Cube or core samples are sealed in rubber cloth to leave
the test surface exposed. The latter is cover by the test solution to a depth of 3 mm which is then put
through a 24 hour temperature cycle ranging from 16 - 24C to -14 - -20C. Scaled material is removed
from the sample after 7, 14, 28, 42 and 56 (and sometimes up to 112) cycles, weighed and the frost
resistance categorised according to the weight loss (e.g. after 56 cycles: < 0.1 kg/m
2
very good; < 0.5
kg/m
2
good; and < 1.0 kg/m
2
acceptable).
G10.9 Fibre content of sprayed concrete
The EFNARC specification gives considerable details on calculating the fibre content (in kg/m
3
) from both
hardened and fresh samples. Steel fibres can be extracted from hardened samples, whilst steel,
polypropylene or other fibres can be removed from a fresh sample. The methods involve the separate
determination of the mass of the fibres and the volume of the concrete sample (including fibres).
A specification could seek to control the fibre content by reference to that of the basic mix (i.e. before
spraying). However, this is not recommended because the fibre content in situ is usually significantly less
than that before spraying. Also, calculation of an equivalent fibre volume in kg/m
3
is problematic with dry-
mix samples.
G11 QUALITY CONTROL
G11.1 General
Tests should be carried out on a routine basis on cores or other samples taken from sprayed concrete
applied in the Works. Only for certain specific tests as indicated in the following clauses should panels or
beams be prepared for test purposes.
The Site Trials should be repeated if the source or quality of any of the materials or the mix proportions are
required to be changed during the course of the Works.
Agreed test should be carried out on a routine basis.
Specimens should be tested in accordance with this Specification: 11.1-3. The tests should be carried out
using the following methods:
Test Test method
Compressive strength This Specification: 10.2
Flexural strength This Specification: 10.3
Residual strength value This Specification: 10.3
Bond strength This Specification: 10.6
Durability/permeability This Specification: 10.7
Setting time Appendix 1: 6.3
Fibre content This Specification: 10.9.3
G11.2 Preconstruction tests
The frequency of carrying out each test for mix control should be in accordance with this Specification:
11.3.1.
G11.3 Quality control
The location of specimens to be taken from the Works should be proposed by the Contractor and approved
by the Engineer.
Each core or beam should be marked with an appropriate reference mark and the date and time of
spraying.
25
G12 ENVIRONMENT, HEALTH AND SAFETY
A reduction of the environmental impact and improved occupational health and safety have been among
the priority objectives in the further development of sprayed concrete technology. Sprayed concrete with
alkali-free accelerating admixtures can offer considerable advantages in terms of both environmental
protection and occupational health and safety.
The application of sprayed concrete should meet all health, safety and environment regulations valid at the
place of use. Prior to commencement of any contract a full risk assessment and safety plan should be
established and approved. For recommended forms to be used refer to Appendix.
G12.1 Safety of personnel
G12.1.1 Dust concentration
During spraying, the building-site crew is at risk due to dust formation and the pollution of the air. The
aerosols formed during the sprayed concrete application may constitute a health hazard and therefore
have to be minimised. Dust is classified as an aerosol, as are smoke and mist.
Depending on the location and the point in time, the concentration of dust during spraying is subject to
major fluctuations, which have to be considered in the interpretation of the results obtained. The fine dust
concentration is assessed on the basis of the maximum permissible concentration of contaminants at the
work place measured according to the Austrian Guidelines for Sprayed Concrete, Section 12.5.3. Fine dust
is defined as dust likely to penetrate into the alveoli of the lungs.
The maximum permissible contaminant concentration at the work place is equal to the maximum
permissible concentration of dust which, in general, does not adversely affect the health of workers in the
case of repeated and long-term exposure, usually for eight hours, but for no more than 40 hours a week,
without use of personal protective equipment (fine-dust masks).
Table 12.2.1 Permissible dust concentration based on maximum permissible contaminant
concentration at the work place
Quartz content MAC value Type of dust Nature of dust
% by weight c[mg/m
3
]
Q < 1 6 fine dust inert
1 < Q < 3.75 4 fine dust siliceous
Q > 3.75 0.15 fine quartz dust siliceous
(Ref.: Austrian Guidelines for Sprayed Concrete, Section 12.5.3)
Given the fact that a range of activities are performed during tunnelling which produce varying amounts of
dust, the assessment should be based on the entire working cycle. During spraying, a fine dust
concentration of less than twice the relevant maximum permissible contaminant concentration at the work
place should be aimed at as an hourly average. If personal protective equipment is used, higher limits are
permissible, depending on the protective effect of the equipment. To diminish the dust load over the entire
working cycle, the following measures are recommended:
Dry spraying: use of moist aggregates, machine enclosure, favourable nozzle design, nozzle distance,
water content
Wet spraying with alkali-free accelerators
Mechanical spraying arms
Sufficient ventilation
Health hazards for building-site personnel, above all the risk of skin and eye lesions, can be prevented
through the elimination of highly alkaline and strongly irritating admixtures, such as aluminate based
products or waterglass.
26
G12.1.2 Personal protection
Personal protection equipment should be always used:
Helmet
Goggles, visor
Dust mask (respirator type - when required, depending on application method and conditions)
Overalls
Gloves
Ear protectors
Reinforced toe-caps
When applying sprayed concrete overhead, it is not allowed to walk below freshly placed concrete until
sufficient strength has been reached. The required time span has to be based on early strength
measurements and local conditions (temperature, cement type, dosage/type of sprayed concrete
accelerator).
G12.1.3 Precautions in the event of blockages of material lines and nozzle
Whenever a blockage occurs, the operation of the following equipment has to be interrupted:
- Main air supply: to be turned off
- Spraying machine: to be exhausted and/or shut off
- Accelerator pump: to be shut off
- Air supply to nozzle: to be shut off
- Wet spraying machine: take off concrete pressure by reversing the pump.
Before demounting the line: secure the material lines/nozzle from uncontrolled recoil.
No personnel in front of the hose under demounting or until the pressure in the material line is relieved.
G12.1.4 Safety of hoses and couplings
Only special reinforced and approved concrete hoses and couplings should be used. In general they
should be approved to a bursting pressure equal to twice the actual working pressure.
All connections/couplings (of concrete, water, accelerator and air hoses) should be equipped with
secondary safety fittings.
All couplings/hoses should be regularly checked and tested.
G12.2 Environmental issues
Local regulations and standards for environmental issues shall be implemented and followed.
The following environmental impacts should be considered:
G12.2.1 Impact on soil
In the course of spraying, some of the concrete mix drops to the ground as rebound and is removed
together with the excavated material.
Given the fact that the rebound mixes with the excavated material and an environmental impact cannot be
altogether excluded, a reduction of the rebound ratio is desirable (to less than 25% in conventional traffic
tunnels requiring large amounts of sprayed concrete).
G12.2.2 Impact on water
When used in tunnelling, sprayed concrete may be in contact with rock and ground water. Increased
leachability of sprayed concrete may therefore lead to segregation and long-term impact on draining water.
Since the leachability of normal concrete is very low even after a short period of hardening, an adverse
impact on water quality has not been observed. Thus, concrete qualifies as an environmentally safe
construction material. The same applies to sprayed concrete with alkali free accelerators.
The use of accelerators based on alkali aluminate and/or silicates increases the portion of leachable
materials in sprayed concrete. The leachability of the rebound is also adversely affected.
27
Besides the use of alkali-free accelerators, careful working and a low w/c ratio (< 0.5) also contribute
towards ensuring a leaching behaviour in sprayed concrete similar to that of normal concrete. The addition
of silica fume may likewise have a favourable influence on the leaching behaviour.
G12.2.3 Rebound disposal
Rebound material should be disposed of in accordance with national regulations or requirements specified
by the Engineer.
EDITORIAL CORRECTIONS TO SPECIFICATION
6.1 b) Insert of after choice.
6.2 Should be section 5.1.2.6 not Section 5.5
6.3 Should be: The alkali content of the CONCRETE shall...
6.4 line 2: Should be Section 4 not Section 5.
28
GUIDELINES TO APPENDIX 1: ADMIXTURES FOR SPRAYED CONCRETE
GA1 Scope
Appendix 1 deals only with tests and requirements for special admixtures used in sprayed concrete and
which are not specified in any other EN standard. The objective of the tests is to obtain a general approval
of the tested products for use in sprayed concrete. All tests and requirements are described for laboratory
conditions and have nothing to do with requirements for Works or Works Tests.
GA3.2 Sprayed concrete admixture
Sprayed concrete admixtures can be (and normally are) dosed in different dosing ranges than standard
concrete admixtures. Sprayed concrete admixtures can either be in liquid or in powder form.
GA3.3 Sprayed concrete accelerating admixture
Sprayed concrete accelerating admixtures provide a very early set acceleration and/or a very early
hardening of the concrete beyond the limits of conventional concrete admixtures. In addition to this, they
enable the build-up of layer thicknesses - on vertical surfaces as well as overhead - which without the use
of these admixtures are otherwise not possible.
Set accelerating sprayed concrete admixtures cannot be compared in performance or requirements with
conventional hardening accelerators used for normal concrete.
Among the sprayed concrete accelerating admixtures different types can be identified which vary in
performance, dosing method and dosing rate. Most common in use are liquid products.
The most commonly used types of sprayed concrete set accelerating admixtures are:
Sodium aluminate
Potassium aluminate
Silicates
Modified silicates
Alkali-free products
Other special set accelerating sprayed concrete admixtures.
NOTE: Sprayed concrete accelerating admixtures should be chloride-free.
GA3.4 Thixotropic admixture
A thixotropic sprayed concrete admixture can be a single product or consist of several products interacting
with each other. The admixture or admixture system is added to the sprayed concrete mix in order to
provide thicker layer thicknesses (50-100 mm) - on vertical surfaces as well as overhead - than with
sprayed concrete mixes without any admixtures or without set accelerating admixtures, without sagging or
drop-off.
GA3.5 Hydration control admixture
The hydration control system facilitates the storage and handling of a sprayed concrete mix well beyond
the limits of conventional concrete storage times (1-2 hours), without adversely affecting the hydration.
The addition of the first component prevents pre-hydration. When the second component, which can be a
conventional accelerator, is added, the concrete is re-activated and the setting performance is equal to that
of freshly batched concrete.
Hydration control admixtures can be used both for wet-mix and dry-mix spraying.
GA3.6 Bond improver
Special admixture added to the basic mix of the sprayed concrete or at the nozzle to improve the bond
between the sprayed concrete layers and/or the tensile bond of the substrate surface of the sprayed
concrete.
29
Bond improvers do not adversely affect the bond between layers and require no special precautions in
terms of cleaning/removal.
Some bond improvers can also work as a replacement for external curing. These so called internal curing
admixtures reduce shrinkage and crack formation, improve the degree of hydration and enhance the
permeability and the sulphate and frost resistance of sprayed concrete.
Preconstruction tests should be carried out to confirm the results. The manufacturers instructions
regarding dosage rate etc. should be followed.
GA3.9 Compliance dosages
Hydraulic binder not only means cement, but also includes silica fume, pfa and ggbs (refer to Specification,
4.7 and table 5.3.1).
However, the K factor (binding capacity) is not the same for all hydraulic binders and must therefore be
considered for the calculation of the dosage of sprayed concrete admixtures:
Binder K factor
Cement 1
Silica fume 2 (dosage <8%); 1 (dosage 8-15%)
Pfa 0.5
GGBS 0.5
Example:
Mix design with cement, pfa and silica fume: per m
3
: accelerator dosage, 5%
300 kg of cement (K factor: 1) = 15.0 kg of accelerator
100 kg of pfa (K factor: 0.5) = 2.5 kg of accelerator
20 kg of silica fume (K factor: 2) = 2.0 kg of accelerator
This results in a total accelerator dosage of 19.5 kg/m
3
of sprayed concrete mix.
GA4 Requirements
These requirements are for the purpose of product approvals and are only related to testing in the
laboratory, under strictly defined conditions.
GA5.1.2 Reference aggregates
Oven-dried aggregate should preferably be used.
GA5.5.2.2 Spraying process of control mix panel, and
GA5.5.2.3 Spraying process of test mix panel
No mould should be sprayed in an overhead position. Only horizontal spraying (control mix panel) and
vertical spraying (test mix panel) are allowed.
GA6.3.2.2 Preparation of reference cement paste
The method is a modified version of EN 480-2 (refer to Appendix 1, 6.3.2 - 6.3.2.4).
Particular attention should be paid to the following steps in the procedure:
the cement is added before the water.
shorter mixing times after the addition of the sprayed concrete accelerating admixture; maximum
of 15-30 s. Too long or inaccurate mixing times will result in incorrect setting times.
30
ANNEX A
Sprayed concrete Determination of energy absorption capacity of slab specimens.
(references to Figures are those in the Specification)
1 SCOPE
This specification relates to a method for the determination of the load/deflection response of a
slab specimen in order to calculate the energy absorption capacity up to a specified deflection.
2 PRINCIPLE
A sprayed slab specimen is subject to a load, under deflection control, through a rigid punch
positioned at the centre of the slab.
The load-deflection curve is recorded and the test is continued until a deflection of 30 mm is
achieved at the centre point of the slab.
From the load-deflection curve a second curve is derived giving the absorbed energy as a function
of the slab deflection.
3 APPARATUS
3.1 Test equipment
The test shall be carried out using a testing machine conforming to 4.2 and 4.3 of EN 12390. The
stiffness and control system of the testing machine shall be such that the test can be deflection
controlled.
A calibrated electronic transducer.
An electronic data logger or XY plotter.
3.2 Application of the load
The device for applying the load shall consist of:
- a frame with a rigid square support 100 mm wide and 500 mm internal side supporting the
slab
- a rigid steel square block for loading having a contact surface of 100 mm x 100 mm and
thickness of 20 mm, positioned at the centre of the upper face of the slab (fig. 10.4.1);
- a suitable mortar bedding material to be applied between the square support and the
sample and between the sample and the loading block.

3.3 Deflection measurement and control

Bending deflection shall be measured by means of an electronic transducer, excluding any support
deformation.

The testing machine shall be controlled from the transducer in order to load the slab at a constant
rate of deflection at its centre.


4 TEST SPECIMEN

4.1 A square specimen shall be sprayed and cured in a mould with a side of 600 mm and trimmed to a
thickness of 100 mm (-0,+10 mm) immediately after spraying.

4.2 The prepared slab shall be stored under water for a minimum of 3 days before testing and kept
moist during testing.
31

4.3 Testing shall be performed at 28 days, unless otherwise specified.

4.4 The specimens shall be examined before and after test and any abnormalities shall be reported.


5 PROCEDURES

5.1 Preparation and positioning of specimens

The load shall be applied perpendicularly to the sprayed face; the smooth cast side of the test slab
being on the bottom during the test.

The smooth face shall be bedded securely with a suitable mortar bedding at the contact with the
supporting frame. Also the loading block shall be bedded onto the slab ensuring that it is
perpendicular to the applied load.

5.2 Loading

The testing machine shall be controlled from the transducer in order to load the specimen at a
constant rate of deflection of 1 mm per minute at the centre of the slab.

The load and deflection shall be continuously recorded with the data logger or XY plotter until a
deflection of at least 30 mm is obtained (fig. 10.4.2).

The loading shall be stopped when the central deflection exceeds 30 mm.

6 EXPRESSION OF RESULTS

From the load-deflection curve a second curve shall be derived giving the absorbed energy as a
function of the slab deformation (fig. 10.4.3)

The absorbed energy (in Joules) corresponding to the area under the load-deflection curve
between 0 and 25 mm deflection shall be determined.


7 TEST REPORT

The test report shall include:

- identification of the test specimen
- average thickness of the slab, evaluated to within 10 mm, at the location of the punch
section
- type and stiffness of the testing machine
- curing conditions and age at testing
- load-deflection curve
- calculated energy-deflection diagram
- energy absorption for 25 mm deflection; expressed to nearest 10 Joules