SU05
SU05
SU05
Summer 2005
EDITORIAL _____________
87
Alice S. Keller
pg. 89
116
150
Lab Notes
Two unusual fracture-filled diamonds Large diamond with micro-inclusions of
carbonates and solid CO2 Light blue diamond with type IIb and IIa zones
Natural type Ib diamond with unusually high N content Diamond with unusual
laser drill holes Yellowish orange magnesioaxinite Cultured pearl with cultured-pearl nucleus Dyed golden freshwater cultured pearls More on Cubearing color-change tourmaline from Mozambique
176
189
Book Reviews
192
Gemological Abstracts
200
pg. 172
pg. 183
hat sets a peer-reviewed journal apart from other publications is its editorial review board. And what makes
Gems & Gemology unique as a professional journal is the intellect that our reviewers bring to the task.
Our review board members, who represent many different aspects of gemological research, independently
evaluate submitted manuscripts for accuracy, research methodology, and usefulness to the journals readership. Every
manuscript that makes it to the pages of G&G has been improved by their comments and suggestions.
The members of this panel are dedicated to the advancement of gemology, working long hours with no remuneration. It
is with great pride and gratitude that I take this opportunity to profile the Gems & Gemology Editorial Review Board.
Shigeru Akamatsu is a leading authority on cultured
pearls. A former manager of the Pearl Research Laboratory at
K. Mikimoto & Co. and currently senior manager of its business administration department, Mr. Akamatsu is also vicepresident of the CIBJO Pearl Commission.
Alan T. Collins is an expert in the study of color centers
and point defects in natural, synthetic, and treated diamonds.
A widely published author and frequent lecturer, Dr. Collins
is professor of physics at Kings College London.
G. Robert Crowningshield, a former vice president of the
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, is a legend in gemology (see
profile in the Fall 2003 G&G, pp. 184199). Mr. Crowningshield began writing for G&G in 1949 and was the longtime
editor of the Lab Notes section.
John L. Emmett is a leading authority on laser applications
and heat treatment of gem materials. Formerly associate
director of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Dr.
Emmett is co-founder and president of Crystal Chemistry, a
company specializing in the heat treatment of corundum.
Emmanuel Fritsch has written numerous research articles,
most related to the application of spectroscopy to gemology,
the origin of color in gem materials, and treated and synthetic gems. Formerly with GIA Research, Dr. Fritsch is professor
of physics at the University of Nantes, France.
Henry A. Hnni is a prolific author and lecturer. His
research interests include advanced analytical techniques,
pearl formation, and corundum treatments. Dr. Hnni is
director of the SSEF Swiss Gemmological Institute in Basel
and professor of gemology at the University of Basel.
C. S. Hurlbut Jr. is professor emeritus of mineralogy at
Harvard University. A 1955 Guggenheim fellow, he has written several books on gemology and mineralogy. Dr. Hurlbut
is a past president of the Mineralogical Society of America.
A. J. A. (Bram) Janse, a well-known expert on diamond and
kimberlite occurrences, has been involved in diamond exploration worldwide for nearly 50 years. Dr. Janse is managing
director of Archon Exploration Pty Ltd. in Perth, Australia.
Alan Jobbins has more than 50 years of experience as a
gemologist. A former editor of Journal of Gemmology, he was
the longtime curator of gems and minerals at the Geological
Museum in London. Mr. Jobbins is president of Gem-A, London.
Mary L. Johnson is a frequent contributor to G&G. As manager of research and development at GIA Research in Carlsbad,
Dr. Johnson has helped lead the Institutes groundbreaking
studies on emerald fillers and diamond cut proportions.
EDITORIAL
Anthony R. Kampf conducts research in the areas of descriptive mineralogy, crystal chemistry, and structural crystallography. Dr. Kampf is curator and section head of mineral sciences
at the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County.
Robert E. Kane is a former manager of identification at the
GIA Gem Trade Laboratory and former director of the
Gbelin Gem Lab in Lucerne, Switzerland. He continues to
write on various gemological topics as president of Fine
Gems International in Helena, Montana.
Alfred A. Levinson is an authority on diamond deposits. A
former editor of Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Dr. Levinson
is professor emeritus of geology at the University of Calgary.
Thomas M. Moses has written a number of important
research articles dealing with gem identification and the
characteristics of natural and synthetic diamonds. Mr. Moses
is vice president of identification and research services at the
GIA Gem Laboratory in New York.
George R. Rossman is professor of mineralogy at the
California Institute of Technology, where he received the
20032004 Richard P. Feynman Prize for Excellence in
Teaching. Among Dr. Rossmans research interests is the study
of how electromagnetic radiation interacts with minerals.
Kenneth Scarratt has more than 30 years of laboratory
experience and is one of the worlds leading authorities on
natural and cultured pearls. Formerly head of the AGTA
Gemological Testing Center, Mr. Scarratt is director of the
new GIA research facility in Bangkok.
James E. Shigley, an important contributor to G&G and
many other journals, is also the editor of the new volume
Gems & Gemology in Review: Synthetic Diamonds. Dr.
Shigley has been director of GIA Research since 1986.
Christopher P. Smith is a widely published gemologist who
has performed research on HPHT-treated diamonds, rubies
and sapphires, and gem treatments. Formerly head of the
Gbelin Gem Lab, Mr. Smith is director of identification services at the GIA Gem Laboratory in New York.
G&G appreciates the selfless contributions of our reviewers. These are truly the experts behind Gems & Gemology.
Alice S. Keller
Editor-in-Chief
SUMMER 2005
87
To better understand the yellow diamonds currently in the marketplace, as well as identify possible
changes in their trends seen over a five-year period, researchers at the GIA Gem Laboratory analyzed gemological data collected on more than 24,000 natural-color yellow diamonds examined
in the calendar years 1998 and 2003. These data included color grade, type of cut, clarity grade,
weight, ultraviolet fluorescence, and UV-visible and infrared spectra. Among natural-color colored
diamonds, those with a yellow hue are some of the most abundant; even so, they are much less
common than the colorless to light yellow diamonds associated with GIAs D-to-Z color grading
scale. Since the yellow color is a continuation of the gradation of color associated with the D-to-Z
scale, there can be misconceptions about the color grading, which involves different procedures
from those used for D-to-Z grading. The grading and appearance aspects, as well as other characteristics of yellow diamonds, are discussed to clarify these differences. The authors have also identified five subgroups of type I yellow diamonds, which (with some overlap) are characterized by representative spectra and color appearances.
88
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
reporting on their range of color, color grading, clarity grading, and other gemological properties, as
well as their spectroscopic characteristics.
We will also look at a number of aspects of color
observation and appearance (as they apply to these
diamonds) that are known and commonly addressed
by vision scientists but may not be recognized by
the layperson or even the experienced diamond
dealer or retailer. As with the previous GIA studies
of blue and pink diamonds (King et al., 1998, 2002),
this article describes and illustrates some of these
aspects to aid in understanding how they apply to
color grading yellow diamonds.
BACKGROUND
History and Geographic Origin. Yellow diamonds
have long been recognized and prized among collectors (Mawe, 1813; Bauer, 1904; Copeland and
Martin, 1974; Gleason, 1985). For example, in his
description of several famous diamonds he encountered while in India, the French traveler and gem
dealer Jean-Baptiste Tavernier (1676) mentioned
seeing a 137.27 ct yellow diamond that he referred
to variously as the Florentine, the Austrian
Yellow, and the Grand Duke of Tuscany. As
with other colors, yellow diamonds have come to
the publics attention through the interest generated by a number of special stones, such as the historical 128.54 ct Tiffany (figure 2; see Balfour, 2000)
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
89
90
YELLOW DIAMONDS
* Graded prior to modifications to GIAs colored diamond color grading system in 1995.
SUMMER 2005
YELLOW DIAMONDS
Figure 3. The late 1860s saw the first major discovery of diamonds in South Africa, and with that
came an influx of yellow rough into the market.
The Kimberley and Dutoitspan mines, between the
Orange and Vaal Rivers, were some of the significant early (and continuous) sources of production.
In 1964, the latter mine yielded the spectacular
253.70 ct yellow octahedral crystal known as the
Oppenheimer diamond. Modified from Janse (1995).
SUMMER 2005
91
Collins (1980) suggested that many type Ib diamonds also contain A-aggregates (type IaA) of nitrogen. For additional information on diamond types
and optical centers, see Davies (1972); Davies and
Summersgill (1973); Collins (1982a,b, 2001); Bursill
and Glaisher (1985); Fritsch and Scarratt (1992, pp.
3839); Briddon and Jones (1993); Wilks and Wilks
(1994); and De Weerdt and Van Royen (2001).
GIA Color Descriptions for Yellow Diamonds. A
hue has different color appearances depending on its
tone and saturation (King et al., 1994, 2002). The
color description that GIA gives diamonds on grading reports is based on the hue, and on the tone and
saturation of that hue. For example, when a yellow
hue becomes darker in tone and weaker in saturation, it appears increasingly brown, and this is
reflected in the color description (i.e., brownish yellow). In certain darker/weaker areas of the yellow
hue range, the color appears to have both brown and
green components (as compared to similar tones
and saturations of adjacent hues), which results in
descriptions such as brownish greenish yellow and
browngreenish yellow. Figure 4 illustrates these
appearance relationships within and surrounding
yellow on the hue circle. (For a more detailed discussion of the GIA color description system for colored diamonds, please see King et al., 1994.)
92
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
93
94
YELLOW DIAMONDS
Figure 5. These three pie charts illustrate the distribution of the 24,668 diamonds in the study in several
weight categories. The bottom two charts show that
there was very little difference seen in the weight categories between 1998 and 2003.
SUMMER 2005
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
95
Figure 7. These two tone/saturation charts illustrate the color appearances at two locations in the
yellow hue range: warmer yellow diamonds that lie toward the orangy yellow/yellow hue boundary, and cooler ones that lie toward the greenish yellow/yellow boundary. In each case, the lighter,
more saturated colors are seen in the upper right of the diagram, whereas the darker, weaker colors
are located toward the lower left. On each diagram, the inset chart shows the generalized boundaries
of the GIA Gem Laboratory fancy grades. The shaded areas on the two charts indicate the areas in
96
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
COOLER YELLOW
the yellow hue range in which diamonds described as predominantly brown (not part of this study)
occur. Note that these two diagrams are for illustrative purposes only; by themselves, they are not
adequate for use in color grading. Because of the inherent difficulties of controlling color in printing
(as well as the instability of inks over time), the colors of the images shown here may differ from the
actual colors of the diamonds. Photos by Elizabeth Schrader and C.D. Mengason.
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
97
Figure 9. These Fancy Intense yellow diamonds illustrate four different positions within this color group.
Members of the diamond trade sometimes describe
those colors that lie near the yellow/greenish yellow
boundary (like the diamond on the far right) as
lemony, and those near the orangy yellow/yellow
boundary (as seen in the diamond on the far left) as
golden. Photos by Elizabeth Schrader.
Figure 10. The diamonds studied were relatively
high in clarity, with approximately 80% of the
studied samples receiving grades of VS or higher.
These percentage distributions were relatively consistent between the sample groups examined in
1998 and 2003.
98
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
Figure 11. These two pie charts show the clarity grade
distributions among those yellow diamonds in our
total sample population with Fancy Vivid and Fancy
Light color grades (which represent the extremes in
yellow color saturation).
Figure 13. Clusters of small black and metallic-looking needles and platelets, such as this triangular
grouping, were seen in some of the yellow diamonds.
These inclusions are probably composed of sulfides
and graphite. The triangular form of this cluster suggests that it might also be a phantom plane.
Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 25x.
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
99
Figure 15. This 5.04 ct yellow diamond exhibits rainbow graining, a type of graining seen more commonly in yellow diamonds than in other colors. When this
dispersion of colors remains visible through a range of
motion, it can affect the clarity grade. Photo by
Vincent Cracco; magnified 12x.
100
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
YELLOW DIAMONDS
cm1 region lacks any distinctive features. The visible spectrum is virtually featureless aside from a
rise in absorption from 500 nm to shorter wavelengths. However, some diamonds in this group
showed nitrogen-vacancy (NV) related absorption
features at 575 and 637 nm.
Group 5. The fifth group of yellow diamonds made
up 0.7% of the sample set. It is represented by a
1.56 ct Fancy Intense yellow diamond. Absorption
features related to N2 are generally much weaker
than those in Group 1 for comparable color saturations. Similar to the samples in Group 4, the UV-
SUMMER 2005
101
102
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
DISCUSSION
Weight. With nearly one-third of our samples for
both years of our study weighing more than 3 ct, it
appears that the likelihood of encountering comparatively large yellow diamonds is significantly higher
than for other colored diamonds, which typically
occur in small sizes (see, e.g., Hofer, 1998; King et
al., 1998, 2002). To confirm this, we looked at the
average weight for colored diamonds submitted to
the laboratory in the various hues in 2003. The average weight for yellows (3.23 ct) exceeded that for all
other hues and was more than one-third larger than
the average for blues. King et al. (1998) indicated that
14% of the blue diamonds studied were over 5 ct,
compared to 17% for this study. While these percentage differences do not initially appear great, the
largest diamond in the blue study weighed 45 ct,
whereas the present study included 23 diamonds
over 50 ct and three larger than 100 ct. Indeed, from
our experience, no other colored diamond color
occurs so consistently in such large sizes.
Cut. As discussed in previous studies (King et al.,
1998, 2002), the primary goal of the cutter of colored
diamonds is to enhance the final face-up color
appearance. As shown by our data, yellow diamonds
are typically cut as fancy shapes to help attain the
most intense face-up color appearance. For a detailed
discussion on manufacturing aspects of yellow diamonds, see box A.
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
103
104
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
A-2). Over time, the new shapes and cutting styles were
used on diamond rougha practice that resulted not
only in better color grades but also in better weight
retention, so manufacturing light yellow rough became
more profitable (I. Wolf, pers. comm., 2004). Even more
than the opening of new mines or a mines increased
production, these cutting activities were responsible for
the greater number of more intensely colored yellow
diamonds that appeared in the marketplace.
Figure A-3. Use of a diamond cut that highlights brightness can cause a light-toned yellow diamond to appear
even lighter. The diamond on the left has numerous
small, bright spots as a result of the manufacturers cutting decisions. The one on the right is the same diamond
with the spots digitally removed and replaced with the
average face-up color. When the small bright spots are
removed, the color appearance is subtly deeper (i.e., it
appears slightly darker and stronger). If such a diamond
were near a grade boundary, this subtle difference in
appearance could move the diamond into a higher grade.
Composite photo by Elizabeth Schrader.
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
105
will consider working on other characteristics to further enhance its marketing potential (N. Smid, pers.
comm., 2005). For the less-saturated colors, the manufacturer will factor in additional cutting (loss of
weight), time costs, and current market salability
into the decision to work toward the highest possible
clarity. This approach is followed for colorless to
near-colorless diamonds as well. It is much more
likely for a manufacturer to try, when possible, to
achieve a Flawless grade on a D color diamond
than on a K color (N. Smid, pers. comm., 2005).
Inclusions. Given that the vast majority of the yellow diamonds in our sample group were type Ia, it
is not surprising that their inclusions appeared to be
the same as those encountered in diamonds on the
D-to-Z scale (Koivula, 2000). Since the composition
of these diamonds is essentially the same as those
on the D-to-Z scale (differing only in concentration
of defects), such a continuity of appearance would
be expected.
Over the years, we have tracked the frequency
with which pinpoint or small cloud-like inclusions
occur toward the center of large (over 30 ct) diamonds
submitted to the lab. A brief review of some of our
historic records indicated that they were observed in
more than half of 29 yellow diamonds weighing
between 50 and 60 ct. The reason for this centrally
located feature is not known, although these inclusions may represent growth conditions similar to
those of symmetrical micro-inclusion clouds seen
in other diamonds (see, e.g., Crowningshield, 1965).
In our experience with yellow diamonds, the cloudlike inclusions may be distributed randomly throughout a stone, or they may follow specific growth sectors; in particular, cubic growth sectors {100} tend to
contain more clouds than any other sector (see, e.g.,
Wang and Mayerson, 2002). Occasionally, the clouds
are very obvious and can affect the color appearance
as well as the clarity grade. Although little is known
about the chemistry and phase relations of the tiny
clouds, with few exceptions high levels of infraredactive hydrogen (see below) were commonly detected
by infrared spectroscopy in the regions where these
clouds were concentrated.
Color Zoning. To see if there was a relationship
between our overall findings (8% of the samples
exhibited color zoning) and the diamond type
groups, we examined our subset of 10,399 diamonds
for which type spectra were obtained. Most (92.3%)
of our type Ia yellow study diamonds (Group 1) did
106
YELLOW DIAMONDS
not exhibit noticeable color zoning. However, diamonds with different kinds of nitrogen aggregations
(as evidenced by features in their spectra) had much
higher occurrences of uneven color zoning.
Specifically, 62.3% of diamonds that showed hydrogen absorption lines in their visible spectra (Group
2) had uneven color zoning, usually in the form of
brown growth sectorrelated zones. In addition,
65.1% of diamonds that had green visible luminescence (Group 3) showed uneven zoning, which usually appeared as straight yellow lines paralleling
internal graining. The type Ib diamonds (Group 4)
showed color zoning in 56.8% of its samples, most
commonly in the form of diffused zones or concentrated patches of color, occasionally referred to as
scotch and water. Unlike in other colors, such as
type I pinks and type IIb blues where the zoning
tends to form in discrete bands, the scotch and
water zoning has less effect on manufacturing
decisions with regard to orientation of the zoning in
relation to the face-up appearance (I. Wolf, pers.
comm., 2005). Like Group 1, the diamonds in
Group 5 did not show noticeable color zoning.
Ultraviolet Fluorescence. Of the 10,399 diamonds
studied for diamond type, only 75 showed a shortwave UV reaction that was stronger than the longwave reaction. Perhaps most interesting was that 58
(77.3%) of these diamonds were type Ib. While not a
conclusive test, this observation may be helpful to
the diamantaire who does not have access to sophisticated equipment but wishes to have an indication
of diamond type.
Spectrometry and Diamond Type Groups. As noted
earlier, the yellow color observed in natural diamond is mainly a result of nitrogen, the most common impurity found in this gem. Both aggregated
and isolated forms of nitrogen within the diamonds
lattice are responsible for the unique absorption features in the blue portion of the visible spectrum,
which in turn give rise to the yellow coloration.
Variations in nitrogen aggregation that begin during
diamond formation (as well as the addition of other
trace impurities and other defects) lead to the differences seen in nitrogen-related spectral features.
The complex stages of nitrogen aggregation in
diamond take place over geologic time at high pressures and high temperatures within the earth.
During the initial stages of growth, nitrogen atoms
may substitute for single carbon atoms within the
diamond lattice. Diamonds containing isolated
SUMMER 2005
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
107
Figure 19. While there are overlapping color appearances among the five spectral groups of yellow
diamonds identified in our study, some areas are
more representative of each particular group than
the others. This generalized tone/saturation chart
(with the fancy grades for yellow diamonds overlaid) illustrates the most common areas in which
the diamonds in the five groups occur.
108
YELLOW DIAMONDS
ble for the strongly saturated, warmer yellow typical of these diamonds. Such golden color appearances are often associated with grades of Fancy
Vivid and Fancy Deep yellow.
Color Appearance Transitions. As mentioned
above, unlike other colors, the initial colored diamond grade associated with yellow is Fancy Light
(again, see figure 7). The grade descriptions of Faint,
Very Light, and Light are part of the D-to-Z scale,
and they correspond to the K-M, N-R, and S-Z letter
grade ranges, respectively (King et al., 1994). The
transition in color appearance from these D-to-Z
scale diamonds to fancy-color yellow diamonds is
smooth, but the grading methodology and philosophy between the two scales changes abruptly.
A fundamental difference between these two
grading scales is the value placed on absence of
color in one (D-to-Z) versus presence of color in
the other (colored diamond). The absence of
color is primarily observed with the diamond in
the table-down position, whereas the presence of
color is only judged in the face-up position (King
et al., 1994).
As the depth of color increases for diamonds on
the D-to-Z scale, the role of face-up observation (in
addition to table-down viewing) also increases in
importance during grading. The transition boundary
between the D-to-Z scale and a fancy-color grid is
the Z grade. At this location, face-up appearance
becomes the determining factor in assigning the
color grade (i.e., a diamond must have a stronger
face-up color appearance than the Z master to be
considered a fancy color regardless of the bodycolor
observed table down; figure 20).
Not only does methodology differ between these
approaches, but the ranges of tone and saturation
associated with a given grade are quite different as
well. Grade ranges for fancy-color diamonds are significantly broader in both tone and saturation
attributes than those on the D-to-Z scale.
In past observations, we have noted that some
yellow color appearance transitions are more common than others, and this was supported by our
data. The most common transition is throughout
the saturation range rather than throughout tone or
both tone and saturation. This is seen in the breakdown of our samples fancy-color grades as well as
their color descriptions. For example, about 97% of
the diamonds in our study (representative of all diamonds in the yellow hue range submitted to the lab
for 1998 and 2003) were Fancy Light, Fancy, Fancy
SUMMER 2005
Figure 20. The transition from the D-to-Z scale to the fancy-color diamond scale for yellow diamonds is
greatly affected by the cutters ability to concentrate and intensify the face-up color, since it becomes the
factor in determining the grade (not the bodycolor seen table down). In the diagram on the left, the X
marks the location of a yellow diamond that lies near the end of the D-to-Z scale. The shaded area illustrates the range of potential tones and saturations and, in this case, grades the diamond could receive
depending on how well the cutter was able to intensify the perceived face-up color. This is illustrated by the
two yellow diamonds on the right. When observed table-down (top), both have a similar bodycolor.
However, when the same diamonds are observed face-up (bottom), the differences in appearance are obvious. While the table-down bodycolor of these two diamonds placed them near the end of the D-to-Z scale,
their face-up appearances resulted in the one on the left being placed on the D-to-Z scale and the other
being graded as a fancy color. Photos by Elizabeth Schrader.
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
109
110
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
Figure 23. Yellow diamonds that lie near the yellow/greenish yellow boundary may appear less saturated if compared to a yellow diamond of similar
strength that lies near the yellow/orangy yellow
boundary. The two Fancy Intense yellow diamonds
seen here are of similar saturation in GIAs grading
system. To the inexperienced observer, however,
the cooler yellow diamond on the right might
appear weaker than the warmer one on the left.
Photos by Elizabeth Schrader and C.D. Mengason.
Bracketing. Thorough bracketing of the characteristic color with color references of known location
is crucial to understanding the grading of a colored
diamond. This process allows the observer to
understand the colors location in color space and the
description related to that location. Without that
understanding, proper evaluations may be lacking.
For example, a diamond that appears darker and
weaker when compared to lighter, stronger reference
diamonds (figure 22, top) will appear rich in color
when compared to its darker and weaker counterparts (figure 22, bottom).
Bracketing is also important to accurately grade
yellow diamonds of similar tone and saturation but
at opposite ends of the hue range. The appearance of
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
111
112
YELLOW DIAMONDS
marketplace is the occasional need to make a general assessment of a diamonds color while it is in a
jewelry mounting. The appearance of yellow diamonds may be influenced by jewelry mountings to
various degrees, as the color of the metal (especially
yellow gold) can affect the apparent color of the diamond. It is important to keep this in mind when
making color comparisons. At the laboratory, we
follow our standard grading methodology when
grading colored diamonds mounted in jewelry, but
we assign a more generalized, multiple grade range
for the diamond. Figure 26 shows a loose diamond
that was near the Y-Z, Light yellow/Fancy Light
yellow grade boundary before it was mounted (top)
in an 18K gold ring (bottom). The color appearance
of the diamond when mounted was well within the
Fancy yellow range; depending on the cut, this
effect can be more or less pronounced.
Figure 26. The color of most yellow diamonds may
appear noticeably darker and stronger when set in a
mounting. The diamond on the left in the top image is
near the Y-Z, Light yellow/Fancy Light yellow boundary and is shown next to a Fancy yellow reference diamond. In the bottom image, the larger diamond is
mounted in a ring and placed next to the same reference diamond. While the jewelry designer can use
these effects to enhance the appearance of a yellow
diamond, it is important that the observer be aware of
this difference when evaluating the color of mounted
diamonds. Courtesy of the Scarselli family; photos by
Elizabeth Schrader.
SUMMER 2005
YELLOW DIAMONDS
I yellow diamonds due to the many overlapping spectral features, we were able to establish five groups with
distinct spectral characteristics. We have shown the
spectral relationships between these representative
groups within yellow type I diamonds and noted a general relationship of these groups to color appearance.
An important goal of this study was to provide a
better understanding of the range of color appearances
associated with yellow diamonds. Understanding this
range will help the growing number of traders in yellow diamonds evaluate these diamonds properly.
Laboratory in New York, provided helpful discussions and coordination of diamond selections for the various images, and assisted
with the selection and appearance relationships of the colored diamond images, respectively. John Koivula, formerly of the GIA Gem
Laboratory in Carlsbad, provided commentary on the inclusion
analysis. The colored diamond color grading staff at GIA in New
York and Carlsbad helped identify several important discussion
points for the article. Numerous members of the diamond trade
gave their time and assistance through the loan of yellow diamonds and helpful discussions. Among them, the authors thank
Isaac Wolf, Mates Witriol, and Lewis Wolf of Lewis Wolf Trading;
Martin Kirschenbaum of M. Kirchenbaum Trading Inc.; Louis Glick
of Louis Glick Diamond Corp.; Kevo Ayvazian of KJA Diamonds
Intl Corp.; Bruno Scarselli of the Scarselli family; Nir Livnat of The
Steinmetz Group; Mace Blickman of Jerry Blickman Inc.; Nancy
Smid of Safdico USA; Jonathon and Alison Doppelt of Jonathon
Doppelt Inc.; and Ara Arslanian of Cora Diamond Corp.
SUMMER 2005
113
REFERENCES
Anderson B.W. (1943a) Absorption and luminescence in diamond, Part I. The Gemmologist, Vol. 12, No. 138, pp. 2122.
Anderson B.W. (1943b) Absorption and luminescence in diamond, Part II. The Gemmologist, Vol. 12, No. 139, pp. 2527.
Anderson B.W. (1962) Lines and line systems in the fluorescence
spectra of diamonds. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 8, No. 5, pp.
193202.
Anderson B.W. (1963) The classification of diamonds on the basis
of their absorption and emission of light. Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 4454.
Anderson B.W., Payne C.J. (1956) The spectroscope and its applications to gemmology. The Gemmologist, Vol. 25, No. 300,
pp. 115119.
Balfour I. (1997) Famous Diamonds. Christie, Manson and Woods
Ltd., London.
Balfour I. (2000) Famous Diamonds, 4th ed. Christie, Manson
and Woods Ltd., London.
Bauer M. (1904) Precious Stones, translated by L.J. Spenser.
Charles Griffin & Company Ltd., London.
Briddon P.R., Jones R. (1993) Theory of impurities in diamond.
Physica B, Vol. 185, pp. 179189.
Bursill L.A., Glaisher R.W. (1985) Aggregation and dissolution of
small and extended defect structures in Type Ia diamond.
American Mineralogist, Vol. 70, pp. 608618.
Cassedanne J.P. (1989) Diamonds in Brazil. Mineralogical Record,
Vol. 20, No. 5, pp. 325336.
Clark C.D., Ditchburn R.W., Dyer H.B. (1956a) The absorption
spectra of natural and irradiated diamonds. Proceedings of the
Royal Society, Vol. A234, pp. 363381.
Clark C.D., Ditchburn R.W., Dyer H.B. (1956b) The absorption
spectra of irradiated diamonds after heat treatment.
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. A237, pp. 7589.
Collins A.T. (1978) Investigating artificially colored diamonds.
Nature, Vol. 273, No. 5664, pp. 654655.
Collins A.T. (1980) Vacancy enhanced aggregation of nitrogen in
diamond. Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics, Vol. 13,
pp. 26412650.
Collins A.T. (1982a) Colour centres in diamond. Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 1, pp. 3775.
Collins A.T. (1982b) A spectroscopic survey of naturally-occurring vacancy-related colour centres in diamond. Journal of
Physics D: Applied Physics, Vol. 15, pp. 14311438.
Collins A.T. (1984) Pitfalls in color grading diamonds by
machine. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 1421.
Collins A.T. (2001) The colour of diamond and how it may be
changed. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 341359.
Collins A.T., Davies G., Woods G.S. (1986) Spectroscopic studies
of the H1b and H1c absorption lines in irradiated, annealed
type-Ia diamonds. Journal of Physics C: Solid State Physics,
Vol. 19, pp. 39333944.
Copeland L.L., Martin J.G.M. (1974) Diamonds: Famous,
Notable and Unique, revised by R.A.P. Gaal and J. Taylor.
Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA.
Crowningshield G.R. (19578) Spectroscopic recognition of yellow bombarded diamonds and bibliography of diamond treatment. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 9, No. 4, pp. 99104, 117.
Crowningshield G.R. (1959) Highlights at the Gem Trade Lab in
New York. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 9, No. 9, p. 269.
Crowningshield G.R. (1965) Developments and highlights at the
Gem Trade Lab in New York: Clouds in natural-color brown
diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 11, No. 9, pp. 269270.
Crowningshield G.R. (1994) Gem Trade Lab Notes: Characteristic
inclusions in fancy-color diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol.
30, No. 1, pp. 4142.
Davies G. (1972) The effect of nitrogen impurity on the annealing
of radiation damage in diamond. Journal of Physics C: Solid
State Physics, Vol. 5, pp. 25342542.
114
YELLOW DIAMONDS
Davies G. (1981) The origin of the N2 absorption band in natural yellow diamonds. Portugaliae Physica, Vol. 13, No. 12,
pp. 241261.
Davies G. (1994) Properties and Growth of Diamond. Institution
of Electrical Engineers, London.
Davies G., Summersgill I. (1973) Nitrogen dependent optical
properties of diamond. Diamond Research 1973, pp. 615.
Davies G., Welbourn C.M., Loubser J.H.N. (1978) Optical and
electron paramagnetic effects in yellow Type Ia diamonds.
Diamond Research 1978, pp. 2330.
De Weerdt F., Van Royen J. (2001) Defects in coloured natural
diamonds. Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 10, pp.
474479.
Dyer H.B., Matthews I.G. (1957) The fluorescence of diamond.
Proceedings of the Royal Society, Vol. A243, pp. 320335.
Dyer H.B., Raal F.A., Du Preez L., Loubser J.H.N. (1965) Optical
absorption features associated with paramagnetic nitrogen in
diamond. Philosophical Magazine, Vol. 11, No. 112, pp.
763773.
Field J.E. (1992) The Properties of Natural and Synthetic
Diamonds. Academic Press, London.
Fisher D., Spits R.A. (2000) Spectroscopic evidence of GE POL
HPHT-treated natural type IIa diamonds. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 4249.
Fritsch E. (1998) The nature of color in diamonds. In G. Harlow,
Ed., The Nature of Diamonds, Cambridge University Press,
Cambridge, UK.
Fritsch E., Scarratt K. (1992) Natural-color nonconductive gray-toblue diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 28, No. 1, pp. 3542.
GIA Diamond Dictionary (1993) Gemological Institute of
America, Santa Monica, CA.
Gleason B. (1985) Notable Diamonds of the World. Diamond
Promotion Service, New York.
Harris J.W., Hawthorne J.B., Oosterveld M.M. (1979) Regional
and local variations in the characteristics of diamonds from
southern Africa kimberlites. In F.R. Boyd and H.O.A. Meyer,
Eds., Kimberlite, Diatremes and Diamonds: Their Geology,
Petrology, and Geochemistry, Vol. 1, Proceedings of the
Second International Kimberlite Conference, American
Geophysical Union, Washington. D.C., pp. 2741.
Haske M.D. (2000) Yellow diamonds. The Guide, Vol. 19, Issue
5, Part 1, pp. 810.
Hofer S.C. (1998) Collecting and Classifying Coloured
DiamondsAn Illustrated History of the Aurora Collection.
Ashland Press, New York.
Janse A.J.A. (1995) A history of diamond sources in Africa: Part 1.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 228255.
Kaminsky F.V., Khachatryan G.K. (2001) Characteristics of nitrogen and other impurities in diamond, as revealed by infrared
absorption data. The Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 39, pp.
17331745.
Kerr W.C. (1982) A report on the new Watermeyer split-facet diamond cuts. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp. 154159.
Kiflawi I., Bruley J., Luyten W., VanTendeloo G. (1998) Natural
and man-made platelets in type Ia diamonds. Philosophical
Magazine B, Vol. 78, No. 3, pp. 299314.
King J.M., Moses T.M., Shigley J.E., Liu Y. (1994) Color grading of
colored diamonds at the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory. Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 220242.
King J.M., Moses T.M., Shigley J.E., Welbourn C.M., Lawson S.C.,
Cooper M. (1998) Characterizing natural-color type IIb blue
diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 34, No. 4, pp. 246268.
King J.M., Shigley J.E., Guhin S.S., Gelb T.H., Hall M. (2002)
Characterization and grading of natural-color pink diamonds.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 128147.
King J.M., Shigley J.E. (2003) An important exhibit of seven rare
gem diamonds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 39, No. 2, pp.
136143.
SUMMER 2005
$49.95
(plus shipping and handling)
YELLOW DIAMONDS
SUMMER 2005
115
Zambia is considered the worlds second most important source of emeralds by value (after
Colombia). The deposits are located near the Kafubu River in the Ndola Rural Restricted Area.
Emeralds have been known from this region since 1928, but significant commercial production
began only in the 1970s. As of mid-2004, most of the emeralds were being mined from large openpit operations at the Kagem, Grizzly, and Chantete concessions. Economic emerald mineralization
is confined almost entirely to phlogopite reaction zones adjacent to Be-bearing quartz-tourmaline
veins that metasomatically altered Cr-bearing metabasite host rocks. Nearly all of the rough is cut
in India and Israel. Zambian emeralds have relatively high R.I. and S.G. values, with inclusions typically consisting of partially healed fissures, as well as actinolite, phlogopite, dravite, fluorapatite,
magnetite, and hematite. They contain moderate amounts of Cr, Mg, and Na, moderate-to-high Fe
contents, and relatively high Cs and Li. Although many features of Zambian emeralds are comparable to those from other commercially important localities, in many cases they may be separated by
a combination of their physical properties, microscopic characteristics, and chemical composition.
116
SUMMER 2005
HISTORY
According to Sliwa and Nguluwe (1984), beryl mineralization was first discovered in the Kafubu area (at a
locality that later became known as the Miku mine)
in 1928 by geologists working for the Rhodesia Congo
Border Concession Co. Although initial investigations
did not reveal good-quality gems, Rhokana Co. and
Rio Tinto Mineral Search of Africa continued smallscale exploration work into the 1940s and 50s. In
1966, the claim was passed to Miku Enterprises Ltd.,
and in 1971 the rights to the Miku area were taken
over by Mindeco Ltd., a government-owned company.
The region was subsequently mapped and the Miku
deposit verified by Zambias Geological Survey
Department (Hickman 1972, 1973).
During the 1970s, when local miners discovered
several more deposits, the Kafubu area became a
major producer of good-quality emeralds. Due to the
significant economic potential and extensive illegal
mining, the government established a restricted
zone and forcibly removed the population of this
sparsely inhabited area.
In 1980, a new government-controlled agency, the
Reserved Minerals Corp., took over the major
deposits and prospecting rights to the surrounding
region (Sliwa and Nguluwe, 1984). Kagem Mining
Ltd. (owned 55% by Reserved Minerals and 45% by
Hagura, an Indian-Israeli corporation) was authorized
to conduct exploration and mining in the Kafubu
area. A privatization agreement was signed between
Hagura and the Government of Zambia in May 2001,
SUMMER 2005
117
features and the entire area is typically flat. The average altitude is around 1,200 m above sea level. Over
much of the area, the residual clay-rich soils are yellow-brown or reddish brown with extensive crusts of
laterite, and support relatively thick vegetation.
Access to the area is restricted, although the workers
settlements are located near the producing mines.
GEOLOGY
Regional Geology. The region encompassing the
Zambian Copperbelt and the Kafubu area comprises
a complex assemblage of geologic units (figure 3)
that evolved during three successive orogenies of
mostly Proterozoic age (i.e., mountain-building
events ranging from about 2 billion to 500 million
years ago [My]). The emerald deposits are hosted by
metamorphic rocks of the Muva Supergroup (Daly
and Unrug, 1983) that overlay the basement granite
gneisses along a structural unconformity. The Muva
rocks consist of quartzites, mica schists, and metabasites. Emerald mineralization is hosted by the
metabasites, which consist of talc-chlorite-actinolite magnetite schists (Hickman 1973; Sliwa and
Nguluwe, 1984). These schists are thought to represent metamorphosed volcanic rocks that were dom-
118
inated by komatiites (i.e., highly magnesian ultramafic rocks; Seifert et al., 2004c). Their high
chromium content provides a necessary component
for emerald mineralization.
In the Kafubu area, thick layers (up to 200 m) of
the metabasite are intercalated in the mica schist
quartzite sequence. Deposition of the Muva
Supergroup is dated to ~1,700 My. Subsequent folding and metamorphism, which also involved the
basement granite gneisses, took place during the
Irumide orogeny (~1,010 My; De Waele et al., 2002).
Importantly, with the exception of the Kafubu area,
the metabasites are unknown in other portions of the
1,000-km-long Irumide belt of northeastern Zambia
(see, e.g., Daly and Unrug, 1983; De Waele and
Mapani, 2002).
The basement granite gneisses and the Muva
Supergroup were later buried under sediments of
the Katanga Supergroup during the Neoproterozoic
era (i.e., 570900 My). The entire crustal domain
then underwent folding, thrusting, and metamorphism during the Pan-African orogeny, culminating
at ~530 My (John et al., 2004). This tectonic event
produced the most observable deformation and
metamorphic features in the Muva rocks of the
Kafubu area (Hickman, 1973).
SUMMER 2005
SUMMER 2005
119
120
SUMMER 2005
Fe-oxides, Na-K feldspar, and quartz, with zeolite aggregates occurring along fissures. In comparison, the Kafubu
emeralds typically contain phlogopite, actinolite, and
apatite. The difference in mineral inclusions is consistent
with field relations that suggest the two emerald areas are
geologically unrelated.
The chemical composition of the three Musakashi
samples is compared to Kafubu emeralds in table A-1.
The Musakashi analyses show significantly higher Cr and
V than those from Kafubu. By comparison, they also contain higher Cr and lower Mg than representative analyses
of dark green emeralds from Colombia.
Although none of the authors are aware of any faceted
emeralds from the Musakashi area, there appears to be
potential for the production of facetable material.
TABLE A-1. Representative electron-microprobe analyses
of Zambian emeralds from the Musakashi and Kafubu areas,
with comparison to Colombian emeralds.
Kafubu
Oxides (wt.%)
SiO261.965.4
TiO2
bdl
Al2O312.517.9
Cr2O3bdl0.84
V2O3bdl0.08
FeOtot0.061.75
MnObdl0.01
MgO0.272.90
CaObdl 0.12
Na2O0.161.99
K2O bdl0.27
Colombiaa
Musakashi
66.58
bdl
15.90
1.31
0.48
0.23
bdl
0.73
0.02
0.65
0.03
66.24
0.01
15.70
1.45
0.47
0.27
0.03
0.72
bdl
0.62
0.02
66.58
0.01
15.64
1.36
0.55
0.31
0.01
0.72
0.01
0.66
bdl
64.93
< 0.02
15.60
0.68
1.87
0.05
< 0.02
1.27
< 0.01
0.68
< 0.10
64.89
0.03
18.10
0.28
0.12
0.39
0.05
1.24
0.01
1.12
0.07
SUMMER 2005
121
EXPLORATION
About 2% of the Kafubu area is currently being
mined (i.e., 5 km2), and exploration activities are
limited mostly to the immediate surroundings of
known deposits. The nearly omnipresent cover of
residual soil (210 m thick) is a serious obstacle
to prospecting.
Exploration methods range from witchcraft and
gut feel to the use of advanced geophysical methods, core drilling, and geologic mapping. Kagem has
several highly qualified geologists who methodically monitor exploration and mining activities.
Smaller companies rely on local consultants who
provide geologic interpretation and basic geophysical surveying (described below). Local miners, many
of whom have decades of experience working the
area, also are an important resource. These miners
(locally called sniffers) are experts at locating
emeralds through careful field observations (e.g.,
quartz-rich soil uplifted in tree roots).
122
SUMMER 2005
MINING
The Kafubu mining area (or Ndola Rural Restricted
Area) has been subdivided into several hundred small
concessions at around 100 hectares each. Most of
these concessions are located in areas with unpromising geology. However, many others are in favorable
areas, and a few of these have been amalgamated into
larger entities such as the one operated by Kagem.
The current license system has many disadvantages
(Zambia cranks up, 2004), as these 100-hectare
concessions are too small to support the investment
needed to start financially viable operations, but there
is no system in place to have such licenses relinquished and offered to capable mining companies.
Furthermore, the area is rife with disputes and
lengthy court cases that delay promising operations.
SUMMER 2005
123
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
124
SUMMER 2005
SUMMER 2005
125
126
SUMMER 2005
SUMMER 2005
127
128
SUMMER 2005
Figure 15. The emeralds studied for this report represented a range of color, as evident in these samples
from the Kagem mines (0.555.69 ct). Photo by Jeroen
Goud, Naturalis, the Netherlands.
the Chantete mine, 51 from the Kagem mines (specific pits not known), and one from the Kamakanga
mine. In addition, a thin section was cut from a
light bluish green emerald from the Mbuwa mine;
this emerald, which was not of gem quality, was
hosted by a quartz-tourmaline vein in phlogopitized
metabasite. The other 40 samples were from
unspecified mines in the Kafubu area.
All of the rough samples and 59 of the cut stones
(see, e.g., figure 15) were examined at the Netherlands Gemmological Laboratory (NGL). Twelve
faceted emeralds (0.224.28 ct) were examined at
GIA in Carlsbad; these were cut from rough produced at the Chantete mine during the 2004 mining
season (see, e.g., figure 16).
Standard gemological properties were obtained
on all the emeralds. We used a GIA GEM
Instruments Duplex II refractometer (at GIA) and a
Rayner refractometer with an yttrium aluminum
garnet prism (at NGL), both with near-sodium
equivalent light sources, to measure the refractive
indices and birefringence. Specific gravity was
determined by the hydrostatic method. We tested
the samples for fluorescence in a darkened room
with four-watt long- and short-wave UV lamps.
Absorption spectra of the stones examined at NGL
were observed using a System Eickhorst Modul 5
spectroscope with a built-in light source. Internal
features were observed with a standard gemological
microscope; in some cases, a polarizing (Leica
DMRP Research) microscope was used as well. In
29 samples, we analyzed inclusions with Raman
spectroscopy using 514 nm laser excitation and two
instruments: a Renishaw 2000 Ramascope (3 sam-
SUMMER 2005
129
Birefringence
Optic character
Specific gravity
Pleochroism
Fluorescence
Chelsea filter reaction
Absorption spectrum
Internal features
Colors range from light to dark green to slightly bluish to bluish green; typically a saturated bluish green with
a medium to medium-dark tone
Very slightly to heavily included
no = 1.5851.599; ne = 1.5781.591
no = 1.5891.597; ne = 1.5811.589b
no = 1.602; ne = 1.592c
0.0060.009 (0.008b, 0.010c)
Uniaxial negative
2.712.78 (except one 0.22 ct sample, which gave a value of 2.81)
2.692.77b
Strong yellowish green (o-ray) and bluish green (e-ray); some stones showed strong greenish yellow (o-ray)
and greenish blue (e-ray)
Usually inert to long- and short-wave UV radiation; sometimes faint green to long-wave
No reaction or light pink to red (deep green samples)
Some absorption between 580 and 630 nm; distinct lines at approximately 636, 662, and 683 nm
Feathers in flat, curved, (rarely) conchoidal forms or undulatory/scalloped shapes
Partially healed fissures with various shapes of two- and three-phase fluid inclusions, but typically equant
or rectangular
Isolated negative crystals containing CO2 and CH4
Parallel oriented decrepitated inclusions appearing as silvery disks or brownish spots, depending on the
lighting
Mineral inclusions (this study): randomly oriented actinolite needles, platelets of phlogopite or rare chlorite,
equant to columnar dravite, fluorapatite, magnetite, hematite, chlorite, quartz, fluorite; carbonates (magnesite/
siderite, ferroan dolomite, ankerite and calcite); niobian rutile, pyrite, talc, zircon, barite, albite, calcite,
sphene (titanite), and beryl
Characteristic inclusions described by other authors: phlogopite/biotite, actinolite-tremolite, and squareand rectangular-shaped fluid inclusions (Milisenda et al., 1999); phlogopite, glauconite, talc, apatite, quartz,
and Fe-Mn and Fe-Cr oxides (Moroz and Eliezri, 1999); apatite, quartz, chrysoberyl, margarite, muscovite,
and rutile or brookite (Graziani et al., 1983); tourmaline, limonite, magnetite, mica, rutile, hematite, and
apatite (Koivula, 1982; 1984), and also chrysotile (Gbelin and Koivula, 1986)
Cavities, representing dissolved columnar mineral inclusions
Either homogeneous color distribution or medium to strong color zoning may occur (as planar zones
oriented parallel to the prism faces)
All data are from the present study unless otherwise noted.
Data from Milisenda et al. (1999), obtained from an unspecified number of samples that they described as representative. Other data on refractive
indices, birefringence, and specific gravity, such as reported by Graziani et al. (1983) on a single sample, and the average values given by Campbell
(1973) for Zambian emeralds, fall within the ranges that are indicated.
c
Data from Schmetzer and Bank (1981) on one dark bluish green sample.
b
130
SUMMER 2005
GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
The gemological properties are summarized in table
1, with details described below.
Visual Appearance. The emeralds showed a wide
variety of colors, ranging from green to slightly
bluish green to bluish green with a light to dark
tone (figure 15). Many were an attractive saturated
bluish green with a medium to medium-dark tone
(figure 16). Typically, the color was evenly distributed, although we saw strong color zoning in some
crystals and polished material. Color zoning in the
faceted stones was best seen from the side, when
looking parallel to the table through the pavilion.
Physical Properties. Roughly 70% of the stones tested showed refractive indices of no = 1.5911.595 and
ne = 1.5831.587. Some light green stones showed
values lower than 1.583, and some dark green
stones had R.I.s above 1.595. The birefringence of
most of the emeralds ranged between 0.007 and
0.008. Only one stone had a birefringence of 0.006,
and only two stones showed 0.009.
Specific gravity values ranged from 2.71 to 2.78.
The majority of the stones (78%) had an S.G.
between 2.72 and 2.76.
The emeralds were typically inert to long- and
short-wave UV radiation, except for a few samples
that fluoresced faint green to long-wave UV. All of
the emeralds with more saturated colors appeared
pink to red under the Chelsea filter; the other samples showed no reaction. Dichroism was strong, in
SUMMER 2005
131
Many of the Zambian emeralds had healed fissures consisting of pseudosecondary rectangular to
square fluid inclusions (a hundred or more
microns) that each contained a bubble (figure 19).
These inclusions generally contained either two
phases (liquid and gas, mainly H2O [by inference]
and CO2 [identified by Raman analysis]) or three
phases (liquid, gas, solid), which often looked like
two-phase inclusions because the solids were only
clearly visible with crossed polarizing filters (figure
20). The solids were tentatively identified by optical means as carbonates. In heavily included emeralds, the healed fissures were often accompanied
by minute fluid inclusions, causing a milky
translucency. Fluid-filled tubes oriented parallel to
the c-axis were commonly seen in light-colored
emeralds (figure 21), but they were rare in the saturated medium to dark green stones.
Compared to the abundant pseudosecondary
fluid inclusions in healed fissures, primary inclusions were less common, and were not present in
every stone. They formed isolated negative crystals
with a roughly hexagonal outline and high relief in
132
SUMMER 2005
Figure 21. Parallel-oriented tubes commonly were present in the light-colored emeralds. In this particular
sample, the tubes are seen only in the light green portion. Photomicrograph by H. Zwaan; magnified 100.
Figure 22. Primary inclusions appear as small isolated negative crystals in the Zambian emeralds, with
high relief evident in transmitted light at 50 magnification. The curtain behind the two negative crystals is a partially healed fissure. Only under strong
magnification could a large bubble be observed
inside each cavity (see inset, magnified 250).
Photomicrographs by H. Zwaan.
SUMMER 2005
133
heavily included dark bluish green emerald contained numerous hexagonal prisms of apatite, with
two crystals at the surface identified by microprobe
analysis as fluorapatite. Interestingly, this tiny
inclusion itself contained even smaller inclusions of
actinolite and magnetite (figure 31). Minute opaque
black crumbs and larger euhedral-to-anhedral
opaque grains, which formed skeletal features in
parallel planes (figure 32) and had a submetallic luster, were identified as magnetite by both Raman
and microprobe analyses. In a few emeralds, brownred inclusions with similar skeletal shapes were
identified by Raman analysis as hematite (again, see
figure 32). This suggests the presence of martite, a
variety of hematite that is a pseudomorph after
magnetite.
Cavities that appeared to represent casts of dissolved mineral inclusions with a euhedral columnar
habit were seen in a few samples (figure 33).
Figure 25. Colorless needles of actinolite in a Chantete
emerald appear brownish yellow in this image taken
between crossed polarizers. The dark grain between
the two actinolite needles in the center of the image is
probably tourmaline. A network of fractures also is
present in this view. Photomicrograph by J. I. Koivula;
magnified 13.
134
SUMMER 2005
SUMMER 2005
135
136
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
Representative electron-microprobe analyses of
emeralds from the Chantete mine and Kagem mining area are shown in table 2 (see G&G Data
Depository for all analyses). In total, we obtained 78
microprobe analyses of 15 Chantete samples, and 36
analyses of 12 Kagem emeralds. Data from both mining areas were quite similar, although slightly higher
SUMMER 2005
SUMMER 2005
137
and 38). The Cr2O3 for this emerald ranged from not
detectable in a narrow colorless zone to 0.46 wt.% in
the darkest green zone, with an average of 0.22
wt.%. As shown in figure 38, there was a good correlation between color and Cr content. Compared to
Cr, similar trends were shown by Fe, Mg, and Na,
and an inverse pattern was found for Al. The Cs content, which ranged from 0.05 to 0.23 wt.% Cs2O,
was highest in the outer portion of the crystal.
In addition to the elements detected by electron
microprobe, EDXRF analysis of the faceted
Chantete emeralds found traces of Ga and Zn in
separate emeralds, with Ga possibly present in an
additional sample. This technique, which is more
sensitive than the electron microprobe, detected
Mg, K, Ca, Cr, Fe, Rb, and Cs in all 12 of the samples analyzed. V also was detected in five samples,
and possibly in two others.
SPECTROSCOPY
Typical UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra for Zambian emeralds are illustrated in figure 39. The ordinary ray (E | c) showed bands at 372, 440, 478, 610,
637, and 830, as well as a doublet at 680 and 683
nm. The bands at 440, 610, and 830 nm are broad
and the positions were estimated. The extraordinary
ray (E||c) displayed bands at 425 and 650 nm, as well
as absorptions at 632, 662, 684, and 830 nm.
138
SUMMER 2005
0.95-2
0.95
Med. bG
0.66-2
0.66
Med. bG
3.47-2
3.47
Med. bG
UNOc
UNO
65.39
bdl
15.42
0.08
0.01
na
13.61
0.37
bdl
2.39
bdl
1.46
bdl
na
na
98.72
UNO
r29-7
4.93
Colorless
FUAd
r29-12
4.93
Med.
bG
FUA
r29-5
z01r-1 z08b
z08d
z04c
4.93
0.55
0.91
0.91
0.66
Int. med. Lt. bG Med. sl. Med. sl. Med.
bG
bG
bG
bG
FUA
FUA
FUA
FUA
FUA
z03c
1.04
Med.
bG
FUA
z09c
z43a
0.89
0.98
Int. med. Dark bG
sl. bG
FUA
FUA
65.24
bdl
15.33
0.20
0.04
na
13.57
0.34
bdl
2.22
bdl
1.71
bdl
na
na
98.65
64.86
bdl
14.81
0.63
0.02
na
13.52
0.90
0.01
2.47
bdl
1.36
bdl
na
na
98.59
63.52
na
15.81
bdl
0.04
bdl
13.20
0.58
na
1.48
0.02
0.76
0.02
bdl
0.23
95.65
63.21
na
14.97
0.25
0.02
0.01
13.10
0.72
na
1.84
0.02
0.74
0.03
bdl
0.06
94.98
62.29
na
13.58
0.46
0.04
0.03
12.89
1.31
na
2.36
0.02
0.98
0.04
bdl
0.20
94.20
63.40
na
15.96
0.25
0.06
0.03
13.21
0.36
na
1.26
0.03
1.04
0.02
bdl
0.04
95.64
62.44
na
13.65
0.04
0.02
bdl
12.93
1.11
na
2.77
0.03
0.99
0.26
bdl
bdl
94.24
62.14
na
13.62
0.29
0.02
bdl
12.88
1.05
na
2.68
0.06
0.94
0.25
bdl
0.05
93.97
63.17
na
14.09
0.15
0.02
bdl
13.12
1.10
na
2.45
0.06
1.49
0.05
bdl
0.08
95.78
63.08
na
14.39
0.31
0.02
bdl
13.08
0.96
na
2.11
0.05
1.15
0.04
bdl
0.11
95.30
62.71
na
13.63
0.33
0.03
bdl
12.99
0.93
na
2.90
0.07
0.86
0.21
bdl
0.04
94.71
63.35
na
14.62
0.70
0.03
bdl
13.19
1.01
na
1.81
0.04
1.45
0.03
bdl
0.15
96.39
6.000
bdl
1.662
0.014
0.003
na
2.999
0.026
bdl
0.304
bdl
0.305
bdl
na
na
5.990
bdl
1.612
0.046
0.001
na
3.000
0.070
0.001
0.340
bdl
0.244
bdl
na
na
6.010
na
1.763
bdl
0.003
bdl
3.000
0.046
na
0.208
0.002
0.139
0.002
bdl
0.009
6.026
na
1.682
0.019
0.002
0.001
3.000
0.057
na
0.262
0.002
0.137
0.004
bdl
0.002
6.035
na
1.551
0.035
0.003
0.003
3.000
0.106
na
0.340
0.002
0.185
0.005
bdl
0.008
5.996
na
1.779
0.019
0.004
0.002
3.000
0.028
na
0.178
0.003
0.190
0.002
bdl
0.002
6.031
na
1.554
0.003
0.001
bdl
3.000
0.090
na
0.398
0.003
0.186
0.032
bdl
bdl
6.024
na
1.556
0.023
0.001
bdl
3.000
0.085
na
0.387
0.006
0.176
0.031
bdl
0.002
6.013
na
1.581
0.011
0.002
bdl
3.000
0.087
na
0.347
0.006
0.276
0.006
bdl
0.003
6.021
na
1.619
0.023
0.002
bdl
3.000
0.076
na
0.300
0.005
0.212
0.005
bdl
0.005
6.027
na
1.544
0.025
0.002
bdl
3.000
0.075
na
0.415
0.007
0.160
0.026
bdl
0.001
5.997
na
1.631
0.053
0.003
bdl
3.000
0.080
na
0.256
0.004
0.265
0.003
bdl
0.006
BeO was calculated based on an assumed stoichiometry of 3 Be atoms per formula unit. Abbreviations: bdl = below detection limit, bG = bluish green,
Int. = intense, Lt. = light, med. = medium, na = not analyzed, and sl = slightly.
b
Refers to overall color appearance, except for sample r29, in which specific color zones that correspond to each analysis are listed for this gem-quality
crystal (which had an overall color appearance of medium slightly bluish green). The relatively low values for Cr measured in some stones does not
appear to correlate with their bluish green color. Since the electron microprobe is a microbeam technique, the particular points analyzed on each of
those stones may not be representative of the bulk composition of those samples, particularly if color zoning is present.
c
Analyses performed at the University of New Orleans, Louisiana. Background counts were determined by a mean atomic number (MAN) method
(Donovan and Tingle, 1996). Analytical standards included both natural and synthetic materials: albite (Na), adularia (K), quartz and clinopyroxene (Mg,
Ca, Fe, and Ti), chromite (Cr), rhodonite (Mn), V2O5 (V), PbO (Pb), ZnO (Zn), Bi-germanate (Bi), and sillimanite (Si and Al). MAN standards in addition to
the above as appropriate: MgO, hematite, rutile, strontium sulfate, and ZrO2. Detection limits (in wt.%): TiO2 = 0.009, CaO = 0.008, MnO = 0.005, and
K2O = 0.012. Cl was analyzed but not detected.
d
Analyses performed at the Free University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Analytical standards included both natural and synthetic materials: diopside
(Si, Mg, and Ca), corundum (Al), fayalite (Fe), Sc2O3 (Sc), jadeite (Na), orthoclase (K), V2O5 (V), Cr2O3 (Cr), RbBr (Rb), Cs2 ReCl6 (Cs), fluorite (F), and
marialite (Cl). Detection limits (in wt.%): Cr2O3 = 0.018, Sc2O3 = 0.012, Cs2O = 0.028, and Rb2O = 0.029. Cl was analyzed but not detected. Low overall totals appear mainly due to low analytical SiO2 data.
e
Analyses do not include H2O. Data on Kafubu emeralds from Hickman (1972) and Banerjee (1995) showed 2.5 wt.% H2O, and 2.61 and 2.69 wt.%
H2O, respectively.
SUMMER 2005
139
for which spectra were taken, but the intensity varied between samples. Similar UV-Vis-NIR and
FTIR spectra were described by Milisenda et al.
(1999), and UV-Vis spectra of a light green emerald
from the Miku mine were illustrated by Schmetzer
and Bank (1981).
FTIR spectroscopy also is helpful to identify possible fillers used for clarity enhancement (see e.g.,
Johnson et al., 1999; Kiefert et al., 1999). None of the
spectra we obtained indicated the presence of an artificial resin in any of the stones examined. Also, we
did not observe any yellow or blue flash effects (a possible indication that an artificial resin might be present) in the fissures, except for an apparent local blue
flash effect observed in one stone from the Chantete
140
SUMMER 2005
DISCUSSION
SUMMER 2005
141
142
Figure 42. Data from the color-zoned Chantete emerald crystal in figures 37 and 38, together with two of
the darkest green emeralds analyzed for this study,
are plotted on this beryl composition diagram from
Barton and Young (2002) to reveal the relationship
between composition and color. The data points are
labeled according to the growth zones shown in figure
37, and plotted by color. A clear correlation is
revealed between the depth of emerald coloration and
Cr content. The arrow (from Barton and Young, 2002)
indicates the general trend of beryls from Somondoco
(Colombia) and Khaltaro (Pakistan) that range from
colorless or pale blue to deep green.
SUMMER 2005
SUMMER 2005
143
TABLE 3. Properties of emeralds with R.I. and S.G. values similar to those from Kafubu, Zambia.
Properties
Kafubu area,
Zambia
R.I.
no
ne
Birefringence
S.G.
Distinguishing
internal features
Iron peaks in
UV-VIS spectra
PIXE/PIGE datac
No. samples
Trace elements (ppm)
Li
Cs
Rb
Itabira district,
Brazil
Ural Mountains,
Russia
Mananjary region,
Madagascar
Gbelin (1974),
Hnni and Klein (1982),
Sinkankas (1981),
Schwarz and Henn
Bank (1982),
(1992), Schwarz (1994)
Mumme (1982),
Schmetzer et al.
(1991), Gbelin and
Koivula (1986), Laskovenkov and Zhernakov (1995)
1.5851.599
1.5781.591
0.0060.009
2.69 2.78
Skeletal magnetite
and hematite (if
present)
1.5921.600
1.5841.593
0.0060.010
2.752.77
Abundant opaque
inclusions, such as
black spinel octahedrons; pale brown
to colorless carbonate
rhombohedra; fluid inclusions are very small
and rare
1.580 1.590
1.5741.583
0.0040.009
2.722.74
Numerous parallel
growth tubes (with
remarkable variation
of fluid inclusions)
1.5811.591
1.5751.584
0.007
2.722.75
Irregular color distribution (if present)
1.5881.591
1.5801.585
0.0060.009
2.682.73
Elongate quartz crystals,
parallel to the c-axis,
often associated with
growth tubes; fibrous
aggregates of talc (if
present); rhombohedral
carbonate crystals (rare)
Schwarz (1990a)
Schwarz (1990b),
Zwaan (2001)
Schmetzer et al.
(1991), Schwarz
(1991)
27
Electron-microprobe dataa
References
This studyb
No. analyses
Oxide (wt.%)
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Cr2O3
V2O3
FeOtot
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
Cs2O
Rb2O
Sc2O3
Mo2O3
Santa Terezinha de
Gois, Brazil
114
15
71
61.9 65.4
bdl
12.517.9
bdl0.84
bdl0.08
0.061.75
bdl0.01
0.272.90
bdl0.12
0.161.99
bdl0.27
bdl
bdl0.23
bdl0.07
63.866.5
12.214.3
0.061.54
0.08
0.771.82
0.02
2.483.09
1.461.73
0.03
63.367.0
0.04
13.916.9
0.06 1.42
0.07
0.411.30
0.08
1.392.64
0.10
0.791.93
0.08
bdl
bdl
0.06
64.666.9
0.05
14.218.3
0.01 0.50
0.04
0.101.16
0.03
0.292.23
0.03
0.611.72
0.07
63.365.0
bdl
12.814.6
0.080.34
0.03
0.911.46
1.713.00
1.282.16
0.050.21
11
20
12
580 (230)
1150 (540)
140 (60)
170 (90)
350 (300)
15 (2)
720 (260)
360 (230)
40 (60)
130 (70)
610 (580)
190 (70)
144
SUMMER 2005
Sandawana,
Zimbabwe
Swat Valley,
Pakistan
Habachtal,
Austria
Gbelin (1958),
Zwaan et al. (1997)
Henn (1988),
Gbelin (1989)
Gbelin (1956),
Morteani and
Grundmann (1977),
Nwe and Grundmann
(1990), Schwarz
(1991), Gbelin and
Koivula (1986),
Grundmann (2001)
1.5901.594
1.5841.587
0.0060.007
2.742.77
Abundant thin
needles and curved
fibers of amphibole;
extremely small fluid
inclusions (if present);
black grains of chromian ilmenorutile
(very rare); phlogopite
virtually absent
Fe2+ features only
1.5841.600
1.5781.591
0.0060.009
2.702.78
Many two-and threephase inclusions
(similar to Colombia),
but with no rectangular to square shapes;
common black chromite and rhombohedral dolomite
1.5821.597
1.5741.590
0.0050.007
2.702.77
Commonly show
patchy color distribution; most stones are
heavily included and
fractured (rarely cuttable and only in
small sizes)
Schwarz (1991)
41
176
47
62.663.2
0.05
13.013.7
0.611.33
0.040.07
0.450.82
bdl
2.522.75
2.072.41
0.030.06
0.060.10
bdl
bdl
62.2 65.8
0.02
13.115.0
0.152.05
0.010.06
0.202.51
bdl
2.213.10
bdl
1.082.11
0.02
0.19
64.666.1
0.03
13.314.5
0.010.44
0.04
0.611.87
0.05
2.33 2.92
0.02 0.04
1.542.24
0.010.10
0.04
22
13
800 (310)
710 (320)
350 (200)
350 (130)
120 (80)
6 (3)
190 (210)
370 (390)
18 (13)
SUMMER 2005
145
146
SUMMER 2005
REFERENCES
Aurisicchio C., Fioravanti G., Grubessi O., Zanazzi P.F. (1988)
Reappraisal of the crystal chemistry of beryl. American
Mineralogist, Vol. 73, No. 78, pp. 826837.
Bakakin V.V., Belov N.V. (1962) Crystal chemistry of beryl.
Geokhimiya, Vol. 5, pp. 420433.
Banerjee A. (1995) Investigation of fluid inclusion in emeralds of different geological origins by microchemical analysis and IR-reflexion-spectroscopy. Boletn de la Sociedad Espaola de Mineraloga, Vol. 18-1, pp. 1819.
Bank H. (1982) Geschliffene zonar gebaute Smaragde aus dem Gebiet
der Tokowaya, Ural, UdSSR. Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 193194.
Barton M.D., Young S. (2002) Non-pegmatitic deposits of beryllium:
Mineralogy, geology, phase equilibria and origin. In E.S. Grew, Ed.,
Beryllium: Mineralogy, Petrology and Geochemistry, Reviews in
Mineralogy and Geochemistry, Vol. 50, Chapter 14, pp. 591691.
Boehm E. (2002) Gem News International: New emerald find from
the Chivor region, Colombia. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 4,
pp. 350351.
Bosshart G. (1991) Emeralds from Colombia, part 2. Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 7, pp. 409425.
Calligaro T., Dran J.C., Poirot J.P., Querr G., Salomon J., Zwaan J.C.
(2000) PIXE/PIGE characterisation of emeralds using an external
micro-beam. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research B, Vol. 161163, pp. 769774.
Campbell I.C.C. (1973) Emeralds reputed to be of Zambian origin.
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 13, No. 5, pp. 169179.
Caspi A. (1997) Modern diamond cutting and polishing. Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 102121.
Cheilletz A., Sabot B., Marchand P., de Donato P., Taylor B.,
Archibald D., Barrs O., Andrianjaffy J. (2001) Emerald deposits in
Madagascar: Two different types for one mineralising event. EUG
XI, Strasbourg, France, April 812, p. 547.
Coats J.S., Mosley P.N., Mankelow J.M., Mwale M., Chikambwe
E.M., Muibeya B., Ndhlovu K.C., Nzabara F. (2001) The Geology
and Mineral Resources of Zambia. Geological Survey Department
Memoir 6, Ministry of Mines and Minerals Development, Lusaka,
Zambia.
Cook F.A. (1997) Applications of geophysics in gemstone exploration.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 423.
Cosi M., de Bonis A., Gosso G., Hunziker J., Martinotti G., Moratto S.,
Robert J.P., Ruhlman F. (1992) Late Proterozoic thrust tectonics,
high-pressure metamorphism and uranium mineralization in the
Domes area, Lufilian Arc, northwestern Zambia. Precambrian
Research, Vol. 58, No. 14, pp. 215240.
Daly M.C., Unrug R. (1983) The Muva Supergroup of northern
Zambia; A craton to mobile belt sedimentary sequence.
Transactions of the Geological Society of South Africa, Vol. 85,
No. 3, pp. 155165.
de Waele B., Mapani B. (2002) Geology and correlation of the central
Irumide belt. Journal of African Earth Sciences, Vol. 35, No. 3,
pp. 385397.
de Waele B., Wingate M.T.D., Fitzsimons I.C.W., Mapani B. (2002)
Untying the Kibaran knot: A re-assessment of Mesoproterozoic
correlations in southern Africa based on SHRIMP U-Pb data from
the Irumide belt. Geology, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 509512.
Donovan J.J., Tingle T.N. (1996) An improved mean atomic number
correction for quantitative microanalysis. Journal of Microscopy,
Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 17.
Eliezri I.Z., Kolodny Y. (1997) The isotopic composition of oxygen in
emeralds as an indicator of origin. 26th International Gemmological
Conference, Idar-Oberstein, Germany, p. 14.
Epstein D.S. (1989) The Capoeirana emerald deposit near Nova Era,
Minas Gerais, Brazil. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 25, No. 3, pp.
150158.
Fritsch E., Rondeau B., Notari F., Michelou J.-C., Devouard B., Peucat
J.-J., Chalain J.-P., Lulzac Y., de Narvaez D., Arboleda C. (2002) Les
nouvelles mines dmeraude de La Pita (Colombie) 2e partie.
Revue de Gemmologie, No. 144, 2002, pp. 1321.
Gavrilenko E. (2001) Emeralds of the Ural mountains (Russia):
Geology, fluid inclusions and oxygen isotopes. 28th International
Gemmological Conference, Madrid, Spain, pp. 3640.
Giuliani G., France-Lanord C., Coget P., Schwarz D., Cheilletz A.,
Branquet Y., Girard D., Martin-Izard A., Alexandrov P., Piat D.H.
(1998) Oxygen isotope systematics of emerald: Relevance for its
origin and geological significance. Mineralium Deposita, Vol. 33,
No. 5, pp. 513519.
Giuliani G., Chaussidon M., Schubnel H.J., Piat D.H., Rollion-Bard
C., France-Lanord C., Giard D., Narvaez D.D., Rondeau B. (2000)
Oxygen isotopes and emerald trade routes since antiquity.
Science, Vol. 287, No. 5453, pp. 631633.
Graziani G., Gbelin E., Lucchesi S. (1983) The genesis of an emerald
from the Kitwe District, Zambia. Neues Jahrbuch fr
Mineralogie, Monatshefte, Vol. 4, pp. 75186.
Graziani G., Gbelin E., Lucchesi S. (1984) Report on the investigation of an emerald from the Kitwe District, Zambia. Australian
Gemmologist, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 227234.
Grundmann G. (2001) Die Smaragde der Welt. In D. Schwarz and R.
Hochleitner, Eds., Smaragdder kostbarste Beryll, der teuerste
Edelstein, extraLapis No. 21, pp. 2637.
Gbelin E.J. (1958) Emeralds from Sandawana. Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 6, No. 8, pp. 340354.
Gbelin E.J. (1956) The emerald from Habachtal. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 8, No. 10, pp. 295309.
Gbelin E.J. (1974) Die Innenwelt der Edelsteine. Hanns Reich
Verlag, Dsseldorf, Germany.
Gbelin E.J. (1989) Gemological characteristics of Pakistani emeralds.
In A.H. Kazmi and L.W. Snee, Eds., Emeralds of Pakistan:
Geology, Gemology and Genesis, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New
York, pp. 7592.
Gbelin E., Koivula J.I. (1986) Photoatlas of Inclusions in Gemstones.
ABC Edition, Zrich, Switzerland.
Hammarstrom J.M. (1989) Mineral chemistry of emeralds and some
associated minerals from Pakistan and Afghanistan: An electron
microprobe study. In A.H. Kazmi and L.W. Snee, Eds., Emeralds
of Pakistan: Geology, Gemology and Genesis, Van Nostrand
Reinhold, New York, pp. 125150.
Hnni H. (1982) A contribution to the separability of natural and synthetic emeralds. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 138144.
Hnni H.A., Klein H.H. (1982) Ein Smaragdvorkommen in
Madagaskar. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen
Gesellschaft, Vol. 31, No. 1/2, pp. 7177.
Hnni H.A., Schwarz D., Fischer M. (1987) The emeralds of the
Belmont mine, Minas Gerais, Brazil. Journal of Gemmology, Vol.
20, No. 7/8, pp. 446456.
Henn U. (1988) Untersuchungen an Smaragden aus dem Swat-Tal,
Pakistan. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 37, No. 3/4, pp. 121127.
Henn U., Bank H. (1991) Auergewhnliche Smaragde aus Nigeria.
Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 40,
No. 4, pp. 181187.
Hickman A.C.J. (1972) The Miku Emerald Deposit. Geological
Survey Department Economic Report No. 27, Ministry of Mines
and Mining Development, Republic of Zambia, 35 pp.
Hickman A.C.J. (1973) The Geology of the Luanshya Area. Report of
the Geological Survey No. 46, Ministry of Mines, Republic of
Zambia, 32 pp.
John T., Schenk V., Mezger K., Tembo F. (2004) Timing and PT evolution of whiteschist metamorphism in the Lufilian ArcZambezi
Belt Orogen (Zambia): Implications for the assembly of
Gondwana. Journal of Geology, Vol. 112, No. 1, pp. 7190.
Johnson M.L., Elen S., Muhlmeister S. (1999) On the identification of
various emerald filling substances. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 35,
No. 2, pp. 82107.
Kiefert L., Hnni H.A., Chalain J.-P., Weber W. (1999) Identification
of filler substances in emeralds by infrared and Raman spectroscopy. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 26, No. 8, pp. 487500.
Koivula J.I. (1982) Tourmaline as an inclusion in Zambian emeralds.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 225227.
Koivula J.I. (1984) Mineral inclusions in Zambian emeralds.
Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 15, No. 7, pp. 235239.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., DeGhionno D., Reinitz I., Fritsch E.,
Johnson M.L. (1996) Gemological investigation of a new type of
Russian hydrothermal synthetic emerald. Gems & Gemology,
Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 3239.
SUMMER 2005
147
Kozlowski A., Metz P., Estrada Jaramillo H.A. (1988) Emeralds from
Somondoco, Colombia: Chemical composition, fluid inclusions
and origin. Neues Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie, Abhandlungen, Vol.
159, No. 1, pp. 2349.
Laskovenkov A.F., Zhernakov V.I. (1995) An update on the Ural
emerald mines. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp. 106113.
Laurs B. (2004) Gem News International: Update on several gem
localities in Zambia and Malawi. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 40,
No. 4, pp. 347350.
Leake B.E., Woolley A.R., Arps C.E.S., Birch W.D., Gilbert M.C.,
Grice J.D., Hawthorne F.C., Kato A., Kisch H.J., Krivovichev V.G.,
Linthout K., Laird J., Mandarino J., Maresch W.V., Nickel E.H.,
Rock N.M.S., Schumacher J.C., Smith D.C., Stephenson N.C.N.,
Ungaretti L., Whittaker E.J.W., Youzhi G. (1997) Nomenclature of
amphiboles: Report of the subcommittee on amphiboles of the
International Mineralogical Association Commission on New
Minerals and Mineral Names. Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 61,
No. 2, pp. 295321.
Liddicoat R.T. (1989) Handbook of Gem Identification, 12th ed., 2nd
rev. printing. Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica, CA.
Lind T., Henn U., Bank H. (1986) Smaragde von Sta. Terezinha de
Goias, Brasilien, mit relativ hoher Lichtbrechung. Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp.
186187.
Milisenda C.C., Malango V., Taupitz K.C. (1999) Edelsteine aus
SambiaTeil 1: Smaragd. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 48, No. 1, pp. 928.
Moroz I., Eliezri I.Z. (1998) Emerald chemistry from different
deposits. Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 6469.
Moroz I., Eliezri I.Z. (1999) Mineral inclusions in emeralds from different sources. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 26, No. 6, pp.
357363.
Moroz I., Panczer G., Roth M. (1998) Laser-induced luminescence of
emeralds from different sources. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 26,
No. 5, pp. 316320.
Moroz I., Roth M.L., Deich V.B. (1999) The visible absorption spectroscopy of emeralds from different deposits. Australian
Gemmologist, Vol. 20, No. 8, pp. 315320.
Morteani G., Grundmann G. (1977) The emerald porphyroblasts in
the penninic rocks of the central Tauern Window. Neues
Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie, Mitteilungen, Vol. 11, pp. 509516.
Mumme I. (1982) The Emerald. Mumme Publications, Port Hacking,
New South Wales, Australia.
Nguni B., Mwamba K. (2004) Evaluation of the Potential and
Authentication of Emerald Mineralization in North-Western
Province, Musakashi Area, Chief MujimanzovuSolwezi District.
Draft Economic Report, Geological Survey Department, Lusaka,
Zambia.
Nwe Y.Y., Grundmann G. (1990) Evolution of metamorphic fluids in
shear zones: The record from the emeralds of Habachtal, Tauern
Window, Austria. Lithos, Vol. 25, No. 4, pp. 281304.
Parkin J. (2000) Geology of the St. Francis Mission and Musakashi
River Areas. Explanation of Degree Sheet 1226 NE and SE
Quarters and Part of 1126 SE Quarter. Report No. 80, Geological
Survey Department, Lusaka, Zambia, 49 pp.
Platonov A.N., Taran M.N., Minko O.E., Polshyn E.V. (1978) Optical
absorption spectra and nature of color of iron-containing beryls.
Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 3, No. 1, pp. 8788.
Ringsrud R. (1986) The Coscuez mine: A major source of Colombian
emeralds. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 22, No. 2, pp. 6779.
Samson I., Anderson A., Marshall D. (2003) Fluid Inclusions,
Analysis and Interpretation. Mineralogical Association of Canada
Short Course Series, Vol. 32, 374 pp.
Schmetzer K., Bank H. (1981) An unusual pleochroism in Zambian
emeralds. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 7, pp. 443445.
Schmetzer K., Berdesinski W., Bank H. (1974) ber die Mineralart
Beryll, ihre Farben und Absorptionsspektren. Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp.
539.
Schmetzer K., Bernhardt H., Biehler R. (1991) Emeralds from the Ural
Mountains, USSR. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 8699.
Schmetzer K., Kiefert L., Bernhardt H.-J., Zhang B. (1997)
Characterization of Chinese hydrothermal synthetic emerald.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 276291.
148
SUMMER 2005
MT. MICA:
A RENAISSANCE IN MAINES
GEM TOURMALINE PRODUCTION
William B. (Skip) Simmons, Brendan M. Laurs, Alexander U. Falster, John I. Koivula, and Karen L. Webber
The Mt. Mica area in southwestern Maine has been mined for tourmaline and other pegmatite
gems since the 1820s. Most tourmaline production occurred during the late 1800s to the 1910s,
with occasional finds made from the 1960s to 1990s. Since May 2004, a new mining venture has
produced gem- and specimen-quality tourmaline in a variety of colors. The faceted stones typically are yellowish green to greenish blue, although pink and bicolored or tricolored stones have
been cut. Their gemological properties are typical for gem tourmaline. Chemical analysis shows
that the tourmaline mined from pockets at Mt. Mica is mostly elbaite, with lesser amounts of
schorl, rossmanite, and foitite.
150
HISTORY
Mt. Mica is the site of the first reported occurrence
of gem tourmaline in the U.S. (Hamlin, 1895). Since
tourmaline was discovered there in 1820 by Elijah
L. Hamlin and Ezekiel Holmes (Hamlin, 1873), the
pegmatite deposit has been worked by numerous
ventures. Some of these activities, as they relate to
tourmaline production, are summarized in table 1.
An important development occurred in 1886,
when a large pocket found by Augustus C. Hamlin
and mine superintendent Samuel Carter yielded a
great number of specimens, including a 24 x 5 cm
green tourmaline crystal that was broken into four
pieces. Faceting of this tourmaline produced the 34.25
ct center stone for the famous Hamlin necklace
(Perham, 1987). This necklace, commissioned by A. C.
Hamlin, featured 70 cut stones from Mt. Mica with a
total weight of 228.12 carats, which included pink,
SUMMER 2005
blue-green, blue, and green tourmaline, as well as colorless tourmaline and beryl (figure 2). It was donated to
the Harvard Mineralogical Museum in 1934 and is
considered one of the most significant pieces of North
American jewelry ever produced (Fales, 1995).
Using simple drilling and blasting techniques, the
early miners at Mt. Mica uncovered numerous pockets from shallow workings (figure 3). As these excavations progressed to deeper levels of the pegmatite, the
miners began employing more innovative techniques. During the period from 1890 to 1913, when
Loren B. Merrill and L. Kimball Stone had the miner-
TABLE 1. Chronology of gem tourmaline production at Mt. Mica, prior to mining by Coromoto Minerals.
Year
1822
~1866
18681890
1891
1899
1904
1926
196465
1979
1990s
Event
Reference
Hamlin (1873)
Hamlin (1895)
Hamlin (1895);
Perham (1987)
Hamlin (1895)
Perham (1987)
Perham (1987)
King (2000)
King (2000)
Francis (1985)
R. Naftule, pers.
comm. (2005)
Although the spelling is commonly indicated as Odessa Bowker in the literature, independent research by R. Sprague (e.g., 1870 U.S. Federal
Census, State of Maine) indicated that the farm owner and miner of the tourmaline pocket was a man named Ordesser.
SUMMER 2005
151
152
GEOLOGY
The Mt. Mica tourmaline deposit is a large, pocketbearing granitic pegmatite that belongs to the
Oxford pegmatite field of southwestern Maine (Wise
and Francis, 1992). The Oxford field is spatially related to the Sebago batholith. Pegmatites are concentrated within and around the northeastern margin of
this batholith, and they are therefore inferred to be
genetically related. Uranium-lead isotopic data indicate that the age of the Sebago Batholith is 296 3
million years (Foord et al., 1995).
According to recent observations by the authors,
the Mt. Mica pegmatite strikes northeast and dips
moderately southeast (typically about 30) within
SUMMER 2005
Figure 4. The images on these post cards show mining activities at Mt. Mica around the turn of the 20th century.
A large derrick (left; printed by The Hugh C. Leighton Co., Portland, Maine) was used to remove boulders from a
deep trench (right; printed by The Metropolitan News Co., Boston, Massachusetts). Remnants of the stacked boulders shown in the right image still can be seen today. From the private collection of Jane C. Perham.
SUMMER 2005
153
154
Figure 8. The entrance to a large pocket (no. 7) containing mostly green tourmaline is marked by the
small tunnel just in front of the men in the pit. Note
the location of this pocket within a pronounced bulge
in the thickness of the predominantly light-colored
pegmatite. Photo by Alexander Falster.
SUMMER 2005
In June 2004, the miners opened a series of pockets that appeared to line up with pocket no. 7 and
the 1979 Dagenais pocket (again, see figure 5). It is
possible that this zone of pockets extends even further down dip. Most notable was pocket no. 10,
which contained more well-formed green and multicolored tourmalines (figure 9), including a broken
19-cm-long color-zoned crystal that is probably the
finest tourmaline specimen found at Mt. Mica and
one of the best ever mined in New England (see the
left crystal in figure 10).
From June through December 2004, an additional 18 pockets were encountered. The companys
most important discovery was made in late
December 2004, with the opening of pocket no. 28
(figure 11). This cavity, which exceeded 7 m long,
consisted of three connected chambers. Several
cathedral-type smoky quartz crystals weighing ~20
kg were found at the edges of the pocket. The miners eventually recovered several hundred bicolored
green/pink and green/colorless tourmaline crystals
ranging up to 58 cm long and <1 cm in diameter
SUMMER 2005
155
156
decline (tunnel) into the pegmatite from the northeastern portion of the 2004 open cut, near pocket no.
28. A new loader for working underground was purchased (figure 12), and Jim Claninan experienced
gem pegmatite miner from southern California
joined the mining crew. As of mid-June 2005, the
decline reached approximately 20 m deep and they
had encountered nine small pocketssome with
fine green and greenish blue gem tourmaline.
The crystal specimens produced by Coromoto
Minerals are being marketed to mineral collectors
through Graeber & Himes, Fallbrook, California. As
a byproduct of the crystal mining, the mine owners
have accumulated a few kilograms of gem rough.
Most of this material shows various shades of green
(from pocket nos. 7 and 11). So far, a few dozen gemstones (described below) have been faceted from
broken crystals. As mining progresses in 2005, such
rough material will continue to be stockpiled for
future cutting and marketing.
SUMMER 2005
purplish red), greenish blue, and bicolored or tricolored with green, pink, and/or near-colorless zones.
Most of the stones showed weak-to-moderate saturation and light-to-medium tonewith dark tones
seen in some of the green stones that were cut with
their tables oriented perpendicular to the c-axis.
All of the samples were transparent. In general,
the pink, yellowish green, and greenish blue stones
were lightly included (commonly with no inclusions visible to the naked eye), whereas the multicolored samples contained obvious partially healed
fractures and feathers.
Physical Properties. There were only slight variations
in the refractive indices, which could not be correlated to color. The most typical values were no = 1.639
and ne = 1.620 (yielding a birefringence of 0.019). Although S.G. values ranged from 3.04 to 3.08, the
lower values (3.043.05) were obtained for the multicolored stones, probably due to the presence of
abundant fluid inclusions. Most of the samples that
were only lightly included had S.G. values ranging
from 3.05 to 3.07.
In the polariscope, typical uniaxial optic figures
could be resolved in all of the stones in which the
faceting did not obscure view of the optic axis.
Subtle patchy or sector-like patterns were seen
along the optic axis direction in a few samples; no
evidence of significant strain was noted in any of
the tourmalines.
The gemological properties of the Mt. Mica samples are consistent with those reported in the litera-
TABLE 2. Properties of the 45 faceted samples of tourmaline from Mt. Mica, Maine.
Property
Color
Pleochroism
Clarity
Optic character
Refractive indices
no
ne
Birefringence
Specific gravity
UV fluorescence
Short-wave
Long-wave
Internal features
Description
Most were yellowish green or multicolored in yellowish green, pink, and/or near colorless. Other stones
were pink, orangy pink, brownish purplish red, and greenish blue.
Yellowish green: Weak to strong (depending on color saturation), in yellowish green and slightly bluish green
Pink: Weak, in purplish pink and orangy pink
Greenish blue: Weak or very weak, distinguishable by a slight brown tint
Transparent; lightly to heavily included
Uniaxial negative
1.6381.640
1.6191.622
0.0180.020
3.043.08
Inert
Inert
Most common were partially healed fractures, feathers, and growth zoning. Other features included color
zoning, fine needle-like tubes, linear or planar trails of pinpoints, planar two-phase (liquid-gas) inclusions,
mineral inclusions (feldspar and low-relief grains that could not be identified), and cavities.
SUMMER 2005
157
feathers. A wide diversity of characteristics related to healed fractures were recorded: flat planar-tocurved aggregates of minute fluid inclusions, spindle- and irregular-shaped trichites (figure 13), linear or planar trains of pinpoints, and flat two-phase
inclusions with conspicuous gas bubbles suspended
within fluid. Growth zoning was also quite common, but relatively inconspicuous, forming linear,
planar, or angular patterns (figure 14). The growth
zoning was most prevalent in the greenish blue
samples and the multicolored stones; in the latter,
the growth lines were oriented parallel to the color
zoning.
Other microscopic features included fine needle-like tubes (often in parallel arrays) and small
Figure 16. Cross-polarized light has produced interference colors in this inclusion, which is probably a crystal of tourmaline within tourmaline from Mt. Mica.
Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula; magnified 15x .
158
SUMMER 2005
shown in table 4. As shown in figure 17, the analyses mostly fell in the elbaite field, although a few
corresponded to rossmanite. The elbaite colors
ranged from dark green/black to lighter green to
pink. Most of the pink and red elbaites were distinctly enriched in Ca (liddicoatite component) relative to other colors. The green tourmalines were
mostly lower in Ca and richer in Na (elbaite component). Near-colorless samples tended to have
low Ca and greater X-site vacancies (rossmanite
component).
TABLE 3. General chemical formulas of tourmaline
species found at Mt. Mica.
Formulaa
Species
Elbaite
Schorl
Rossmanite
Foitite
a
Na(Li1.5,Al1.5)Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
NaFe2+
3 Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
(LiAl2)Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
(Fe2+
2 Al)Al6(BO3)3Si6O18(OH)4
= vacancy
SUMMER 2005
159
TABLE 4. Representative compositions by electron microprobe of various colors and species of Mt. Mica tourmaline.a
Pale
pink
Elbaite
Chemical
composition
Oxides (wt.%)
SiO2
TiO2
B2O3 (calc.)
Al2O3
FeOtot
MnO
MgO
CaO
Li2O (calc.)
Na2O
K2O
H2O (calc.)
F
Subtotal
O=F
Total
36.80
bdl
11.02
42.89
0.07
0.12
bdl
0.07
1.90
2.00
bdl
3.33
0.99
99.18
0.42
98.76
Pink
Elbaite
36.78
bdl
11.10
42.46
0.11
0.55
bdl
1.11
2.11
2.01
0.04
3.36
1.01
100.62
0.42
100.20
Red
Elbaite
36.84
bdl
11.07
42.70
bdl
0.29
bdl
1.01
2.02
1.55
0.01
3.40
0.88
99.78
0.37
99.41
5.783
0.217
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.683
bdl
bdl
0.039
bdl
1.277
3.000
0.170
0.471
0.002
0.357
1.000
0.435
3.564
Light
green
Elbaite
36.79
bdl
10.99
41.78
1.33
0.44
0.03
0.32
1.82
2.07
0.02
3.33
0.97
99.91
0.41
99.50
5.815
0.185
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.599
bdl
0.176
0.059
0.006
1.160
3.000
0.054
0.634
0.004
0.308
1.000
0.486
3.514
Green
Elbaite
36.59
0.08
10.80
38.67
4.46
1.70
0.03
0.15
1.43
2.38
bdl
3.18
1.14
100.60
0.48
100.12
5.889
0.111
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.226
0.009
0.600
0.231
0.007
0.927
3.000
0.026
0.743
bdl
0.231
1.000
0.582
3.417
Yellowgreen
Elbaite
Olive
green
Elbaite
Bluegreen
Elbaite
36.63
bdl
10.97
41.93
0.96
0.41
bdl
0.22
1.87
2.22
0.02
3.27
1.09
99.61
0.46
99.15
36.76
0.18
11.00
41.57
1.79
0.82
0.02
0.14
1.71
2.12
0.02
3.35
0.95
100.42
0.40
100.02
36.55
bdl
10.79
39.55
4.35
0.43
bdl
0.06
1.48
2.10
0.02
3.31
0.88
99.52
0.37
99.15
5.801
0.199
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.628
bdl
0.126
0.055
bdl
1.190
3.000
0.038
0.683
0.004
0.275
1.000
0.548
3.451
5.805
0.195
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.541
0.021
0.236
0.109
0.005
1.087
3.000
0.024
0.648
0.005
0.324
1.000
0.472
3.528
5.886
0.114
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.394
bdl
0.586
0.059
bdl
0.961
3.000
0.011
0.654
0.005
0.330
1.000
0.446
3.553
Blue
Elbaite
36.78
bdl
10.83
38.49
5.22
1.20
bdl
0.75
1.49
2.00
0.03
3.12
1.31
101.22
0.55
100.67
5.900
0.100
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.177
bdl
0.700
0.163
bdl
0.960
3.000
0.129
0.620
0.005
0.245
1.000
0.664
3.335
a Selected from analyses of 363 samples from pocket nos. 7 and 28, as well as the two 1890 Hamlin and the ten 1964 Perham crystals. Backgrounds
were determined by the mean atomic number (MAN) method (Donovan and Tingle, 1996). Standards used include both natural and synthetic materials:
albite (Na), adularia (K), quartz and clinopyroxene (Mg, Ca, Fe, Ti), chromite (Cr), rhodonite (Mn), V2O5 (V), PbO (Pb), ZnO (Zn), Bi-germanate (Bi), sillimanite (Si and Al), and fluortopaz (F). MAN standards used in addition to those above were corundum, fayalite, hematite, rutile, MgO, SrSO4, and ZrO2 .
Detection limits (in wt.% oxide): Ti = 0.008, Fe = 0.005, Mn = 0.006, Mg = 0.012, Ca = 0.007, and K = 0.014. Detection limits of elements analyzed but
not detected (in wt.% oxide): V = 0.007, Cr = 0.013, Zn = 0.022, Pb = 0.009, and Bi = 0.016. Li2O, B2O3, and H2O were calculated based on an
assumed elbaite tourmaline stoichiometry. Abbreviation: bdl = below detection limit.
160
tourmaline, and virtually absent in the near-colorless and pink tourmaline. The next-highest Fe values were found in the olive green, green, and
blue tourmaline. Ti correlated with elevated Fe in
the black and green to olive green samples. All
other colors had very low Ti contents. On average,
Mn was highest in the blue and green tourmaline,
and was lowest in all light-colored tourmaline.
Fluorine contents were relatively constant, averaging 1.08 wt.% and ranging from 0.8 to 1.31 wt.%
in all analyses. Mg was present mainly in the black
tourmaline, where it averaged 0.54 wt.% MgO and
ranged from below the detection limit to 1.38 wt.%
SUMMER 2005
Light
blue
Elbaite
Colorless
Elbaite
36.60
bdl
10.87
39.50
3.45
1.11
bdl
0.88
1.69
2.04
0.02
3.20
1.17
100.53
0.49
100.03
36.83
bdl
11.02
42.90
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
1.91
2.03
bdl
3.27
1.11
99.09
0.47
98.62
37.26
bdl
11.10
43.43
0.05
0.20
bdl
bdl
1.79
1.48
bdl
3.38
0.94
99.63
0.40
99.24
36.51
0.54
10.48
32.65
13.20
0.26
1.30
0.09
0.54
1.82
0.03
3.08
0.88
101.38
0.47
100.91
5.853
0.147
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.299
bdl
0.461
0.151
bdl
1.089
3.000
0.151
0.633
0.004
0.212
1.000
0.590
3.409
5.809
0.191
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.785
bdl
bdl
bdl
bdl
1.214
3.000
bdl
0.622
bdl
0.378
1.000
0.555
3.444
5.832
0.168
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.843
bdl
0.007
0.026
bdl
1.124
3.000
bdl
0.449
bdl
0.551
1.000
0.467
3.533
6.055
0.000
6.055
3.000
6.000
0.381
0.068
1.831
0.036
0.322
0.361
2.999
0.015
0.586
0.007
0.393
1.000
0.589
3.411
Colorless
Rossmanite
Black
Schorl
Black
Foitite
36.36
0.07
10.45
34.77
12.54
0.63
bdl
bdl
0.52
0.92
bdl
3.19
0.88
100.32
0.37
99.95
6.046
0.000
6.046
3.000
6.000
0.814
0.008
1.743
0.088
bdl
0.346
3.000
bdl
0.298
bdl
0.702
1.000
0.463
3.537
SUMMER 2005
161
Coromoto Minerals again produced attractive crystals and cut stones (figures 19 and 20), including
some of the finest tourmaline ever recovered from
the deposit.
Based on the deposit geology and on the projected
mineralization of the pegmatite down dip, Mt. Mica
shows considerable potential for additional tourmaline production. Future mining will focus on the
deeper extension of the 20042005 mineralized
zone, as well as on areas of the pegmatite to the
northeast that are closer to the surface. As the pegmatite is explored by both open-cut and underground methods, the miners anticipate that more
tourmaline will be found at this historic deposit.
162
SUMMER 2005
REFERENCES
Bastin E.S. (1911) Geology of the pegmatites and associated
rocks of Maine. U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 445, 152 pp.
Crowningshield R. (1966a) Developments and highlights at the
Gem Trade Lab in New York: Maine tourmaline. Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 12, No. 2, pp. 4344.
Crowningshield R. (1966b) Developments and highlights at the
Gem Trade Lab in New York: Maine tourmaline. Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 12, No. 3, pp. 7071.
Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1992) An Introduction to
the Rock-forming Minerals, 2nd ed. Longman Scientific &
Technical, Essex, England.
Donovan J.J., Tingle T.N. (1996) An improved mean atomic number correction for quantitative microanalysis. Journal of
Microscopy, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 17.
Dunn P.J. (1975) On gem elbaite from Newry, Maine, U.S.A.
Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 14, No. 8, pp. 357368.
Fales M.G. (1995) Jewelry in America. Martha Gandy Fales and
Antique Collectors Club Ltd., Suffolk, England.
Foord E.E., Snee L.W., Aleinikoff J.N., King V.T. (1995) Thermal
histories of granitic pegmatites, western Maine, USA.
Abstracts with Programs, Geological Society of America
Annual Meeting, New Orleans, LA, Vol. 27, No. 6, p. A468.
Francis C.A. (1985) Maine tourmaline. Mineralogical Record,
Vol. 16, pp. 365388.
Hamlin A.C. (1873) The Tourmaline. James R. Osgood & Co.,
Boston, MA, 107 pp.; republished in 2004 by Rubellite Press,
New Orleans, LA.
Hamlin A.C. (1895) The History of Mount Mica of Maine, U.S.A.
and Its Wonderful Deposits of Matchless Tourmalines. Publ.
2006
SUMMER 2005
163
EDITORS
Thomas M. Moses and Shane F. McClure
GIA Gem Laboratory
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
G. Robert Crowningshield
GIA Gem Laboratory, East Coast
Cheryl Y. Wentzell
GIA Gem Laboratory, West Coast
DIAMOND
Fracture Filled, with
Varying Results
Fracture filling is usually effective at
making a diamonds fractures less
obvious both to the unaided eye and
when viewed with magnification,
although a trained gemologist often
can identify the treatment relatively
easily. When the filling is not complete or is poorly executed, however,
identification can be much more challenging. Two diamonds recently submitted to the East Coast laboratory
highlighted these challenges.
The 9.01 ct rectangular modified
brilliant in figure 1 was quickly
identified as an artificially irradiated
diamond, but as noted in the last
164
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
165
Figure 7. Hazy, undulatory graining is evident throughout the diamond in figure 6. This is the most
intense graining seen so far in the
laboratory, and it severely affected the diamonds clarity grade
(SI2). Image width is 8.0 mm.
to short-wave UV radiation. In the
Diamond Trading Company (DTC)
DiamondView, a moderately strong
blue-gray fluorescence and weak bluegray phosphorescence were observed;
the undulatory appearance was also
apparent (figure 9). Natural type IIa diamonds rarely phosphoresce.
The IR spectrum exhibited strong
absorptions of fundamental modes of
solid CO2 at ~2376 (3) and ~651 (2)
cm1. These two absorptions were so
strong that their positions could not be
precisely determined. Weak combination modes at 5141.3, 5019.5, 3753.8,
and 3625.3 cm1 also were observed.
Close examination of these absorption
positions and comparison with highpressure spectral data of solid CO2
revealed that the positions of these
combination modes closely fit those
seen in solid CO2 under a pressure of
6.3 0.4 GPa at room temperature (see
R. C. Hanson and L. H. Jones, Infrared
and Raman studies of pressure effects
on the vibrational modes of solid CO2,
Journal of Chemical Physics, Vol. 75,
1981, pp. 11021112). This pressure is
higher than the 5 0.5 GPa in the
stone reported by Schrauder and Navon
(1993). Extrapolation to a mantle temperature of 1,200C results in a pressure of 9.29.7 GPa, about 270290 km
in mantle depth. These very likely represent the conditions under which the
166
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
Figure 10. Except for the 3H emission at 503.5 nm, little is known about the assignment of the many photoluminescence emissions observed in the 5.04 ct diamond.
stone not only because of its special
gemological properties but also for its
importance in studying the earths
mantle and diamond formation.
Wuyi Wang, TM, Kyaw Soe Moe,
and Andy Hsi-Tien Shen
LAB NOTES
Figure 11. This 0.67 ct Light blue pear-shaped diamond (left) was submitted for a colored diamond grading report. A DiamondView phosphorescence image (right) shows weak blue phosphorescence concentrated near
the head and point of the pear shape.
SUMMER 2005
167
1
2
Figure 12. Mid-infrared (top) and visible (bottom) absorption spectra were collected from two different portions of the Light blue diamond, as indicated by
the two lines in the phosphorescence image (top, inset). As would be expected
from that image, the presence of boron is apparent only in the no. 2 spectra, as
evident from the 2803 cm1 IR feature and the increase in absorption at the
red end of the visible spectrum (~600700 nm).
ture of type IIa and IIb zones.
The Lab Notes section has published reports on a few other mixed
type IIa and IIb diamonds (see Fall
1963, p. 85; Winter 19661967, p. 116;
Fall 1993, p. 199; Summer 2000, pp.
156157). Although spectroscopic data
168
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
169
170
LAB NOTES
Yellowish Orange
MAGNESIOAXINITE
The West Coast laboratory recently
examined a 4.90 ct transparent brownish yellowish orange piece of rough
(figure 20) that was submitted for
identification by JOEB Enterprises of
San Diego, California. This piece of
rough, reportedly from Tanzania, was
tabular in shape (17.75 x 8.86 x 3.64
mm) with parallel striations on some
of its crystal faces.
Observation with a polariscope
revealed a distinct biaxial optic figure.
SUMMER 2005
LAB NOTES
CULTURED PEARL
With Cultured-Pearl Nucleus
It is always exciting to discover the
unexpected on a pearl radiograph.
When the pendant in figure 21 arrived
at the West Coast laboratory for a routine identification, we anticipated
nothing unusual. However, the Xradiographs used in pearl analysis
sometimes reveal surprises, and this
proved to be one such specimen.
The baroque pearl measured 16.00
x 13.50 mm in width and depth. (We
could not measure the length because
SUMMER 2005
171
172
LAB NOTES
Figure 24. This strand of 34 dyed freshwater cultured pearls (approximately 10.6011.70 mm) at first appeared to be typical golden South Sea cultured pearls.
SUMMER 2005
More on Copper-Bearing
Color-Change TOURMALINE
from Mozambique
The Fall 2004 Lab Notes section (pp.
250251) reported on three unusual
samples of copper-bearing tourmaline that displayed a strong and distinct reverse color change from
grayish purple or purple in fluorescent light to graybluish green or
Figure 27. These three color-change tourmalines, reported to be from Mozambique (viewed in fluorescent
light at left and incandescent light at right), contain Mn and Cu as their primary chromophores. They weigh
5.37, 5.47, and 5.68 ct.
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
173
5.37 ct grayish
purple oval
5.68 ct purple
emerald cut
5.47 ct purple
pear preform
Oxides (wt.%)
SiO2
TiO2
B2O3b
Al2O3
V2O3
FeO
MnO
CuO
SrO
CaO
PbO
ZnO
Li2Ob
Na2O
K2O
H2Ob
F
Sum
-O=F
Total
36.6136.77
0.010.04
10.9811.00
41.5341.76
bdl0.02
0.020.05
1.942.14
bdl0.09
0.020.08
0.450.51
bdl0.02
bdl
1.771.84
1.952.14
bdl
3.353.39
0.840.95
99.98100.31
0.350.40
99.6099.91
36.6136.86
bdl0.01
11.0111.06
42.5142.77
0.080.15
bdl0.01
0.070.11
bdl0.03
0.020.04
0.720.89
bdl0.04
bdl0.03
1.942.06
1.481.78
bdl0.04
3.333.37
0.940.99
99.1399.78
0.400.42
98.7399.36
36.6936.87
bdl0.01
11.0311.12
42.5342.79
0.080.11
bdl0.01
0.110.15
bdl0.03
0.020.03
0.600.68
bdl
bdl0.04
1.952.16
1.671.80
bdl
3.323.36
0.971.03
99.3299.69
0.410.43
98.8999.25
5.7695.789
0.2110.231
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.6611.741
0.0110.018
bdl0.001
bdl0.001
0.0090.014
bdl0.004
0.0020.003
bdl0.002
bdl0.004
1.2331.302
3.000
0.1210.150
0.4520.543
bdl0.008
0.3090.426
1.000
0.4680.491
3.5093.532
5.7645.791
0.2090.236
6.000
3.000
6.000
1.6011.729
0.0090.014
bdl0.001
bdl0.001
0.0140.019
bdl0.003
0.0010.003
bdl
bdl0.004
1.2391.361
3.000
0.1010.115
0.5090.548
bdl
0.3400.391
1.000
0.4800.511
3.4893.520
Analyzed with an ARL SEMQ electron microprobe, using an accelerating voltage of 15 kV, a beam current of 15 nA, a spot size of 2 m, and 100-second count times for each spot. Ranges are shown for five
points analyzed on each sample. Mg, Cr, Sc, Ga, Bi, and Cl were analyzed but were at or below the detection limit (except for 0.01 wt.% MgO in one analysis). Abbreviation: bdl = below detection limit.
b Values for B O , Li O, and H O were calculated based on an assumed elbaite tourmaline stoichiometry.
2 3
2
2
174
LAB NOTES
SUMMER 2005
Figure 28. These polarized UV-Vis-NIR spectra for the three Mozambique
tourmalines (E| c, top; E||c, bottom) show a broad absorption peak centered
around 515 nm (attributed to Mn3+), with transmission windows on either
side centered at approximately 420450 nm and 570580 nm. These separate transmission maxima could account for the color-change phenomenon
observed in these stones. The peaks from approximately 1400 to 1500 nm are
due to OH groups. The inferred optical path lengths are as follows: emerald
cut ~7 mm, pear-shaped preform ~8 mm, and oval ~68 mm. Spectra have
been shifted vertically for clarity.
LAB NOTES
PHOTO CREDITS
Thomas Gelb15, 17, 18, and 19; Jessica
Arditi6; Wuyi Wang7 and 9; Maha
Calderon11 (left), 13, 20, 21, and 26;
Christopher M. Breeding11 (right) and 16;
Cheryl Y. Wentzell22 and 23; C. D.
Mengason24, 25, and 27.
SUMMER 2005
175
EDITOR
Brendan M. Laurs (blaurs@gia.edu)
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Emmanuel Fritsch, IMN, University of
Nantes, France (fritsch@cnrs-imn.fr)
Henry A. Hnni, SSEF, Basel, Switzerland
(gemlab@ssef.ch)
Kenneth V. G. Scarratt, GIA, Bangkok, Thailand
(kscarratt@aol.com)
James E. Shigley, GIA Research,
Carlsbad, California (jshigley@gia.edu)
Christopher P. Smith, GIA Gem Laboratory,
New York (chris.smith@gia.edu)
Editors note: The initials at the end of each item identify the
editor or contributing editor who provided it. Full names and
affiliations are given for other contributors. Shane F. McClure
and Dr. Mary L. Johnson of the GIA Gem Laboratory in
Carlsbad are thanked for their internal review of the Gem
News International section.
Interested contributors should send information and
illustrations to Brendan Laurs at blaurs@gia.edu (e-mail),
760-603-4595 (fax), or GIA, 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad,
CA 92008. Original photos will be returned after consideration or publication.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 176187
2005 Gemological Institute of America
176
SUMMER 2005
BML
Pyrope-almandine from Ethiopia. According to Scott
Davies of American-Thai Trading, Bangkok, small quantities of purple to orange-red garnet from Ethiopia have been
entering the gem trade in Thailand since June 2004. The
slightly rounded rough pieces range up to 12 grams or larger. While most of the material is dark and contains abundant inclusions, a small percentage shows attractive color
and good clarity. According to one supplier, Teferi Gobezie
of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, the garnet is mined at Baya
Gundi, in the Hagare Mariam region of southern Ethiopia
about 200 km from Kenya. Garnets are known from several localities in southern Ethiopia (see Gem resources in
Ethiopia, Jewellery News Asia, No. 209, 2002, p. 52)
Mr. Davies kindly loaned and donated several rough
and cut samples of this garnet to GIA. Examination of
three faceted stones (1.35, 1.31, and 0.89 ct; figure 2) by one
of us (EPQ) showed the following properties (listed in
respective order, as appropriate): colorred, dark orangered, and purplish pink; R.I.1.741, 1.744, and 1.757; S.G.
3.85, 3.84, and 4.00; and fluorescenceall three samples
were inert to long- and short-wave UV radiation. With the
desk-model spectroscope, all three samples showed weak
absorption lines at 430, 460, and 620 nm, and stronger
bands at 505, 520, and 570 nm. Microscopic examination
revealed clusters of small, rounded, transparent, doubly
refractive crystals in the red stone (which senior research
associate Sam Muhlmeister identified as zircon by Raman
analysis); small crystals, needles, and clouds of pinpoints in
the dark orange-red sample; and pinpoint inclusions as well
as large, transparent, flattened, doubly refractive crystals in
the purplish pink stone (which could not be identified due
to their position within the sample). The properties of these
garnets are consistent with those reported for pyropealmandine (see C. M. Stockton and D. V. Manson, A proposed new classification for gem-quality garnets, Winter
1985 Gems & Gemology, pp. 205218).
Elizabeth P. Quinn and BML
able, along with both rough and cut samples of this new
corundum that reportedly have not been treated in any way.
The deposit is located in the Kenya Rift Valley in the
west-central part of the country, approximately 70 km east
of Eldoret near Lake Baringo. In October 2001, a local gem
prospector was shown samples of pink and red corundum
from this area by members of the Tugen tribe who lived in
Barsemoi. The prospector later visited the locality and collected samples of gem-quality corundum from a dry river
bed. He applied for a license with the Kenya Commissioner
of Mines, and after a two-year process received a mining
permit for a 5 km2 area. In June 2004, he resumed collecting surface material from the site and has obtained more
than 2 kg of corundum, ranging from red to pink to pinkish
violet. So far, approximately 350 stones have been faceted
at his office in Eldoret, and the largest weigh 2.80 and 3.71
ct (both oval cuts). Most of the stones range from 0.5 to 1.6
ct, and are bright purplish pink to purplish red (figure 3).
As of May 2005, approximately 400 local villagers were
active in the region surrounding the original mining claim,
expanding the corundum-bearing area to approximately 20
km2. Preliminary indications suggest that this area has the
potential to become a significant source of untreated ruby
SUMMER 2005
177
was notable for the huge quantity of faceted stones available. Mr. Dholakia had been accumulating the material for
the past two years, and estimated that 75,000 carats were
available, in calibrated rectangle and oval shapes from 6 x
4 to 12 x 10 mm. Some of the stones were set in bracelets
and pendants (see, e.g., figure 4).
Mr. Dholakia loaned several samples to GIA for examination, and gemological properties were collected on three
emerald cuts (5.138.06 ct; again see figure 4) by one of us
(EPQ): colorbrownish orange and brown (color created by
inclusions); diaphaneitysemitransparent to translucent
(due to numerous inclusions); R.I.1.530 to 1.541; birefringence0.009 or 0.010; S.G.2.632.64; Chelsea filter reactionweak orangy pink; and fluorescenceinert to longwave and weak red to short-wave UV radiation. Weak
absorption in the blue and green areas of the spectrum was
visible with the desk-model spectroscope. These properties
are comparable to those reported for sunstone (aventurescent oligoclase feldspar) by R. Webster (Gems, 5th ed.,
revised by P. Read, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
England, 1994, pp. 215216). Microscopic examination of
the three samples revealed numerous angular transparentto-semitransparent thin platelets that were reddish orange
in transmitted light and iridescent in reflected light. These
inclusions had the distinctive appearance of hematite, and
this was confirmed with Raman analysis by senior research
associate Sam Muhlmeister.
Elizabeth P. Quinn and BML
BML
Faceted orange and brown sunstone from India. At the
2005 Tucson gem shows, Anil Dholakia of Anil B.
Dholakia Inc., Franklin, North Carolina, had a large
amount of faceted sunstone from Orissa, India. Although
similar material has been produced from India in the past
(see Summer 1995 Gem News, pp. 130131), this sunstone
INCLUSIONS IN GEMS
Figure 6. This transparent dark yellowish brown crystal of staurolite formed a conspicuous inclusion in one
of the Brazilian kyanites. Photomicrograph by John I.
Koivula for microWorld of Gems; magnified 10x.
178
Staurolite in kyanite from Brazil. Faceted kyanite is generally considered to be a gem for collectors of the unusual. While the intense blue to greenish blue color that it
sometimes displays can be quite attractive, its perfect
cleavage and somewhat low directional hardness (57 on
SUMMER 2005
orange inclusions could be seen even without magnification (again, see figure 7). Dr. Hyrsl stated that the inclusions had been identified as spessartine by X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis.
Gemological testing confirmed that the brown host
gem was obsidian. With magnification, as seen in figure 8,
the orange inclusions showed abundant crystal faces, and
their isometric crystal form was consistent with the general appearance of garnet. Examination between crossed
polarizers confirmed they were isotropic, while their high
relief and Becke line reaction showed that they had a much
higher refractive index than the surrounding obsidian. As a
further gemological exercise, microspectroscopy of these
inclusions (performed through the optical system of a
Leica gemological microscope) showed weak but visible
SUMMER 2005
179
180
Mr. Gautier estimated the total production of fluoriteincluded quartz at about 300 kg, with an approximately
equal amount of quartz that did not contain any fluorite
inclusions. Most of the fluorite-included material consists
of single crystals, some doubly terminated, ranging up to
23 cm long. Only a few crystal clusters were produced. Mr.
Gautier reported that Little Big Stone Co. acquired most of
the production, which is being sold in three categories: (1)
mineral specimens and rough for cutting, (2) polished
points, and (3) polished materialconsisting of emerald
cuts (ranging from 2 to 30 ct), square slabs (from 1 cm to a
few centimeters across), and cabochons. He believed the
largest stone cut to date weighed approximately 100 ct.
One of us (JIK) has examined several hundred of these
quartz crystals (see, e.g., figure 9). In all samples, the fluorite inclusions were confined to the near-surface outer
SUMMER 2005
almost 100 years. In addition to common pegmatite minerals, it has produced rare examples of emerald and native
bismuth. Several vertically disposed zones of mineralization have been identified in the pegmatite, including rose
quartz, smoky quartz adjacent to a thin Nb-Ta oxide and
biotite layer, and rose quartz with metallic inclusions.
About 60 kg of the included rose quartz was extracted
between September 2003 and June 2004, although only a
small percentage was suitable for cutting.
The inclusions in 10 faceted stones were examined,
and with magnification they appeared metallic gray to
black and had peculiar shapes (figure 13). They occurred in
parallel rows of strongly elongated, sometimes striated
crystals about 0.5 mm thick. Powder X-ray diffraction
(XRD) analysis of an extracted crystal and chemical analyses of several surface-reaching inclusions in one sample
with a Jeol 5800LV scanning electron microscope
SUMMER 2005
181
182
SUMMER 2005
TREATMENTS
Interesting heated citrine. It is relatively well known that
the vast majority of citrine quartz is the product of heat
treating amethyst. Material from Brazil and Uruguay has
often been used for this purpose. Both large and small
amethyst-lined geodes are converted to citrine using simple low-temperature heat treatment in air. Because so
much of this heat-treated material is available, and it is
cost prohibitive to attempt to determine the cause of color
(natural or heated) for most of these stones, the trade typically assumes that all citrine is heated and this yellow
quartz is priced accordingly.
At the 2005 Tucson gem shows, well-known quartz specialists Si and Ann Frazier (El Cerrito, California) noticed
clusters of brownish orange heat-treated citrine crystals
from Uruguay that showed an unusual near-surface phenomenon. Many of the faces on these crystals had a pearly,
reflective, almost mirror-like luster that was reminiscent of
the silvery white adularescence characteristic of Sri Lankan
moonstones. According to the dealer, Marcelo Valadares of
General Brazilian Gems, Governador Valadares, Brazil, only
a small proportion of the citrines showed this unusual surface feature after they were heated to approximately 400C.
The Fraziers provided one of these contributors (JIK)
with a specimen of the heated citrine that measured 23.9 x
21.4 x 11.1 mm (figure 16). With magnification, the reflective surfaces appeared to show true adularescence (figure
17), though the effect was apparent only on the minor
rhombohedral crystal faces.
Figure 17. The adularescence shown by certain crystal faces of the heated citrine specimen provides an
example of an interesting treatment-induced optical
phenomenon. Photomicrograph by John I. Koivula for
microWorld of Gems; magnified 10x.
SUMMER 2005
183
were first introduced to the market, they have not encountered any problems with color stability.
The exact nature of the process remains undisclosed,
and future studies are needed to establish identification
criteria. Preliminary research suggests that careful observation of the long-wave UV fluorescence will likely be helpful in identifying these cultured pearls, when compared to
known natural colors as a reference (see US gem labs
seek to uncover process behind brown pearls, Jewellery
News Asia, No. 241, September 2004, p. 162).
Marisa Zachovay (marisa.zachovay@gia.edu)
GIA Education, Carlsbad
Figure 20. With magnification, the presence of a leadglass filler was evident from the vivid flash-effect colors and gas bubbles seen in some of the fractures.
Photomicrograph by N. Sturman; magnified 20x.
184
SUMMER 2005
CONFERENCE REPORTS
GemmoBasel 2005. This International Colloquium of
Gemmology was held April 29May 2 in honor of the
60th birthday of renowned Swiss gemologist (and GNI
contributing editor) Dr. Henry A. Hnni. Approximately
170 participants from 29 countries gathered at the
University of Basel to hear two days of presentations. Dr.
W. Stern of the University of Basel opened the session
with an entertaining biography of Dr. Hnni, noting that
this celebration coincided with the anniversary in August
of Dr. Hnnis 25 years with the SSEF Swiss Gemmological Institute.
The first technical session, on diamonds, began with a
presentation by Dr. Paul Spear of the Diamond Trading
Company (DTC) Research Centre in Maidenhead, U.K.
Dr. Spear noted that the DTC Research Centre has developed methodology to rapidly screen for and identify both
HPHT- and CVD-grown synthetic diamonds, down to 0.03
ct, as well as synthetic moissanite, using the DiamondSure and DiamondView verification instruments. Dr.
Emmanuel Fritsch of the University of Nantes, France,
and collaborators reported on advances in identifying and
classifying the origin of color in brown and black diamonds. Significantly, most type Ia (nitrogen containing)
diamonds with brown graining have a series of absorptions
in the near-infrared region called amber centers, the
most common of which (AC1) shows a main absorption
around 4168 cm1. The more intense the brown color is,
the more intense this AC1 absorption is, and the more A
aggregates are detected (figure 21). This and other results
indicate that AC1 may be the cause of the visible-range
absorption inducing the brown color. Jean-Pierre Chalain
of SSEF stressed the importance of a database of naturalcolor diamonds for treatment research. Microscopic observation and extensive spectroscopic analyses of an historic
(1907) 1.18 ct greenish yellow diamond crystal showed
SUMMER 2005
185
Dr. Karl Schmetzer of Petershausen, Germany, reported on taaffeite and musgravite, and compared the optical
and chemical properties of typical samples of both gem
minerals with iron-rich (taaffeite and musgravite) and
zinc-rich (taaffeite) samples, all from Sri Lanka, to expand
the compositional range of this material. During the question-and-answer session, gem dealer Werner Spaltenstein
of Chanthaburi, Thailand, noted that gem-quality taaffeites have been found in Tunduru (Tanzania) as well. Dr.
Ulrich Henn of the German Gemmological Laboratory,
Idar-Oberstein, reported on feldspars, the most common
minerals in the earths crust, which provide an interesting
link between mineralogy and gemology. The main gem
feldspars are orthoclase, amazonite (microcline), moonstone (perthite or antiperthite), albite, sunstone (oligoclase
or labradorite), and andesine.
Dr. Hnni began the Instrumentation session with a
review of instruments used in gem identification at SSEF
over the past 25 years. In addition to the adoption of analytical techniques such as EDXRF, FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, andmost recentlylaser-induced breakdown
spectroscopy (LIBS), the gem laboratory has seen significant advances in lighting, especially fiber-optic illumination. He recommended that if a laboratory could not
afford to purchase needed instrumentation, they should
make arrangements to access equipment at a local university. This contributor gave participants a glimpse behind
the pages of Gems & Gemology, emphasizing the
importance of a strict peer review, editing, and production
process. She also offered several tips for publishing in
G&G: Choose a topic with a strong application to gemology; organize the paper logically, including separate sections on the materials and methods, results, and discus-
186
sion; describe every test and say how many (and which)
samples were used for each; and do a thorough literature
review. Manfred Eickhorst of Eickhorst & Co., Hamburg,
Germany, discussed various lighting needs for aging eyes:
less glare, brighter light, and stability (i.e., nonflickering
light). A high-frequency (40,000 Hz) lamp can eliminate
flicker, whereas the use of two dimmable bulbs (with a
color temperature of 5,500 K and 6,500 K) can help
refresh the eyes as well as provide more efficient color
evaluation. Dr. Gaston Giuliani of IRD and
CRPG/CNRS, Vandoeuvre-ls-Nancy, France, reported
on the use of oxygen isotopes to study emeralds from
nearly 70 deposits. Although there is overlap among
deposits, he found that emeralds could be classed into
three groups based on their 18O values. He also found
that oxygen isotopic analysis could be used to separate
Mogok from Mong Hsu rubies.
In the Trade Issues session, Helen Molesworth of
Christies London reported that auction houses today
require gem lab reports on virtually all stones (especially
the most important ones, as shown in figure 22).
However, gemology is advancing rapidly, and clients are
reminded that reports are only an opinion based on current knowledge and technology. Werner Spaltenstein
reported on his mining and buying activities in Tunduru
and Madagascar, two areas that have great future
promise because there was so little systematic gem
exploration in the past. Also, tastes and interests
change; for example, spinel was actually discovered at
Mahenge (Tanzania) 20 years ago, but not until recently
was there a market for it.
Eric Emms of the Precious Stone Laboratory,
London, led the Treatments and Synthetics session by
describing the three-fold impact on gemologists of the
proliferation of treatments: (1) They must have sufficient funds to acquire the needed equipment and technical support staff, (2) they must have knowledge
beyond the basic FGA or GG diploma, and (3) they
must disclose to buyers/clients if treatment is detected
or may be present. Dr. Roy Walters of Ocean Optics,
Dunedin, Florida, and Dr. Michael Krzemnicki of SSEF
recently determined that surrounding a sample with
argon during LIBS analysis greatly improves the resolution of the main Be feature at 313 nm, so Be can be
detected down to 2 ppm.
Dr. V. S. Balitsky of the Institute of Experimental Mineralogy, Moscow, reported that inclusions, growth zoning,
and IR spectra may be useful to separate some synthetic
from natural quartz, but not all types can be identified. Dr.
Lore Kiefert of the East Coast AGTA GTC in New York
explained the various factors involved in determining the
geographic origin of gemstones: the inclusion scene, traceelement chemistry, and spectroscopic characteristics.
Because of overlap in some features in stones from various
sources, it is critical that multiple lines of evidence are
used in the determination.
SUMMER 2005
ANNOUNCEMENTS
Exhibits
Cameos at the Met. Cameo Appearances, a display of
more than 160 examples of the art of gem carving from
Greco-Roman antiquity to the 19th century, will be on
display until October 30, 2005, at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art in New York City. Among the pieces featured will be works by the neoclassical Italian masters
Benedetto Pistrucci, Giuseppe Girometti, and Luigi
Saulini. A variety of educational programs will be offered in
conjunction with the exhibition. Also on display at the Met
(through January 2006) is the exhibit The Bishop Jades, a
selection of fine Chinese and Mughal Indian jades from the
collection of Heber R. Bishop that was donated to the museum in 1902. Visit www.metmuseum.org/news/news_pr.asp
or call (212) 535-7710.
Diamonds in London. Diamonds, an exhibit of some of
the worlds largest and most valuable faceted diamonds,
will be on display at the Natural History Museum in
London through February 26, 2006. The exhibit includes
the De Beers Millennium Star, the Steinmetz Pink, the
Ocean Dream, and the Moussaieff Red (see J. M. King and J.
E. Shigley, An important exhibition of seven rare gem dia-
Conferences
Raman spectroscopy. The 3rd International Conference
on the Application of Raman Spectroscopy in Art and
Archaeology will be held August 31September 3, 2005,
in Paris, France. The Raman analysis of gem materials will
be among the topics covered. Visit www.ladir.cnrs.fr/
ArtRaman2005/or e-mail artraman2005@glvt-cnrs.fr.
Agate symposium. On September 1011, 2005, a symposium on agate and cryptocrystalline quartz will take place
at the Colorado School of Mines in Golden, Colorado.
Field trips to Colorado mineral localities are planned for
September 1213. These events will take place in conjunction with the 38th Annual Denver Gem and Mineral
Show (September 1618). Call 303-202-4766 or e-mail
pmodreski@usgs.gov.
Diamond 2005. A review of the latest scientific and technological aspects of natural and synthetic diamond (as well
as related materials) will take place at the 16th European
Conference on Diamond, Diamond-like Materials, Carbon
Nanotubes and Nitrides, September 1116, 2005, in
Toulouse, France. Visit www.diamond-conference.com.
Rapaport International Diamond Conference 2005. This
conference will be held in New York on September 19, 2005,
and feature an insiders look at the international diamond
and jewelry industry. Visit www.diamonds.net/conference.
Hong Kong Jewellery & Watch Fair. Held at the Hong
Kong Convention and Exhibition Centre on September
2125, this show will also host GIA GemFest Asia 2005
on September 23. The free educational event, Update on
Diamond Cut, will take place from 9 am to 12 noon in
Room 301B; RSVP to events@gia.edu, or call 760-603-4205
in the U.S. or +852-2303-0075 in Hong Kong. An educational seminar given by the Gemmological Association of
Hong Kong will also take place on September 23. Visit
www.jewellerynetasia.com/exhibitions.
ERRATUM
The Spring 2005 article Coated pink diamond: A cautionary tale contained an error in figure 2 on p. 37. The labels
for the room temperature and cryogenic spectra in this figure were inadvertently transposed. We thank Nick
Sturman of the Gem & Pearl Testing Laboratory of
Bahrain for bringing this to our attention.
SUMMER 2005
187
Book REVIEWS
2005
101 Bench Tips for Jewelers
By Alan Revere, 120 pp., illus., publ.
by MJSA/AJM Press, Providence, RI,
2004. US$42.95 ($36.50 for MJSA
members)
Alan Reveres latest literary contribution to the goldsmith trade ranges
from how to maximize the efficiency
and functionality of a jewelers bench
to troubleshooting a wide array of situations that make up a typical day in
the life of a bench jeweler.
There is one tip to each page, with
the illustrations taking up a large portion of that page. As a seasoned educator, Mr. Revere has made the book easy
to navigate via its index. The writing is
concise, yet understandable and often
quite witty in spite of the technical
content that many might otherwise
consider esoteric. Bear in mind that
such a consistent and user-friendly format will occasionally sacrifice completeness. After all, how much detail
can you give when discussing the intricacies of essential techniques such as
soldering, riveting, engraving, and the
like, in only a few hundred words?
Evidently, Mr. Revere has chosen
hand-renderings by Sean Kane over
photographs to avoid distracting glare,
misleading reflections, and similar
problems associated with shooting at
the bench. Some illustrations have
been cleverly augmented by the selective use of transparency, exploded
views, cross-sections, and sequences.
In an era where conventional
trade skills are no longer passed on
from old masters to their apprentices
through long and intensive relationships (that typically averaged more
like 1001 bench tips per year), this
book fills a need. Self-taught tradespeople, students, and graduates from
trade schools and vocational schools
BOOK REVIEWS
alike, as well as bench jewelers learning on the job, will find 101 Bench
Tips a valuable reference, as will business owners and gemologists-cumdesigners when planning out procedures for the shop floor.
Mr. Reveres oeuvre makes every
attempt to transmit that professional
trade mentality that we goldsmiths
have cultivated for millennia: a tradition of ingenuity.
ROBERT ACKERMANN
Gemological Institute of America
Carlsbad, California
Identification of Gemstones
By Michael ODonoghue and Louise
Joyner, 313 pp., illus., publ. by
Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
UK, 2003. US$59.95
The authors have boldly taken on the
subject of gemstone identification
properties, appearances, sources, imitations, synthetics, treatments, and
separation proceduresand the result
is a book of amazing scope.
To understand the depth of information covered, one only has to look
at the first chapteron diamonds
which begins with diamond properties, types, appearances, and typical
inclusions. The more common diamond imitations are detailed, along
with separation techniques such as
the use of a 10 loupe, reflectivity
meter, thermal conductivity probe,
and immersion in various liquids.
Gem-quality synthetic diamonds from
General Electric, Sumitomo, De Beers,
and Russia are covered next.
Treatments such as the use of ink,
radium salts, various irradiation procedures (sometimes combined with heat
treatment), HPHT, fracture filling, and
EDITORS
Susan B. Johnson
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith
Stuart Overlin
SUMMER 2005
189
190
BOOK REVIEWS
SUMMER 2005
BOOK REVIEWS
SUMMER 2005
191
Gemological ABSTRACTS
2005
EDITOR
A. A. Levinson
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
REVIEW BOARD
Christopher M. Breeding
GIA Gem Laboratory, Carlsbad
Maha Calderon
Carlsbad, California
Jo Ellen Cole
Vista, California
Michelle Walden Fink
GIA Gem Laboratory, Carlsbad
Eric Fritz
GIA Gem Laboratory, Carlsbad
R. A. Howie
Royal Holloway, University of London
Alethea Inns
GIA Gem Laboratory, Carlsbad
David M. Kondo
GIA Gem Laboratory, New York
Taijin Lu
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Wendi M. Mayerson
GIA Gem Laboratory, New York
Kyaw Soe Moe
GIA Gem Laboratory, New York
Keith A. Mychaluk
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Joshua Sheby
GIA Gem Laboratory, New York
James E. Shigley
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Boris M. Shmakin
Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
Russell Shor
GIA, Carlsbad
Rolf Tatje
Duisburg University, Germany
Christina Taylor
Boulder, Colorado
Sharon Wakefield
Northwest Gem Lab, Boise, Idaho
192
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2005
was recommended by C. M. Ou Yang et al. (Recent studies on inky black omphacite jade, a new variety of pyroxene jade, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 28, No. 6, 2003,
pp. 337344).
TL
Harvesting impacts and invasion by alien species
decrease estimates of black coral yield off Maui,
Hawaii. R. W. Grigg, Pacific Science, Vol. 58, No. 1,
2004, pp. 16.
After 40 years of successful management, three new developments threaten the sustainability of the black coral fishery in Hawaii. First, harvesting pressure on the colonies
has increased, while the biomass of black coral off Maui
has decreased 25% since 1976. Second, an alien species of
coral, Carijoa riisei (often called cutthroat coral), has
overgrown many of the black coral colonies. Initially
detected in Pearl Harbor, Oahu, in 1972, this invasive
species is believed to have been brought from the Atlantic
Ocean on the hulls and/or in ballast water of ships
between 1940 and 1970. During the 1990s, C. riisei was
reported at sites in the eight major Hawaiian Islands.
Third, increasing sales of black coral in recent years (about
$30 million retail in Hawaii alone) is placing more
demands on the resource.
A larger size (height) limit of the coral and a reduction
in the amount harvested are measures that can be implemented to help conserve the resource. Divers and the
coral industry must abide by stricter regulations to ensure
the future of the black coral fishery in Hawaii.
MC
Study on compositions and colouring mechanism of
freshwater cultured pearls. M. Yang, S. Guo, L. Shi,
and W. Wang, Journal of Gems and Gemmology,
Vol. 6, No. 2, 2004, pp. 1013 [in Chinese with
English abstract].
Chinese freshwater cultured pearls display a large range of
colors (e.g., white, pink, gray, purple, red), however, there
is no reliable explanation for these variations. In this article, the authors attempt to correlate the color variations
with trace-element contents and other parameters. Three
color varieties (white, orange-red, and dark purple; two
samples of each), representing the color range of Chinese
freshwater cultured pearls, were analyzed for their inorganic mineral components by X-ray diffraction, for selected trace metals by plasma emission spectroscopy, for conchiolin by FTIR spectroscopy, and for carotenoids by
Raman spectroscopy.
There were no significant differences in the inorganic mineral components of the three color varieties.
However, the concentrations of the trace metals Zn, Mg,
Ti, V, Ag, and Co varied significantly, being particularly
high in the dark purple cultured pearls. For example, the
Zn content (945 ppm) in the dark purple specimens was
nearly eight times higher than in the white ones (121
ppm). The concentrations of Ti and V were higher in the
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
DIAMONDS
About signs of mechanical and chemical effects upon diamond crystals from the Urals deposits. V. N.
Anfilogov, Proceedings of the Russian Mineralogical Society, Vol. 133, No. 3, 2004, pp. 105108
[in Russian with English abstract].
The complex morphology of diamond crystals is reviewed
for the possible application of locating their primary
source. Dislocations on the surface of crystals cannot be
explained by mechanical distortion; rather, the dislocations formed during crystal growth due to internal defects.
The occurrence of rounded diamonds in the Urals placer
deposits cannot be explained by tumbling in water. It is
suggested that the primary sources of these diamonds are
nearby kimberlites.
RAH
SUMMER 2005
193
194
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2005
GEM LOCALITIES
Archaeological geology of the worlds first emerald mine.
J. A. Harrell [james.harrell@utoledo.edu], Geoscience Canada, Vol. 31, No. 2, 2004, pp. 6976.
An archaeological and geologic survey of the mountain
valley region of Wadi Sikait in the Eastern Desert of Egypt
was conducted to map the distribution of ancient mine
workings, deduce ancient mining methods, and describe
the geologic occurrence of emerald at this, the worlds first
emerald mine. Several other sites in the area also have
indications of ancient emerald extraction. Mining probably began toward the end of the Ptolemaic period in the
1st century BC. Most of the activity, however, dates to the
Roman and early Byzantine periods, from the late 1st century BC through the 6th century AD. Renewed small-scale
mining during the first three decades of the 20th century
proved unsuccessful, probably due to the poor quality of
the emeralds.
The author provides a map of the mine workings,
which combines topographic and geologic information.
The Wadi Sikait area is divided into sections known as
the North Village, Middle Village and Road, and South
Village. Archaeological excavations of the South Village
area have uncovered ancient temples and administration
buildings, possibly from the first century AD.
The emerald deposits are characterized by the intrusion of Be-bearing quartz or pegmatite veins into Cr- or Vbearing mafic or ultramafic rocks (i.e., the source of the
chromophores). Emeralds formed in the contact zone
between phlogopite schist and the quartz/pegmatite
veins.
JEC
Marble-hosted ruby from Vietnam. P. V. Long [vggc@fpt.vn],
H. Q. Vinh, V. Garnier, G. Giuliani, and D. Ohnenstetter, Canadian Gemmologist, Vol. 25, No. 3,
2004, pp. 8395.
This article compares the gemological characteristics and
geologic setting of rubies from Luc Yen and Quy Chau in
northern Vietnam. At Luc Yen, rubies occur as disseminated crystals in small veinlets or fissures within marbles
of Upper Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian ages. Secondary
ruby deposits occur in associated alluvial gravels. At Quy
Chau, the economic ruby and sapphire deposits are found
only in placers.
The ruby crystals from Luc Yen examined were typically hexagonal bipyramids, whereas those from Quy
Chau commonly formed short hexagonal prisms.
Compared to the Luc Yen material, the color of the Quy
Chau rubies was usually more saturated and showed a
stronger red fluorescence to long- and short-wave UV
radiation. R.I. values of rubies from both areas were
1.7621.770 (birefringence ~0.008). S.G. values for samples from Luc Yen were 3.924.01, whereas those from
Quy Chau were 3.944.05. Rubies from both areas exhibited twinning, straight and angular growth zoning, and (in
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2005
195
JEWELRY RETAILING
Are natural diamond engagement rings forever? E. H.
Fram and R. Baron, International Journal of Retail
& Distribution Management, Vol. 32, No. 7, 2004,
pp. 340345.
The authors conducted a study of the attitudes toward natural diamond engagement rings among 459 students at the
Rochester Institute of Technology, New York; these
young people are the prime target market for such rings.
One-third of the respondents were in the 1822 age group,
while the rest were 23 and older. The male:female ratio
was 55:45, with 93% of the students coming from the U.S.
Of the full sample, 15% were already married or engaged,
54% said they had no expectation of becoming engaged
within the next three years, and 31% believed they might
become engaged in that time period.
While a majority (61%) of respondents believed that a
natural diamond engagement ring was very or somewhat
important, a significant number were either neutral (22%)
or believed such rings were somewhat/very unimportant
(16%). In addition, 45% of the women believed it was
appropriate to celebrate an engagement without a natural
diamond ring; only 28% of the men agreed with that
statement. About one-third of the respondents would consider alternatives to natural diamond engagement rings,
either jewelry or nonjewelry, while nearly one-fourth
were neutral on the subject. The report concluded that
the number of women predisposed to acquiring a diamond engagement ring might not be as high as believed,
and this might represent a downward trend that could
impact future diamond engagement ring sales.
RS
Diamond geezers. M. Prince [princem1@southernct.edu],
Business Strategy Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2005, pp.
2227.
The diamond engagement ring is a product that creates
196
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
TREATMENTS
Doping by diffusion and implantation of V, Cr, Mn and Fe
ions in uncoloured beryl crystals. J. C. R. Mittani
[juan.mittani@dfn.if.usp.br], S. Watanbe, M. Matsuoka, D. L. Baptista, and F. C. Zawislak, Nuclear
Instruments and Methods in Physics Research B,
Vol. 218, 2004, pp. 255258.
The coloration of slabs from a natural crystal of colorless
beryl (from Salinas, Minas Gerais, Brazil) was carried out
through doping by diffusion and ion implantation with V,
Cr, Mn, and Fe. [Editors note: The authors do not describe
the colors produced by this treatment process.] The beryl
slabs were cut to test whether treatment was easier perpendicular or parallel to the c-axis. Specimens were placed
in an alumina crucible with chemical-grade compounds
(VCl3, Cr2Cl3, MnCl2, or FeCl3) and heated to 700, 725, or
750C for periods of 7, 14, or 21 days. After treatment,
they were analyzed using optical absorption, electron para-
SUMMER 2005
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2005
197
MISCELLANEOUS
Diamonds and civil conflicts in AfricaThe conflicts in
central Africa and west Africa. M. K. Kachikwu,
Journal of Energy & Natural Resources Law, Vol.
22, No. 2, 2004, pp. 171193.
This article reiterates the belief that the most serious and
prolonged civil conflicts within African states are the
result of rebel groups and governments battling to control
resources, especially diamonds. Because of their easy
transport across borders and conversion to cash, diamonds
are particularly susceptible to illicit purposes.
The author recounts the histories of civil conflicts in
diamond-producing countries, specifically Angola, Sierra
Leone, and the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
Patterns are cited of colonial plunder and superpower
interference, followed by world neglect, as background for
the recent conflicts. In two of the cases (Sierra Leone and
Angola), revolutions borne out of political or social unrest
were eventually subverted into grabs for diamond wealth.
In the Congo, the author maintains, diamonds were the
prize for outside invasion forces seeking influence within
that vast nation. The case of Liberia is also cited. That
country has essentially no indigenous diamond production, but illicit diamond trade running through its borders
supported the corrupt regime of Charles Taylor. The article also describes the efforts of the Kimberley Process to
stop trade in conflict diamonds. It notes, however, that
198
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2005
in obtaining more investment capital. Seeing actual diamonds in hand (and, later, salted at the supposed
deposit), the speculators were easily duped. In fact, when
some of the investors sent 10% of the uncut stones to
Charles Lewis Tiffany in New York (in October 1871) for
appraisal, he unwittingly supported the scam by reporting
their value as $150,000. (After the hoax was exposed, it
was revealed that Mr. Tiffany did not have much experience with uncut stones.)
The hoax unraveled in October 1872, when Clarence
King, a geologist conducting a survey for the U.S. government, and his men overheard a few people talking about a
diamond find that happened to be in the surveys purview.
If diamonds actually occurred on land he was surveying,
King feared, he would have to explain to Congress why he
and his men had not found them. When they inspected the
so-called diamond field, King noticed that everywhere
there was a diamond there were rubies surrounding it,
which was too perfect a coincidence to be natural. Also,
anthills containing gems were always surrounded by footprints, which was quite suspicious. King concluded that
the diamond field was a hoax and published a letter exposing it in November 1872. Although a grand jury did indict
Arnold and Slack for fraud, it seems the investors, out of
embarrassment, let the case drop.
JS
In the wake of things: Speculating in and about sapphires
in northern Madagascar. A. Walsh, American
Anthropologist, Vol. 106, No. 2, 2004, pp. 225237.
Sapphires were discovered in the area around
Ambondromifehy in the northern part of Madagascar in
1996; before then, the locals held them in such low esteem
that children used them as slingshot pellets. The fact that
foreigners place so much value on these stones, which
have no local use, is a source of great speculation and suspicion among local inhabitantseven the Malagasy traders
who make their livings by buying and selling these stones.
This article describes the complex trading culture that
has grown up around the mining areas. Local miners,
traders, and demarchers (brokers) have developed a trading ethic divided between businessy for legitimate deals
and katramo for deceptive practices. Businessy encompasses many practicessome unquestionably ethical, and
others that require a great deal of awareness on the part of
both parties. Katramo is pure deception. Local traders,
however sharp, consider themselves at a disadvantage to
foreigners because of their ultimate secret, that sapphires have no use or value within their country. Thus,
because the Malagasy do not understand why foreigners
value sapphires, they believe that foreign traders are constantly getting the better of them. Nor do the locals
believe that sapphires are used primarily for jewelry.
Common suspicions hold that the stones are used in
armaments for the Iraq War, electronic gear, watches, and
even to construct impenetrable walls for the houses of
foreign billionaires.
RS
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2005
199
The
LAST Page
The
Other Side
of the
Lens
of Diamonds. Though they are quick to downplay the accolades they have received, the Van Pelts are honorary life
members of the American Gem Trade Association, as well as
honorary fellows of the Bowers Museum of Cultural Art in
Santa Ana, California.
200
SUMMER 2005