SU07
SU07
SU07
VOLUME XLIII
SUMMER 2007
SUMMER 2007
PAGES 95196
Summer 2007
95
98
Carat Points
LETTERS _____________
FEATURE ARTICLES _____________
Global Rough Diamond Production since 1870
A. J. A. (Bram) Janse
Reports and analyzes annual production statistics (by carat weight and value)
for the worlds most significant diamond sources, through 2005.
120
Mary L. Johnson
A long-term, systematic study of the stability and durability of nine common
emerald-filling substances.
pg. 99
149
Polymer-Impregnated Turquoise
Lab Notes
Diamond with bimineralic inclusions HPHT-treated type Ia diamond with a green component caused by the H2 defect Diamond with intense rainbow graining Natural color
hydrogen-rich blue-gray diamond Type IIa diamond with intense green color introduced
by Ni-related defects Diamond with zigzag cleavage HPHT-grown synthetic diamond
crystal with unusual morphology and negative trigons Idocrase in jadeite Opal with
unusual structure
162
184
185
Book Reviews
188
Gemological Abstracts
pg. 154
pg. 170
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ABOUT
THE COVER
For centuries, emeralds have been oiled to mask their abundant inclusions and improve their apparent clarity. A wide range
of emerald-filling substances are used today, with varying effectiveness. In this issue, Dr. Mary Johnson compares the stability and durability of nine common emerald-filling substances.
Shown here is a pair of emerald and diamond earrings; the emeralds range from 4 to 18 ct. Courtesy of H. Stern, New York
and Rio de Janeiro. Photo Harold & Erica Van Pelt.
Color separations for Gems & Gemology are by Pacific Plus, Carlsbad, California.
Printing is by Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
2007 Gemological Institute of America
ISSN 0016-626X
Letters
ANNOUNCING GEMS & GEMOLOGY RAPID COMMUNICATIONS
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LETTERS
SUMMER 2007
95
96
LETTERS
SUMMER 2007
LETTERS
SUMMER 2007
97
Data for global annual rough diamond production (both carat weight and value) from 1870 to
2005 were compiled and analyzed. Production statistics over this period are given for 27 diamond-producing countries, 24 major diamond mines, and eight advanced projects. Historically,
global production has seen numerous risesas new mines were openedand fallsas wars,
political upheavals, and financial crises interfered with mining or drove down demand. Production
from Africa (first South Africa, later joined by South-West Africa [Namibia], then West Africa and
the Congo) was dominant until the middle of the 20th century. Not until the 1960s did production
from non-African sources (first the Soviet Union, then Australia, and now Canada) become important. Distinctions between carat weight and value affect relative importance to a significant degree.
The total global production from antiquity to 2005 is estimated to be 4.5 billion carats valued at
US$300 billion, with an average value per carat of $67. For the 18702005 period, South Africa
ranks first in value and fourth in carat weight, mainly due to its long history of production.
Botswana ranks second in value and fifth in carat weight, although its history dates only from
1970. Global production for 20012005 is approximately 840 million carats with a total value of
$55 billion, for an average value per carat of $65. For this period, USSR/Russia ranks first in weight
and second in value, but Botswana is first in value and third in weight, just behind Australia.
98
and Shor (2005). Assembling the data for annual global rough diamond production (gem, near-gem, and
industrial) was a difficult task, because the numbers
for several countries may vary more than 10%
between different publications. To achieve as much
consistency as possible, production figures were
taken from sources that are believed to be reliable
and, for the most part, that were continuously published in the United States. For the period
18701934, these included The Mineral Industry
(from the Scientific Publishing Co.) and Mineral
Resources of the United States (compiled by the U.S.
Bureau of Mines). For the period 19342005, data
were taken from Minerals Yearbook (also by the U.S.
Bureau of Mines). Wagner (1914) was consulted for
early South African production. For 2004 and 2005,
SUMMER 2007
Figure 1. Diamonds
have been valued since
antiquity, but only
since the late 19th century have they become
an important element
of the world economy.
They were first known
in India, and then
Indonesia and Brazil,
but it was the 1867 discovery in South Africa
that would launch the
modern diamond market. Though India is no
longer an important
producer, it remains an
essential link in the diamond supply chain
through its polishing
and trading centers.
Shown here is an Indian
diamond and emerald
necklace from the early
19th century. Courtesy
of Christies Images.
SUMMER 2007
99
100
SUMMER 2007
The lower value per carat was due to the fact that
Russian mines recover diamonds down to 0.2 mm,
which increases the grade and the cost, but lowers
the value per carat. The production for 2004 was
worth about $2.2 billion, with an average value of
$56.74/ct, which equates to an annual production of
38.7 Mct for 2004 (Kimberley Process Certification
Scheme, 2004). The value of production for 2005 was
$2.53 billion, with an average value per carat of
$66.61 (Kimberley Process Certification Scheme,
2005). This translates to an annual production of 38
Mct for 2005. This higher value per carat may be due
to the fact that new minesthe Nyurba open pit
and the Aikhal and Internationalaya underground
operationshave adopted a screen-size cut off of
1.52 mm, as is the custom for Western mining
companies, which increases the average value per
carat (screen size and its effects on grade and value
are discussed in more detail in the Major Diamond
Mines/Current Value section below).
Botswana. Production began in 1970 and rose to 2.5
Mct in 1972, when the Orapa mine reached full
capacity. Orapas expansion in 1979 and the opening of the Letlhakane mine brought the level up to 5
Mct in 1980; this doubled to 10 Mct in 1983 as the
Jwaneng mine came on board, and doubled again by
1997, after further expansion of Orapa. It has
climbed steadily since, to about 32 Mct in 2005.
Australia. Meaningful production commenced after
a diamond-bearing lamproite was discovered near
Lake Argyle in 1979 (Shigley et al., 2001). The first
diamonds (0.5 Mct in 1982) came from alluvial
SUMMER 2007
101
deposits nearby; alluvial and surface mining produced 7 Mct in 1985. When mining of the AK1 pipe
began in 1986, production soared to 29 Mct that
first year, then rose gradually to a peak of 43.3 Mct
in 1994. Annual production dropped sharply from
40.9 Mct in 1997 to 26.7 Mct in 2000 due to reconstruction of the open pit, which necessitated the
removal of much barren ground. Production further
declined to 26 Mct in 2001 with the mining of
lower-grade ore, after which it rebounded to about
33 Mct in 2005. The open pit will be phased out by
2008, when underground mining will commence.
(The Argyle underground mine is discussed further
in the Advanced Diamond Projects section below.)
Canada. The latest entry is Canada, which began
production in 1998 (Kjarsgaard and Levinson, 2002)
and reached 5 Mct in 2002, all derived from the
Ekati mine. With the opening of the Diavik mine in
2003, production rose to 11 Mct that year and then
to the 2005 level of 12.8 Mct.
Other Producers. Individual production from the
remaining producers has generally been less than
0.5% (by weight) of global annual production. The
exceptions are the Central African Republic (0.22%
by weight, 0.51% by value), which for many years
has produced about 400,000 carats valued at about
$60 million annually, and Lesotho (0.03% by
weight, 0.55% by value), which started mining in
2004 and in 2005 produced 52,000 carats worth
$64.3 million. Notably, Lesotho has produced some
102
SUMMER 2007
SUMMER 2007
103
RELATIVE PERCENTAGES
BY TYPE OF DEPOSIT
The relative proportions of diamonds produced from
pipes (primary kimberlite or lamproite deposits),
alluvials (secondary deposits formed by erosion and
subsequent river transport), or beach (littoral
deposits, discharged from river mouths into the
ocean) have varied greatly over time. The two graphs
in figure 5 show the percentages of annual production by weight and value represented by these three
types of deposits.
By Weight. Although the earliest diamonds to enter
the marketplace came from alluvial deposits in
India (from antiquity to the mid-18th century) and
Figure 5. Shown here are the trends in global diamond production by type of deposit, as percentages of the total.
In carat weight (left), pipe production from South Africa constituted the bulk of world production until alluvial
deposits from West Africa and Central Africa (the Belgian Congo and Angola) came on stream in the 1930s. With the
discovery of large primary deposits in Russia, Botswana, Australia, and (most recently) Canada, pipe production has
made a comeback since the 1960s. The trends by value (right) are similar, although South-West Africa/Namibias
beach production (and its high-value diamonds) are more significant, and the dominance of pipe production since
the 1970s is not as pronounced, in large part because of the low-value diamonds from Australias Argyle deposit.
104
SUMMER 2007
numerous additional discoveries, production of primary deposits represented 80% of the total, and this
number has continued to creep upward since then.
Although these discoveries reestablished the dominance of pipe production, they also began to shift the
focus away from Africa. Before 1960, African countries accounted for nearly all the worlds diamonds
(again, see figure 4). In 1980, however, African pipe,
alluvial, and beach deposits combined accounted for
70% of the total, with 25% from Siberia (virtually all
pipe), and 5% from others (mainly alluvial).
SUMMER 2007
105
Figure 8. Discovered in
1967 (and shown here in
2005), the Orapa mine in
Botswana is one of the
largest kimberlite deposits
ever developed. Though
later eclipsed in value by
the Jwaneng mine (discovered in 1973), it remains a
key element in Botswanas diamond industry.
The discovery of large
mines there and in Russia
through modern prospecting methods helped
reestablish the dominance
of pipe production in the
1960s and 1970s. Photo by
Robert Weldon.
Before 1870, the percentage of gem-quality diamonds was high because all production was derived
from alluvial deposits, and primitive mining methods
were geared to recovering larger, good-looking stones.
In the early days of pipe mining, recovery was still
Figure 9. The shifts in type of production (gem, industrial, and near-gem) in large part mirror the changes
in technology and the types of deposits being mined.
Early mining methods were not geared for the recovery of industrial diamonds, but this changed as
modern pipe mining evolved. The peak in industrial
production during the middle of the century reflects
the large input of low-value diamonds from the
Congo/Zaire. This began to fall as higher-value
diamonds from Russia and other sources came on
stream. Only since 1985, with the opening of the
Argyle mine, is near-gem production indicated.
RELATIVE PERCENTAGES BY
CATEGORY OF DIAMOND
The production data given thus far have included all
qualities of diamond, gem and non-gem. Figure 9
shows the division into gem, industrial, and (over
the last two decades) near-gem diamonds.
106
SUMMER 2007
Figure 10. This map shows the tectonic location of 24 major diamond mines and seven advanced diamond projects. All major mines developed on kimberlite pipes are located within the boundaries of an archon, while those
developed on lamproite pipes are located on a proton.
SUMMER 2007
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108
SUMMER 2007
TABLE 1. Historic and production data for 24 major diamond mines discovered since 1869.a
Col. 1
Name of mine
Col. 2
Col. 3
Col. 4
Col. 5
Col. 6
Col. 7
Col. 8
Col. 9
Col. 10
Col. 11
Majority
owner
Country
Size
(ha)b
Year of
discovery
Year of
opening
Annual
production
(kct/yr)c
Grade
(cpht)d
Current Current
value
value
($/ct)d ($/t)
Annual
value
(M$/yr)e
Col. 12
Col. 13
Col. 14 Col. 15
Bultfonteinh
De Beers
South Africa
9.7
1869
1901
874
54
75
40
66
24.5
1,838
105
Dutoitspanh
De Beers
South Africa
10.8
1869
1905
540
32
140
45
76
20
2,800
100
Jagersfonteinh De Beers
South Africa
10
1870
1902
363
12
200
24
73
1,900
60
Koffiefonteinh De Beers
South Africa
10.3
1870
1898
110
250
18
28
12
3,000
98
De Beersh
De Beers
South Africa
5.1
1871
1871
600
72
100
72
60
36.4
3,640
68
Kimberleyh
De Beers
South Africa
3.7
1871
1871
500
200
80
160
40
32.7
2,900
44
Wesseltonh
De Beers
South Africa
8.7
1891
1897
576
37
90
33
52
28.5
2,565
99
Premier/
Cullinan
Finsch
Venetia
Mwadui
Orapa
Letlhakane
Jwaneng
Murowa
Mbuji Maye
Catoca
Mir i
Udachnaya
Jubileynaya
Nyurba
Argyle
Ekati
Diavik
De Beers
South Africa
32.2
1902
1903
1,250
40
75
30
94
146
10,950
103
Closed
(2005)
Closed
(2005)
Closed
(1971)
Closed
(2005)
Closed
(1960)
Closed
(1914)
Closed
(2005)
5
De Beers
De Beers
De Beers
Debswana
Debswana
Debswana
Rio Tinto
MIBA
consortium
Alrosa
Alrosa
Alrosa
Alrosa
Rio Tinto
BHP Billiton
Rio Tinto
South Africa
South Africa
Tanzania
Botswana
Botswana
Botswana
Zimbabwe
DRC
Angola
Russia
Russia
Russia
Russia
Australia
Canada
Canada
17.9
12.7
146
118
11.6
45
4
18.6
66
6.5
27
50
nd
46
11
5
1961
1980
1940
1967
1968
1973
1997
1946
1985
1955
1955
1989
1998
1979
1992
1994
1965
1991
1942
1971
1976
1982
2004
1924
1997
1957
1976
1997
2004
1985
1998
2003
2,000
6,800
317
16,000
1,100
15,600
250
9,000
6,000
4,000
20,000
10,000
5,000
30,476
6,000
8,475
36
122
11
95
29
140
90
500
45
300
120
56
90
310
100
372
75
90
145
50
200
110
65
15
75
80
55
45
55
13
140
88
27
110
16
48
58
154
60
75
34
240
66
25
50
40
140
327
150
612
46
800
220
1,716
16
135
450
320
1,100
450
275
396
840
746
113
68
19
222
22
238
0.3
500
23
90
540
50
6
700
32
21
8,475
6,120
2,755
11,100
4,400
26,180
20
7,500
1,725
7,200
29,700
2,250
330
9,100
4,480
1,848
41
15
64
35
30
24
1
90
9
42
31
9
2
21
7
2
21
11
5
23
7
23
19
20
20
20 j
20 j
20
20
10 j
13
20
9.5
a Sources:
De Beers Consolidated Mines (1880 2005); Wagner (1914); Hamilton (1994); Wilson and Anhaeusser (1998); Government of the Northwest
Territories (20012005); Even-Zohar (2002, 2007); BHP Billiton (2007); Rio Tinto Diamonds (2007a,b); and author's files.
for sizes of pipes are modified from Janse (1996) and author's files; 1 ha (hectare) = 2.47 acres.
c Annual production figures are in thousands of carats (kct/yr); for the first seven mines listed and for the Mir open pit (all of which are now inactive), see notes h and i.
d Values for grade in cpht (carats per hundred tonnes) and $/ct (U.S. dollars per carat) are approximate and vary from year to year as different types of
ore are mined. Except for the first seven mines listed and for Mir (see notes h and i), the latest robust values are from 2003 and are extrapolated to
2005 by the author.
e Figures for annual value (in millions of U.S. dollars) were calculated by multiplying annual production (col. 7) by $/ct (col. 9).
f Total production figures (in millions of carats) were estimated by adding annual production figures, including from tailings, for the years of the life of the
mine (col. 14).
g Total production values to date (in millions of U.S. dollars) are calculated by multiplying total production (col. 12) by value per carat (col. 9).
h The annual data for the five old Kimberley mines, Jagersfontein, and Koffiefontein (shaded in gray) are values chosen by the author from typical years of
production throughout the life of the mine. Figures for grade were chosen likewise, and comparative values for $/ct were recalculated taking the De
Beers mine as $/ct=$100.
i The Mir open pit closed in 1998; the figures for annual production, grade, and $/ct are derived from an average year in the 1980s.
j Future production for Argyle, Mir, and Udachnaya is for underground workings only.
b Values
SUMMER 2007
109
110
SUMMER 2007
also vary within a pipe. In many cases, the near-surface weathered rocks are higher in grade than the
deeper rocks. For example, at Kimberley the grade
was well over 200 cpht for the first 250 m of mining,
but it had decreased to 40 cpht at closure in 1914
and averaged just over 100 cpht for the life of the
mine (Janse, 1996).
Current Value (Cols. 9 and 10). Data for the average
value per carat are not publicly listed by many mining companies, but they can be derived from the
reports on sales of parcels of diamonds mined during the year and from estimates from diamond valuers and diamantaires who have inspected the runof-mine product.
In some mines, such as Jagersfontein and
Koffiefontein, the grade was very low (below 12 cpht),
but the $/ct was high (over $200/ct); thus, the mines
were viable. At Argyle the initial grade was very high
(600 cpht) but the value per carat for the first production was very low ($7/ct), and the mine would only
be viable if operating costs could be kept low. This
was done primarily by mining large volumes of ore,
which kept the average cost per tonne down. In some
minessuch as Jwaneng (Botswana), Mir (Siberia),
Ekati (Canada), and Diavik (Canada)both the grade
and $/ct are high, making them very profitable. Value
per carat is influenced not only by the quality but
also by the average size of the diamonds recovered.
Generally, this is between 0.4 and 0.5 ct; diamonds
over 2 ct are rare, amounting to only about 7% by
weight (but 44% by value) of world production (EvenZohar, 2002).
The product of multiplying the current grade (col.
8) by dollar value per carat (col. 9) gives the average
value per tonne in the ground ($/t; col. 10), which is
one of the major factors in deciding if a project is
economically viable. The second major factor is revenue, that is, the quotient of the value per tonne in
the ground divided by the cost of mining it. Very
approximately, this figure needs to be above one to
make a viable mine, but several other factors (such
as the time value of money, political risks, and environmental restrictions) must be factored into the
decision to proceed with construction. In general,
the $/t varies between 30 and 100. Because data on
mining cost per tonne are usually not publicly available, a column for revenue is not included.
Grade, value per carat, value per tonne, and ore
reserves (see Past and Future Lives below) are all
interrelated. Grade is typically a result of the recovery plants cut-off screen size. If the bottom screen
SUMMER 2007
111
TABLE 2. Historical and production data for eight advanced diamond projects and four young mines.a
Col. 1
Name of
project/mine
Jericho
Snap Lake
Victor
Gahcho Ku
Grib
Arkhangelskaya
Camafuca
Argyle UG
Ekati
Diavik
Murowa
Catoca
a
Col. 2
Col. 3
Col. 4
Col. 5
Majority
owner
Country
Size
(ha)
Year of
opening
Tahera
De Beers
De Beers
De Beers
ADC/AGD
Severalmaz
Endiama
Rio Tinto
BHPB
Rio Tinto
Rio Tinto
consortium
Canada
Canada
Canada
Canada
Russia
Russia
Angola
Australia
Canada
Canada
Zimbabwe
Angola
3
3
16
3
14
15
160
12
11
5
4
66
2006
2007
2008
2012
nd
2006
2006
2008
1998
2003
2004
1997
Col. 6
Col. 7
Col. 8
2.6
23
27.4
14.4
98
110
13
100
78
27
19
271
120
146
23
164
68
52
40
370
109
395
90
70
Col. 9
Col. 10
Col. 11
Col. 12
Reserves
(Mct)
Value
($/ct
Value
($/t)
Value
(M$)
3.1
33
6.3
23.6
67
57
5.2
370
85
107
17
189
90
76
450
77
79
48
117
13
84
62
70
75
108
111
105
126
53
25
47
48
92
245
63
53
280
2,500
2,850
1,800
5,300
2,740
608
1,200
7,100
6,300
1,200
14,000
Col. 13
Col. 14
Projected Projected
production life (yr)
(Mct/yr)
0.4
1.5
0.6
1
4
3
0.2
16
5
8
0.5
8
8
20
12
20
20
20
5
10
17
20
17
20
Sources: Hamilton (1994); De Beers Consolidated Mines (20012005); Government of the Northwest Territories (20012005); Even-Zohar (2002,
2007); Tahera Diamond Corp. (2006); BHP Billiton (2007); De Beers Group (2007a,b,c); Rio Tinto Diamonds (2007a,b,c); Severalmaz (2007); and
authors files. All figures for reserves, grade, $ /ct, and annual production are derived from bankable feasibility studies and will probably change during
actual mining. Abbreviations used here are the same as for table 1; nd means no data are available. The rows shaded in blueEkati, Diavik, Murowa,
and Catocaare recently opened mines, included for comparison.
112
SUMMER 2007
SUMMER 2007
113
TABLE 3. Historical and contemporary production data and rankings for 27 diamond producing countries: Totals to 2005.a
Country
Year 1st
diamondb
South Africa
1867
SWA/Namibia
1908
Botswana
1959
Rhodesia/Zimbabwe 1903
Swaziland
1973
Lesotho
1955
Southern Africa
Angola
1912
Congo/Zaire/DRC 1907
Congo Republic 1932
Gabon
1939
CAR
1914
Tanzania
1910
Central Africa
Guinea
1932
Sierra Leone
1930
Liberia
1910
Ivory Coast
1928
Ghana
1919
West Africa
Brazil
1725
Guyana
1887
Venezuela
1883
South America
Canada
1971
United States
1843
USSR/Russia
1829
Australia
1851
China
1870
India
antiquity
Indonesia
800
Total global
plus 10% illicit
Year 1st
kimberliteb
Year 1st
miningc
Total prod.
(to 2005)
(Mct)d
Total prod.
(200105)
(Mct)d
% World
prod.
(to 2005)e
% World
prod.
(200105)e
Rank in
world prod.
(to 2005)
Rank in
world prod.
(200105)
1870
1899
1966
1907
1973
1939
1870
1908
1970
1913
1984
1968
9
1
19
4
8
5
20
24
23
5
8
3
19
25
22
95
373
90
145
90
1,000
90
373
90
145
90
1,000
1916
1913
nd
nd
1930
1925
29
3
25
29
4
15
7
1
7
4
155
20
155
20
15
14
13
16
160
120
160
120
1952
1948
1955
1960
1994
1936
1932
1955
1958
1920
17
9
13
18
6
11
10
17
15
9
150
220
100
140
30
150
220
100
140
30
1973
nd
1982
1727
1890
1913
11
19
16
12
14
19
75
95
60
75
95
60
1948
1885
1954
1972
1965
1870
nd
1998
1921
1960
1883
1980
antiquity
800
65
8
148
0.3
nd
0.08
221
31
114
nd
nd
2
1
148
2.5
2.5
0.5
1.5
5
12
2.4
1.5
0.3
4
45
nd
175
154
0.4
0.4
0.01
761
~840
15
2
12
1952
1946
nd
1946
nd
1925
614
94
485
1.5
0.6
0.6
1,196
111
991
30
4
21
20
1,177
14
57
21
8
114
214
36
6
16
58
51
<1
684
720
13
1
1
4,115
~4,500
10
25
3
2
12
21
21
6
25
1
2
18
21
23
115
200
55
17
20
165
280
67
67
115
200
60
17
20
165
280
65
65
0.5
0.5
29
20
3
5
1
2
1
Value/ct
Value/ct
(to 2005)
($/ct)
($/ct)f
(200105) f
1
2
16
17
1
23
20
100
100
a Sources:
The Mineral Industry (18701934); Mineral Resources of the United States (1870 1934); Wagner (1914); Minerals Yearbook (19342005);
and Kimberley Process Certification Scheme (2004, 2005). Abbreviations used here are the same as for table 1; nd means no data are available.
Janse and Sheahan (1995); Kjarsgaard and Levinson (2002).
c Note that for several countries, mining began, closed, and sometimes reopened, e.g., Zimbabwe (Somabula, 1913 1930; River Ranch, 19921998;
Murowa, 2004 present); Lesotho (Letseng, 1968 1982, reopened 2004); United States (Arkansas, 19211924; Kelsey Lake, 19951996); Russia
(Urals, 18901917; Siberia, 1960 present); Australia (New South Wales, 1883 1948; Argyle, 1980present).
d
Calculated by summing up each country's annual production; illicit production is added as 10% of total global production.
b Sources:
114
SUMMER 2007
Total value
(to 2005)
(B$) f
Total value
(200105)
(B$)f
% World
value
(to 2005)e
% World
value
(200105) e
58
35
45
0.2
0.05
0.6
139
17
21
5.9
3
13.3
0.04
22
13
17
13
5
26
52
6
8
44
10
5
1
1
16
1
5
1
3.3
2.5
44
2
12.5
2
1
3.5
21
3
1
1
5
6
<0.1
38
12
0.3
0.2
0.3
266
0.08
22
4.8
2.3
0.3
0.1
7.5
0.4
0.5
0.05
0.2
0.15
1.3
0.2
0.1
0.02
0.3
5.2
10.5
2.6
15
1
1
1
8
1
0
1
2
3
1
11
14
5
21
5
100
100
1
4
2
21
24
23
3
6
1
20
24
17
7
5
5
8
11
12
11
15
10
6
13
18
14
10
9
19
13
14
15
19
16
12
16
21
9
25
3
8
17
20
22
4
25
2
7
23
18
22
0.07
49.5
Rank in
Rank in
value
value
(to 2005) (200105)
e Figures
alluvial diamonds recovered in the dredging operation. The high overall value for Grib ($5.3 billion)
makes it clear why ADC persists in its legal battles
to retain its part ownership in the project. The large
Catoca mine has a very high potential value ($14
billion), while Ekati and Diavik are outstanding at
$7.1 billion and $6.3 billion.
The value for Arkhangelskaya ($48/ct) multiplied
by grade (52 cpht) gives a suspiciously low value per
tonne: $25/t. In general, new mines are not considered economic below $40/t, which makes this figure
an obvious discrepancy. Unofficial sources say that
the value per carat of Arkhangelskaya is in fact similar to that for Grib (~$80/ct), which would increase
the figure to $42/t, more in line with general economic considerations.
Projected Production (Col. 13). Grib and Arkhangelskaya should be significant mines. Projected annual
production for Grib is 4 Mct. For Arkhangelskaya,
plans call for a large recovery plant with a throughput of 5.6 Mt annually; if the grade (52 cpht) applies
to all three pipes projected to be mined, then an
annual production of about 3 Mct can be assumed,
which will commence in 2010. Catoca is still
increasing its annual production, which may eventually reach 8 Mct. Argyle UG will have a very high
annual production, though with a comparatively
low total value of $1.2 billion.
Projected Life (Col. 14). The Jericho mine is projected to be relatively short lived, at eight years, but
additional reserves may be discovered in neighboring pipes. The five-year life for Camafuca I is only
for the dredging operation, during which time the
reserves and a mining plan covering all or part of
the pipe will be established, for a projected life of at
least 20 years.
SUMMER 2007
115
mainly on alluvial deposits or on the surface portions of pipes or fissures (dikes). Their output may be
purchased by diamond buyers (who also may or may
not be licensed) on the spot, but more often it is
smuggled to another country to avoid paying taxes
or to obtain a higher price in a more stable currency
(Even-Zohar, 2002). The amount of illicit digging has
varied greatly over time. It was high in Sierra Leone
in the 1950s (Laan, 1965; Hall, 1968) and very high
in Angola, Zaire/DRC, and Sierra Leone in the
1990s, often far outstripping the official or formal
production (Partnership Africa Canada, 2004a,b,
2005a,b, 2006). In the 1990s, a large part of the proceeds of illicit production was used to purchase arms
and supplies to equip rebel forces, which often occupied the alluvial diamond fields in these countries
and engaged in mining by forced local labor. (This
type of illicit production gave rise to the terms blood
diamonds or conflict diamonds, further discussion
of which is beyond the scope of this article.) The percentage of illicit digging is high in some places, anywhere from 20% to 100%, while in more regulated
countries (such as Canada) it is low or nearly nonexistent. Consequently, a modest (and arbitrary) 10%
figure for illicit digging has been added to total global
production.
116
SUMMER 2007
contains alluvial diamonds, but the country currently has no diamond mines developed on a kimberlite
or lamproite pipe. All major production has come
from alluvial localities in Minas Gerais and Bahia,
with lesser production from Roraima. Recently, the
30,000 ct/yr Chapada alluvial project in Mato Grosso
commenced mining, while prospecting for economic
kimberlites in Bahia, Minas Gerais, and Rondonia
has shown promising results. Brazils total historical
production, as compiled from the U.S. source publications used, is 55 Mct, but Barbosa (1991) estimated
diamond production up to 1985 as 100 Mct (too neat
a figure for this authors liking). As about 20 Mct
were produced from 1985 to 2005, the total production for Brazil would be 120 Mct if Barbosas figure is
accepted. (Note: This illustrates the uncertainty
involved in compiling the totals of individual countries, but it does not significantly affect the global
total of 4.5 Bct.) Brazil ranks 11th in lifetime carat
weight, but would replace Angola as sixth if the
higher figure was valid.
Other minor producers include British Guiana
(now Guyana) and Venezuela, which commenced
production in the late 1890s; the Central African
Republic and Tanzania, beginning in the 1930s; and
China in the 1980s; however, their combined production has never reached more than 1% by weight
and 2% by value of modern global production.
Contemporary Production. Data for 20012005 give
a modern perspective to the relative significance of
SUMMER 2007
117
118
CONCLUSION
The history of modern diamond production spans
135 years. Although alluvial deposits have been
known since antiquity, diamond production from
primary deposits (kimberlites and lamproites) commenced only in the 1870s and has increased by
leaps and bounds ever since to a staggering total of
4.5 billion carats.
It is interesting to note that nearly 20% of this
total was produced during the last five years. During
the last 10, nine new mines have commenced production or come very close: Nyurba and Arkhangelskaya (Russia); Ekati, Diavik, and Jericho (Canada);
Murowa (Zimbabwe); and Catoca, Camafuca,
Camatchia, and Camagico (Angola). Four additional
advanced projects are waiting in the wings: Snap
Lake, Victor, and Gahcho Ku (Canada); and Grib
(Russia). This will more than counterbalance the
closing of seven old mines. As it is predicted that
demand for rough will outstrip production during
the next five years, and a gap of $20 million in supply and demand by 2015 has been quoted (EvenZohar, 2007), this new production can easily be
accommodated in the diamond market.
Primary deposits were first discovered in South
Africa and exploration spread from there to identify
diamond-producing pipes in Tanzania (1940s), Siberia
(1950s), Botswana (1960s), Angola (1970s), Australia
and northwest Russia (1980s), and Canada and northwest Russia (1990s). Thus, it appears that at least one
major diamond mine or field has been discovered
every 10 years since the 1940s. If this trend continues, then a major new discovery is imminent. This
may perhaps be in China, where prospecting for diamonds is being vigorously pursued at present.
Carlsbad are thanked for access to many books and publications. CAD Resources, Carine, Western Australia, were helpful in constructing the diagrams that accompany the text. The
author is also very grateful to the four reviewersDr. Jeff
Harris, Dr. Melissa Kirkley, Russell Shor, and one who asked
to remain anonymousfor their careful work, which made
this article more readable and comprehensible.
SUMMER 2007
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SUMMER 2007
119
DURABILITY TESTING OF
FILLED EMERALDS
Mary L. Johnson
Researchers treated 128 emeralds with nine emerald fillersAraldite 6010, cedarwood oil, paraffin
oil, unhardened and surface-hardened Opticon, a mixture of cedarwood oil and Canada balsam,
surface-hardened Norland Optical Adhesive 65, and the solid fillers Gematrat and Permasafe
and then exposed them (along with 14 unfilled emeralds) to common conditions of wear and
cleaning. All emeralds were held for about six years, and most were then subjected to one of the following durability tests: exposure to long-wave UV radiation (a component of sunlight), to mild heat
and incandescent light in a display case, to five chill-thaw cycles, and to a desiccation environment;
ultrasonic cleaning with either warm water or BCR; and cleaning with steam or mild chemical
solvents. Changes were evident in about 35% of the filled emeralds after the mild exposure tests
(i.e., time, UV radiation, display case); those with liquid fillers were especially susceptible. The desiccation environment made fissures visible in a majority of emeralds. Hard fillers damaged their host
emeralds by expanding cracks during durability testing, while chill-thaw cycling extended cracks in
both filled and unfilled emeralds. Emeralds with liquid fillers were most susceptible to appearance
changes due to ultrasonic cleaning and exposure to ethanol or acetone. Some observations on the
effectiveness of different fillers on emerald appearance are also provided.
he finest emeralds are renowned for their saturated, slightly bluish green color (figure 1).
However, this beauty comes with disadvantages. Compared to diamonds, sapphires, and rubies,
emeralds are softer and more brittle; they also are
almost invariably included. As a result, emerald inclusion scenes are commonly romanced as jardinsthe
French word for gardensby the retail world.
Because inclusions and, especially, surface-reaching
fissures detract from emeralds transparency and distinctive color, emeralds have been oiledor filled
for centuries (see, e.g., Jennings et al., 1993; Weldon,
1997) to make these features less obvious.
In addition, open fissures in emeralds can collect
polishing compounds, skin oils, and dirt. Internal
fluid inclusions can break open (see, e.g., Koivula,
1980); likewise, solid inclusions can be plucked out
during fashioning. Consequently, the vast majority
of fashioned emeralds in the market today have
some type of filling.
Over the last few decades, different sources and
trading centers have tended to use different fillers for
emeralds: cedarwood oil and Canada balsam in
120
SUMMER 2007
BACKGROUND
What makes an emerald filler ideal? Participants at
the First World Emerald Congress (held in Bogot,
Colombia, in 1998) agreed that it should be colorless
and stable within the emerald (Lurie, 1998). It should
also be permanent under routine conditions of wear
and care, and yet easily removed if the emerald needs
SUMMER 2007
121
122
SUMMER 2007
Time
onlya
Long-wave
UV
Display
case
Ultrasonic
Chill-thaw
cycling Desiccation cleaning in
water
Ultrasonic
cleaning in
BCR
Steam
Ethanol and
acetone
Totals
2
1
3
3
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
1
1
2
14
13
13
15
4
4
1
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1
2
1
2
2
2
15
18
14
14
1
2
1
2
2
2
1
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
10
16
24
17
17
18
16
10
11
13
16
142
Although all samples were stored for about 6 years, two samples were examined for both the time test and a different durability test (nos. 4477 and
4481). These two additional samples are not included in the Time only total.
by Ray Zajicek. Details of their methods are provided in the G&G Data Depository. Five emeralds were
filled with Gematrat by Arthur GroomGematrat.
Twenty-one emeralds, mentioned above, were
obtained pre-filled with Permasafe or Gematrat. All
filling work was performed in 1998 and early 1999.
The filled emeralds were rechecked after treatment for standard gemological properties (such as RI,
specific gravity, and weight), and 57 stones with larger fissures were selected for FTIR characterization of
their fillers. Macrophotographs of 110 emeralds were
taken and then the emeralds were set aside to await
durability testing. These durability tests were performed in 20042006, following a period of about six
years to allow for changes of the fillers with time.
Durability Testing. Ten tests were chosen to assess
the durability of the various commercial emerald
fillers: time alone (~6 years), exposure to long-wave
UV radiation (a component of sunlight), exposure to
heat and incandescent light in a display case, multiple chill-thaw cycles, one year in a desiccation environment, ultrasonic cleaning with either warm water
or buffing compound remover (BCR), and cleaning
with steam or two mild organic solvents. These tests,
which are described in detail in box A, were selected
to mimic likely causes of changes in the appearance
of filled emeralds in retail and consumer environments. Note that all 142 samples were exposed to the
passage of time and, where photos were available,
checked against those photos before further durabili-
SUMMER 2007
123
124
SUMMER 2007
8. Cleaning: steam
Goal: Since jewelry is often steam cleaned (although
this cleaning technique is usually not recommended
years after filling and immediately prior to the durability test. This protocol necessitated that we split the
reporting of the data for each durability test into two
categories: one in which the comparison includes the
effects of time (i.e., test + time) and one in which
the comparison photo already shows the effect of time
for emeralds), we wished to see whether steam cleaning affects the appearance of a filled emerald. These
emeralds were cleaned for shorter times than tests
involving filled diamonds (see, e.g., Koivula et al.,
1989; Kammerling et al., 1994) or other beryls
(Kammerling et al., 1991) due to the less durable
nature of emeralds.
Test description: The tables of 13 emeralds were steam
cleaned for 30 seconds, using a Gesswein portable steam
generator, with the emeralds held in rubber-tipped
tweezers. After drying in air, they were reexamined.
10. Cleaning: stronger, but still relatively mild chemical solvent (acetone)
Goal: Ethanol is considered a very mild solvent for
organic chemicals such as oils and resins. Hence, a
slightly stronger common solvent may show a more
pronounced effect on the appearance of filled emeralds, and it is common practice to try first with the
weakest solvent. Acetone is also a component in fingernail polish remover, so this test might have bearing on some accidental damage in the home.
Possibly, cleaning in acetone alone might have different results than cleaning in acetone after ethanol.
Test description: The 16 emeralds used in test 9 were
examined (compared to macrophotographs to categorize
their appearance) and then placed for 24 hours in two
beakers filled with spectroscopic-grade acetone (Aldrich
Chemical Company no. 15,459-8) in a fume hood at
22C. The emeralds were then removed from the acetone, dried in air, and compared with the pretest images.
SUMMER 2007
125
Figure 2. This emerald, filled with a mixture of cedarwood oil and Canada balsam (no. 4728; left), had an
obvious change due to ultrasonic cleaning in BCR
(right). However, the appearance of the emerald in these
photos, along with all the emerald photos, was influenced by changes in the choice of positioning, intensity
of light, film, and processing choices by the different
photographers. Therefore, the fissures visible parallel to
the long axis of the emerald are not as evident in the
right image, and the emeralds color looks different.
Figure 3. Changes in emerald appearance after durability tests (before, left; after, right) were divided
into four categories: obvious (no. 4706, 0.79 ct, ultrasonic cleaning in water); slight (no. 4633, 1.09 ct,
ultrasonic cleaning in BCR); very slight (no. 4936,
2.95 ct, steam cleaning); and no observed changes
(no. 4757, 0.46 ct, ethanol and acetone cleaning).
Obvious
Slight
Very
slight
No change
126
SUMMER 2007
RESULTS
Initial Effectiveness of Emerald Fillings. Although
this research did not focus on the effectiveness of
the fillers, we did observe the changes in appearance they produced. The most dramatic examples
for eight of the fillersthose that had the greatest
impact on apparent clarityare shown in table 2. It
is possible that a professional filling laboratory
would have been even more effective. The examples provided in table 2 show that the presence of a
filler can improve the apparent color distribution in
emeralds, by getting rid of white areas caused by
air-filled feathers.
Durability Testing. The results for the durability
tests are provided in table 3. The following types of
changes were seen: Feathers were more evident, had
opened up at the surface (cavities in the fissures
were visible with magnification), leaked (oily fluid
leaking out of fissures was visible with magnification), delaminated (a new opening along one side of
the filler in the fissures was seen with magnification), extended (the length of the fissures increased),
and new feathers were seen. Also, the filler deep
within fissures could crystallize or turn cloudy. As
expected, these durability tests had no observed
impact on the unfilled emeralds, with one exception (no. 4806), which reacted to the chill-thaw
cycles.
FTIR spectra proved not to be useful for tracking
differences over time, since almost all filled emeralds tested had some filler left after several years, and
we found that the amount of filler indicated in the
spectra depended on the path light took through the
emerald. In no case did we see any changes besides
intensity in the spectral features of the filler.
Time. Thirteen of the 23 filled emeralds showed no
observed change with time (see table 3). The emerald filled with Araldite 6010 showed a very slight
change, a cloudy band throughout the stone (figure
4). Slight changes were seen in six emeralds: two
filled with cedarwood oil (emptying of feathers), two
filled with paraffin oil (whitening at the surface or
crystallization at depth: figure 5), one filled with a
mixture of cedarwood oil and Canada balsam (feather more evident), and one filled with surface-hardened NOA 65 (feathers leaking fluid onto their surface). Three emeralds showed obvious changes
(feathers opening up) due to time alonetwo filled
with unhardened Opticon and one filled with paraffin oil (figure 6).
Filler/Sample no.
Before filling
After filling
Araldite 6010
No. 4508b
Cedarwood oil
No. 4479b
Unhardened
Opticon
No. 4578 c
Paraffin oil
No. 4922 d
A 50:50 mixture
of Canada
balsam and
Cedarwood oil
No. 4495b
Norland Optical
Adhesive 65
No. 4710e
Surfacehardened
Opticon
No. 4923d
Gematrat
No. 4708e
Due to lack of before images, emeralds filled with Permasafe are not
included in this table. All photos in this table were taken by Maha Calderon.
b
From Colombia. c From Zambia. d From Zimbabwe. e From Brazil.
SUMMER 2007
127
TABLE 3. Observed changes in the emeralds categorized according to durability tests and filler type.a
Soft (liquid) fillers
Durability
test
No
filler
Time only
No observed change
(4477, 4502, 4596)
Long-wave UV
No observed change
(4707*)
Display case
No observed change
(4477*, 4587)
Chill-Thaw cycling
No observed change
(4472*);
Slight (4806)
No observed change
(4755, 4919)
Desiccation
Ultrasonic cleaning in
water
Ultrasonic cleaning in
BCR
Steam
No observed change
(4568)
No observed change
(4930)
No observed change
(4636)
Ethanol
No observed change
(4720, 4786)
Ethanol + Acetone
No observed change
(4720, 4786)
Araldite 6010
Semi-hard fillers
Cedarwood oil
Unhardened Opticon
Paraffin oil
No observed change
(4481,4719);
Slight (4479, 4704)
No observed change
(4515);
Obvious (4763, 4799)
No observed change
(4702, 4742, 4917);
Slight (4800)
No observed change
(4566);
Very slight (4506)
No observed change
(4574)
No observed change
(4744);
Slight (4777)
Slight (4638*)
No observed change
(4585, 4937)
No observed change
(4774);
Slight (4599, 4640);
Obvious (4747)
No observed change
(4563)
No observed change
(4950*);
Slight (4508)
No observed change
(4570*);
Slight (4775)
Slight (4931)
No observed change
(4481*)
No observed change
(4598);
Slight (4770)
No observed change
(4492)
No observed change
(4486);
Slight (4594*)
No observed change
(4500);
Slight (4478)
Obvious (4807*)
No observed change
(4493);
Very slight (4934)
No observed change
(4511*, 4801)
Very slight (4593)
No observed change
(4751);
Obvious (4505)
Slight (4470, 4715)
Obvious (4576*)
Obvious (4706)
Slight (4739)
Slight (4495)
Obvious (4600)
Obvious (4804)
Slight (4722)
Obvious (4484)
No observed change
(4592);
Slight (4938)
Obvious (4797)
No observed change
(4918)
Slight (4952*)
Slight (4633);
Obvious (4728)
No observed change
(4483*, 4569)
Obvious (4735)
Slight (4922);
Obvious (4716)
Slight (4639);
Obvious (4773)
Obvious (4797)
Obvious (4735)
a Sample
numbers are given in parentheses. Note that although all samples showed the effect of time, some samples only had comparison photos that were
taken prior to the time exposure, so the changes reported reflect both the effect of time and the additional test (i.e., test + time). However, some samples
had comparison photos taken only after the time exposure, so the changes reported reflect only the difference seen with the additional durability test
(i.e., test only, as indicated by an asterisk).
seen in figure 5, while feathers looked more evident in a Permasafe-filled emerald. Three emeralds
had slight changes: Feathers were more evident in
a cedarwood oilfilled emerald, a surface feather
had opened up in an emerald filled with unhardened Opticon, and a deep feather appeared to be
opening up in an NOA 65filled emerald. One of
the two Gematrat-filled emeralds showed an obvious change (figure 7), with feathers opening up at
the surface.
128
SUMMER 2007
Surface-hardened fillers
Norland Optical
Adhesive 65
Surface-hardened
Opticon
No observed
change (4733);
Slight (4573)
No observed
change (4586,
4785)
No observed
change (5347)
No observed
change (4772,
4794)
No observed
change (4565);
Slight (4494)
No observed
change (4810,
4949*)
No observed
change (4796)
No observed
change (4504,
4575)
No observed
change (4567,
4622)
No observed
change (4942*);
Slight (4745)
No observed
change (4805);
Very slight (4923)
Very slight (4475)
No observed
change (5344)
Slight (4721)
Slight (4795)
Slight (4444*)
Slight (4710)
No observed
change (4749)
No observed
change (4581,
4757)
No observed
change (4757);
Slight (4581)
Gematrat
Permasafe
No observed
change (5583, 5587)
No observed
change (5586,
5589*)
No observed
No observed
change (4473*); change (5585);
Obvious (4708) Very slight (5574)
Obvious (4816*) No observed
change (5578,
5579)
Obvious (91843) No observed
change (5582);
Slight (5452*)
No observed
No observed
change (5357*) change (5573)
Very slight (4729*) Slight (5356)
No observed
change (5581)
Very slight (4936) Slight (5350*)
No observed
change (5588);
Very slight (5580)
No observed
Slight (4795)
Very slight (5575);
change (4721)
Slight (5576)
Very slight (5575);
Obvious (5576)
wood oil and Canada balsam (figure 8) had an obvious appearance change, with a glassy feather on the
pavilion now visible through the crown. Feathers had
extended and cracked further in an emerald filled
with Gematrat, causing an obvious change in appearance (figure 9). The changes in this last emerald and
the unfilled one that was altered are particularly significant in that the emeralds themselvesnot just
the fillerswere damaged.
Desiccation. Four of the 14 filled emeralds had no
observed changes. Three emeralds showed very
slight changes: One filled with cedarwood oil and
one filled with surface-hardened Opticon showed
very slightly more evident feathers; and one that
was filled with paraffin oil showed surface feathers
opening up subtly. Five emeralds showed slight
changes: One filled with Araldite 6010, one filled
with Permasafe, and two filled with a mixture of
cedarwood oil and Canada balsam showed slightly
more evident feathers; while one that was filled
with cedarwood oil showed feathers appearing to
open up at depth. Two filled emeraldsone with
unhardened Opticon (figure 10) and one with
Gematratshowed obvious changes, in the form of
more prominent feathers.
Ultrasonic Cleaning in Water. The two emeralds
filled with Gematrat or Permasafe had no observed
changes. The emerald filled with surface-hardened
Opticon had a very slight change, with feathers
open at the surface. Four emeralds showed slight
appearance changes: Surface-reaching feathers were
opened up more in the emeralds filled with Araldite
6010 and paraffin oil; and fissures were more evident in the emerald filled with a mixture of cedarwood oil and Canada balsam and the one filled with
NOA 65. The emerald filled with cedarwood oil (figure 11) not only had obvious, open fissures, but
with magnification it also revealed material leaking
onto its surface. Similarly, several feathers had
SUMMER 2007
129
opened up in the unhardened Opticonfilled emerald (again, see figure 3), an obvious change.
Ultrasonic Cleaning in BCR. All the filled emeralds
except the one that was filled with Permasafe
showed changes with this test. The emerald filled
with surface-hardened Opticon showed a very slight
change, with open feathers more cleaned out at
depth. Four emeralds showed slight changes: One
filled with unhardened Opticon, one filled with a
mixture of cedarwood oil and Canada balsam (again,
see figure 3), and one filled with Gematrat (figure 12)
had feathers emptied out. An emerald filled with
NOA 65 (figure 13) showed slightly more iridescent
glassy feathers. Four filled emeralds showed obvious
changes: One with Araldite 6010 (figure 14), one
with cedarwood oil, one with paraffin oil, and one
with a mixture of cedarwood oil and Canada balsam
were partly emptied.
Figure 7. A 1.65 ct Gematrat-filled emerald (no. 4708;
left, after filling) showed the most obvious change in
the display-case test (right), with feathers opening up
at the surface.
130
SUMMER 2007
Figure 13. This 1.50 ct emerald filled with surfacehardened NOA 65 (no. 4710; left, after filling)
showed a slight changeslightly more iridescent
glassy feathersafter 30 minutes of ultrasonic
cleaning in BCR (right).
SUMMER 2007
131
DISCUSSION
What Conditions Affect the Appearance of Filled
Emeralds? The results of the five exposure tests
(time and exposure to long-wave UV [i.e., sunlight], the mild heat and light in a display case,
chill-thaw cycling, and desiccation) and five cleaning tests (ultrasonic in water, ultrasonic in BCR,
steam, and soaking in ethanol followed by soaking
in acetone) give some guidance as to the safety of
exposing emeralds to certain environmental conditions and to various cleaning techniques.
About 40% of the filled samples categorized (10
of 23) showed noticeable changes (from very slight
to obvious) due to time alone. However, it should
be noted that about half the samples in the time
test were in the soft category, and that those emeralds had the most dramatic changes. Therefore, all
categories of fillers are not equally represented in
this statistic. A better gauge of the emerald fillers is
that about 35% (19 of 54) of the filled emeralds
changed in appearance without exposure to any particularly harsh conditions (i.e., with exposure only
to time, long-wave UV, or the mild heat and light of
a display case).
The exposure test that changed the highest percentage of samples was a year in a desiccation environment after the basic time test. Desiccation made
feathers appear more evident in 10 of the 14 filled
132
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133
Figure 18. The observed changes in the filled emeralds varied dramatically (from none to obvious) depending on
the viscosity of the filler and the type of durability test. Generally, cleaning the filled emeralds led to much more
noticeable differences in their appearance than the exposure tests.
134
SUMMER 2007
Figure 19. This magnified (20) image of Canada balsam (poured on a slide in the mid-20th century)
shows cracks, gas bubbles, and an irregular surface.
Anecdotal evidence indicates that Canada balsam
solidifies and gets darker over decades.
CONCLUSIONS
Durability testing was performed on 142 emeralds
using nine fillers. About 35% of the filled emeralds
changed in appearance due to rather mild durability
testing. The desiccation test affected the highest
percentage of the samples subjected to those condi-
SUMMER 2007
135
Figure 21. Emeralds create memorable pieces of jewelry such as these two rings (left, 3.30 ct; right, 16.16 ct).
However, to help preserve their beauty, filled emeralds need to be treated with care and not subjected to
extreme environments. Courtesy of Grando Inc., Los
Angeles; photo by Harold & Erica Van Pelt.
136
SUMMER 2007
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author wishes to thank the following individuals for sharing their
knowledge of emerald enhancements: Ricardo Alvarez Pinzon, Luis
Ernesto Vermudez, and others at Treatment World Emerald
Gemolgico Universal, Bogot, Colombia; Dr. Rodrigo Giraldo, Centro
Gemolgico para la Investigacin de la Esmeralda, Bogot; Carlos
Osorio, Mineralco, Bogot; Jaime Rotlewicz, C. I. Gemtec, Bogot; the
staff of Alagecol (Asociacin de Laboratorios Gemolgicos), Bogot;
Darrold Allen, Gemological Laboratory of Los Angeles, California;
Kenneth Scarratt, AGTA Gemological Testing Center, New York City;
Amnan Gad, Amgad Inc., New York City; Michael and Ari Gad, Gad
International Ltd., New York City; Morty Kostetsky, Arigad Gems, New
York City; Dr. Kumar Shah, Real Gems Inc., New York City.
The company Eichhorn (San Jose, California) donated emerald
samples. Arthur Groom and Fernando Garzon (Arthur GroomGematrat, New York) provided emeralds, cleaning services, and
Gematrat filling. David Kaassamani (Kaassamani and Co. Intl., South
Lake Tahoe, California), Daniel Sauer (Amsterdam Sauer, Rio de
Janeiro), Dr. R. Shah (Real Gems Inc., New York), Maurice Shire
(Maurice Shire Inc., New York) provided emeralds. In New York, Abe
Nassi provided useful insights. Many thanks also to the staff of
Proexport Colombia (Bogot), including Ana Maria Llerras and Cristina
Montejo, for their hospitality while the author was in Colombia.
Colgem Ltd. (Ramat-Gan, Israel; through the help of Israel Eliezri),
Ron Ringsrud (Constellation Colombian Emeralds, Saratoga,
California), and Ray Zajicek (Equatorian Imports, Dallas, Texas) filled
some of the emeralds. Ray Zajicek also provided useful comments on
this manuscript. Zamrot Ashalim Engineering Ltd. (Ramat-Gan, Israel)
and Jairo Vaca Camacho (Bogot) provided equipment to assist with
the emeralds that were filled at GIA.
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Costanza F.S. (1998) Undisclosed gem treatment airs on national TV
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Drucker R.B. (1999) Venue and value: The wide-ranging prices of sapphires
and emeralds. JCK, Vol. 170, No. 3, pp. 174176, 178, 180181.
Federman D. (1998a) Fair play. Modern Jeweler, Vol. 97, No. 2, p. 108.
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Gomelsky V. (2003) Emerald is back, say dealers. National Jeweler, Vol.
97, No. 8, p. 28.
Jennings R.H., Kammerling R.C., Kovaltchouk A., Calderon G.P., El Baz
M.K., Koivula J.I. (1993) Emeralds and green beryls of Upper Egypt.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 29, No. 2, pp. 100115.
Jewelry scene: Coming clean (1998) Modern Jeweler, Vol. 97, No. 1, pp.
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Johnson M.L., Elen S., Muhlmeister S. (1999) On the identification of various emerald filling substances. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 35, No. 2, pp.
82107.
Johnson M.L., Koivula J.I., Eds. (1996) Gem news: Durability of polymerimpregnated (B-type) and natural jadeite. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 32,
No. 1, pp. 6162.
Johnson M.L., Koivula J.I., Eds. (1997) Gem news: A new emerald filler.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp. 148149.
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I., Kane R.E., Maddison P., Shigley J.E., Fritsch
E. (1991) Fracture filling of emeralds: Opticon and traditional oils.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 2, pp. 7085.
Kammerling R.C., McClure S.F., Johnson M.L., Koivula J.I., Moses T.M.,
Fritsch E., Shigley J.E. (1994) An update on filled diamonds:
Identification and durability. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 30, No. 3, pp.
142177.
Kennedy H.F. (1998) Brazilian emeralds: Oiling at the source. National
Jeweler, Vol. 42, No. 10, pp. 36, 38, 42, 46, 48, 50, 52.
Koivula J.I. (1980) Fluid inclusions: Hidden trouble for the jeweler and lapidary. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 8, pp. 273276.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Fritsch E., Fryer C.W., Hargett D., Kane R.E.
(1989) The characteristics and identification of filled diamonds. Gems
& Gemology, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 6883.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Fritsch E., Eds. (1993) Gem news:
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Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Fritsch E. (1994a) Emeralds from Brazil.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 30, No. 1, pp. 4950.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Fritsch E. (1994b) Gem news: New emerald
treatment/polishing systems from Israel. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 30,
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Lurie M. (1998) Emerald congress spotlights Colombian industry. Colored
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Martin D.D. (1987) Gemstone durability: Design to display. Gems &
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Michelou J.-C. (1999) Nouvelles de Bogota. Revue de Gemmologie, No.
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137
The great majority of Chinese freshwater cultured pearls are produced by implanting tissue
pieces in the mantle of Hyriopsis cumingii
mussels. Farmers have experimented with
bead nucleation, but until recently the methods tried did not produce the quantity or
quality necessary for economic success. In the
late 1990s, Chinese researchers imported
H. schlegelii mussels from Japan, began
propagating them in hatcheries, and started
cross-breeding them with native H. cumingii
mussels. Using the two pure species and the
hybrid, Chinese farmers produce tissueimplantation-only cultured pearls and have
developed a method called coin-bead/spherical-bead nucleation. This method has yielded
significant quantities of jewelry-quality
baroque shapes and lesser quantities of jewelry-quality rounds and near-rounds. Continued
experimentation is expected to increase the
percentage of rounds and near-rounds.
138
SUMMER 2007
RECENT DEVELOPMENTS
During our trip, we learned of two important developments in Chinese freshwater pearl culture. One
involved the introduction of a non-native mussel,
its hybridization with a native mussel, and the evident use of both pure species and the hybrid in pearl
culture. The other development was an innovative
bead-nucleation process.
H. schlegelii in China. Some Chinese pearl farmers
reported that H. cumingii is still the only mussel
SUMMER 2007
139
Figure 3. The CBSB-nucleation method recently produced these four baroques and one keshi (center).
They were sieve-sized at 1314 mm. Excellent luster
and variable color are often seen in CBSB-nucleated
pearls harvested today. Courtesy of Sea Hunt Pearls;
photo by Kevin Schumacher.
hybrid for several years. A search of the Chineselanguage scientific literature reveals a strong presence of H. schlegelii in China, its superiority to H.
cumingii as a pearl-bearing mussel, and the superiority of its hybrid with H. cumingii to either pure
species with respect to pearl culture (e.g., Lei, 2005;
Xu et al., 2005; Xie et al., 2006).
Figure 2. When the CBSB-nucleated freshwater cultured pearls known as fireballs first appeared on the
wholesale market in 2002, luster and surface quality
were poor, as this strand (1011 mm) shows. Courtesy
of PearlParadise.com; photo by Kevin Schumacher.
140
SUMMER 2007
Figure 4. Illustrated here are the various options for coin-bead/spherical-bead nucleation in H. cumingii
as practiced on some freshwater pearl farms in China. Evidence indicates the method is also used with
H. schlegelii and the H. cumingii H. schlegelii hybrid. Illustration by Karen Myers.
SUMMER 2007
141
Figure 5. These coin pearls and keshis were harvested prematurely for demonstration purposes about
17 months after coin beads were implanted. One year
after implantation, the farmer left these coin pearls
in the mussels to continue to grow. At that time, he
harvested other coin pearls and returned the H.
cumingii mussels to the water to let them develop
keshis. The keshis shown are about five months
old. Courtesy of He Jainhua; photo by Valerie Power.
Figure 6. The photograph (left) and composite X-radiograph (right) are of the same CBSB-nucleated cultured pearls
and are configured in parallel. The top sample shows a spherical bead nucleus, the one on the left shows a coin
bead nucleus, and the one on the right is a keshi with no nucleus. The samples were sieve-sized at 1214 mm.
Courtesy of Sea Hunt Pearls; photo by Kevin Schumacher, X-radiograph by Cheryl Wentzell.
142
SUMMER 2007
Figure 7. A 13.4 mm CBSB-nucleated round pearl sawn in half on the drill-hole axis revealed a 10.7 mm shell bead
(left). An 11 23 mm CBSB-nucleated baroque pearl sawn in half on the long axis revealed a 9 mm shell bead
(right). X-ray fluorescence and EDXRF tests proved the beads to be of saltwater origin. Courtesy of Sea Hunt Pearls;
photos by Kevin Schumacher.
SUMMER 2007
143
144
SUMMER 2007
REFERENCES
Akamatsu S., Li T., Moses T., Scarratt K. (2001) The current status of Chinese freshwater cultured pearls. Gems &
Gemology, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 96109.
Federman D. (2006) Fireball cultured pearls. Modern Jeweler, Vol.
105, No. 6, pp. 5152.
Lei S. (2005) Aquaculture varieties: Hyriopsis schlegelii artificial
breeding. Journal of Beijing Fisheries, No. 4, pp. 6263.
Mikimoto Pearl Island (1998) Pearl Museum. Toba City, Japan.
Pawasarat C. (2007) Biwa on the edge. Colored Stone, Vol. 20,
No. 3, pp. 2630.
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145
Figure 1. These yellowish green crystals were recovered from Block D at Merelani in the latter part of
2005. A blocky morphology is shown by the diopside
crystal (1.6 cm tall; left and bottom), whereas the
tremolite crystal has a flattened, diamond-shaped
cross-section. Photos by Robert Weldon.
146
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studied two gemstones (0.63 and 3.39 ct) that were cut
from Mr. Ulatowskis stock (figure 2). Gemological properties and various types of spectra (visiblenear-infrared,
Raman, and energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence [EDXRF])
were collected on the faceted stones at GIA by one of us
(EAF). Electron-microprobe analyses (Cameca SX50 instrument,15 kV accelerating voltage, 10 nA current, 10 mm
defocused beam, natural mineral standards) and singlecrystal X-ray diffraction analysis were performed on the
amphibole crystal at the University of Arizona; this sample was donated by Mr. Ulatowski for inclusion in the
RRUFF Project (ID no. R070422 at http://rruff.info).
RAPID COMMUNICATIONS
Diopside
Tremolite
3.39 ct
Yellowish green
None seen
1.670 1.700
0.030
3.30
None
0.63 ct
Yellowish green
None seen
1.610 1.635
0.025
3.07
None
Weak orange
Moderate greenish
yellow
No features visible
Growth tubes and
planar fluid inclusions
SUMMER 2007
147
gems is uncertain, and will depend on the mineralization encountered during further mining for tanzanite,
green grossular, and other gems at this famous locality.
REFERENCES
Blauwet D., Hawthorne F.C., Muhlmeister S., Quinn E.P. (2004)
Gem News International: Gem amphiboles from Afghanistan,
Pakistan, and Myanmar. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 40, No. 3,
pp. 254257.
Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1978) Rock-Forming
MineralsSingle-Chain Silicates, Vol. 2A, 2nd ed. John Wiley
& Sons, New York.
Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1997) Rock-Forming
MineralsDouble-Chain Silicates, Vol. 2B, 2nd ed. The Geological Society, London.
Fryer C.W., Ed. (1992) Gem News: Diopside from Tanzania.
Gems & Gemology, Vol. 28, No. 2, p. 201.
Kanaan S.-P. (2002) Gem News International: Pargasite from
China. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 1, p. 97.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Eds. (1991) Gem News: Attractive
Tanzanian diopside. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 27, No. 4, p. 257.
Laurs B.M. (2006) Gem News International: Tucson 2006. Gems
& Gemology, Vol. 42, No. 1, pp. 6263.
Lu L., He X., Shen M. (2006) Gemmological study on Cr-bearing
edenite. Journal of Gems and Gemmology, Vol. 8, No. 2, pp.
1719.
Schmetzer K. (1982) Absorption spectroscopy and colour of V3+bearing natural oxides and silicatesA contribution to the crystal chemistry of vanadium. Neues Jahrbuch fr Mineralogie,
Abhandlungen, Vol. 144, No. 1, pp. 73106 [in German].
Shor R., Quinn E. (2002) Gem News International: Tashmarine
Diopside from Central Asia. Gems & Gemology, Vol. 38, No. 3,
pp. 261262.
For regular updates from the world of GEMS & GEMOLOGY, visit our website at:
www.gia.edu/gemsandgemology
148
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SUMMER 2007
POLYMER-IMPREGNATED TURQUOISE
Kyaw Soe Moe, Thomas M. Moses, and Paul Johnson
A large Persian turquoise cabochon was impregnated with a material that was also present in cavities on
its base. Raman spectroscopy identified the filler as a
UV-hardened polymer. Although such polymers have
been seen as fillers in other gems, especially emerald,
this is the first time the GIA Laboratory has seen
turquoise treated with this material.
turquoise (figure 1). Although no treatments were disclosed, the sample had several small cavities and one large
one in its base that were filled or partially filled with a
transparent material (figure 1, right). Since this sample
offered an excellent opportunity to characterize the material used for stabilization, we purchased it to conduct further
studies in the laboratory. We collected standard gemological properties, as well as Raman spectra (using a Renishaw
inVia Raman microspectrometer with a 514 nm laser at
room temperature) and infrared spectra (using a Nicolet
6700 FTIR spectrometer equipped with a DRIFT accessory).
RAPID COMMUNICATIONS
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149
150
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al., 2005). These studies and the present work (i.e., the IR
absorption band at ~1740 cm1) suggest that various polymers/plastics have been used for stabilizing turquoise.
REFERENCES
Clarke R.H., Londhe S., Premasiri W.R., Womble M.E. (1999)
Low-resolution Raman spectroscopy: Instrumentation and
applications in chemical analysis. Journal of Raman
HOSTED BY
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151
Spring 2001
Ammolite from Southern Alberta, Canada
Discovery and Mining of the Argyle Diamond Deposit, Australia
Hydrothermal Synthetic Red Beryl
Spring 2004
Identification of CVD-Grown Synthetic Diamonds
Cultured Pearls from the Gulf of California, Mexico
X-Ray Fingerprinting Routine for Cut Diamonds
Summer 2001
The Current Status of Chinese Freshwater Cultured Pearls
Characteristics of Natural-Color and Heat-Treated
Golden South Sea Cultured Pearls
A New Method for Imitating Asterism
Summer 2004
Gem Treatment Disclosure and U.S. Law
Lab-Grown Colored Diamonds from Chatham
The 3543 cm-1 Band in Amethyst Identification
Fall 2001
Modeling the Appearance of the Round Brilliant
Cut Diamond: Fire
Pyrope from the Dora Maira Massif, Italy
Jeremejevite: A Gemological Update
Winter 2001
An Update on Paraba Tourmaline from Brazil
Spessartine Garnet from San Diego County, California
Pink to Pinkish Orange Malaya Garnets from Bekily,
Madagascar
Voices of the Earth: Transcending the Traditional in
Lapidary Arts
Spring 2002Special Issue
The Ultimate Gemologist: Richard T. Liddicoat
Portable Instruments and Tips on Practical Gemology in
the Field
Liddicoatite Tourmaline from Madagascar
Star of the South: A Historic 128 ct Diamond
Summer 2002
Characterization and Grading of Natural-Color Pink Diamonds
New Chromium- and Vanadium-Bearing Garnets from
Tranoroa, Madagascar
Update on the Identification of Treated Golden South
Sea Cultured Pearls
Fall 2002
Diamonds in Canada
Diffusion Ruby Proves to Be Synthetic Ruby Overgrowth
on Natural Corundum
Winter 2002
Chart of Commercially Available Gem Treatments
Gemesis Laboratory-Created Diamonds
Legal Protection for Proprietary Diamond Cuts
Rhodizite-Londonite from the Antsongombato Pegmatite,
Central Madagascar
Spring 2003
Photomicrography for Gemologists
Poudretteite: A Rare Gem from Mogok
Grandidierite from Sri Lanka
Summer 2003
Beryllium Diffusion of Ruby and Sapphire
Seven Rare Gem Diamonds
Fall 2003
G. Robert Crowningshield: A Legendary Gemologist
Cause of Color in Black Diamonds from Siberia
Obtaining U.S. Copyright Registration for the Elara Diamond
Winter 2003
Gem-Quality CVD Synthetic Diamonds
Pezzottaite from Madagascar: A New Gem
Red Beryl from Utah: Review and Update
Fall 2004
Grading Cut Quality of Round Brilliant Diamonds
Amethyst from Four Peaks, Arizona
Winter 2004
Creation of a Suite of Peridot Jewelry: From the Himalayas
to Fifth Avenue
An Updated Chart on HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamonds
A New Method for Detecting Beryllium Diffusion
Treated Sapphires (LIBS)
Spring 2005
Treated-Color Pink-to-Red Diamonds from Lucent Diamonds Inc.
A Gemological Study of a Collection of Chameleon Diamonds
Coated Pink Diamond: A Cautionary Tale
Summer 2005
Characterization and Grading of Natural-Color Yellow Diamonds
Emeralds from the Kafubu Area, Zambia
Mt. Mica: A Renaissance in Maines Gem Tourmaline Production
Fall 2005
A Review of the Political and Economic Forces Shaping
Todays Diamond Industry
Experimental CVD Synthetic Diamonds from LIMHPCNRS, France
Inclusions in Transparent Gem Rhodonite from
Broken Hill, New South Wales, Australia
Winter 2005
A Gemological Pioneer: Dr. Edward J. Gbelin
Characterization of the New Malossi Hydrothermal
Synthetic Emerald
Spring 2006
Paraba-type Tourmaline from Brazil, Nigeria, and
Mozambique: Chemical Fingerprinting by LA-ICP-MS
Identification and Durability of Lead GlassFilled Rubies
Characterization of Tortoise Shell and Its Imitations
Summer 2006
Applications of Laser AblationInductively Coupled Plasma
Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to Gemology
The Cullinan Diamond Centennial
The Effects of Heat Treatment on Zircon Inclusions in
Madagascar Sapphires
Faceting Transparent Rhodonite from New South Wales,
Australia
Fall 2006Special Issue
Proceedings of the 4th International Gemological Symposium
and GIA Gemological Research Conference
Winter 2006
The Impact of Internal Whitish and Reflective Graining on the
Clarity Grading of D-to-Z Diamonds at the GIA Lab
Identification of "Chocolate Pearls" Treated by Ballerina Pearl Co.
Leopard Opal: Play-of-Color Opal in Basalt from Mexico
The Cause of Iridescence in Rainbow Andradite from Japan
$115 $ 135
$190 $ 220
$ 170
$ 280
EDITORS
Thomas M. Moses and
Shane F. McClure
GIA Laboratory
DIAMOND
With Bimineralic Inclusions
In the GIA Laboratory, diamond
graders and staff gemologists examine
thousands of diamonds each year to
determine their grade, possible treatments, and their natural or synthetic
origin. During this process, they often
encounter mineral inclusions, the colors of which can cover the entire visible-light spectrum from violet to red as
well as near colorless, with diaphaneity ranging from transparent to completely opaque.
Occasionally, these mineral inclusions may warrant further study. When
they are close enough to the host dia-
LAB NOTES
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153
154
LAB NOTES
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LAB NOTES
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155
Figure 7. In GIAs color grading system, the 0.24 ct type Ia pear-shaped diamond in the center is described with
the same terminology (blue-gray) as the 0.63 ct marquise on the left, butbecause it falls at the extreme opposite
end of that color rangeit has a different appearance. The 0.18 ct pear shape on the right is also a type Ia diamond, but its violet-gray color is more typical of that seen in diamonds with a color related to hydrogen defects.
156
LAB NOTES
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LAB NOTES
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157
Figure 11. The PL spectra confirm the extremely strong emissions from
Ni-related defects (e.g., the 883.1/884.8 nm pair). However, most of these
sharp emission peaks remain unclear in assignment.
158
LAB NOTES
major color contributor in natural diamond. The absence of these previously mentioned defects and the almost
exclusive occurrence of Ni-related
defects (in particular the 1.40 eV center) strongly indicate that the intense
green hue of this diamond is caused
by Ni-related defects. The size, high
clarity, and attractive Ni-related
intense green color of this diamond
make it very unusual.
This rare diamond reveals another cause of green color in naturally
colored diamonds. The 1.40 eV centerwhich is caused by the interstitial charged ion Ni +has been documented in chameleon diamonds (see,
e.g., J. E. Shigley et al., Photoluminescence features of chameleon diamonds, Proceedings of the 55th De
Beers Diamond Conference, Coventry,
UK, 2004, pp. 4.14.2; T. Hainschwang
et al., A gemological study of a collection of chameleon diamonds, Spring
2005 Gems & Gemology, pp. 2035),
as have other Ni-related defects (e.g.,
the 1.563 eV center with a zerophonon line at 793.5 nm).
Wuyi Wang and Tom Moses
SUMMER 2007
HPHT-Grown SYNTHETIC
DIAMOND Crystal with Unusual
Morphology and Negative Trigons
Recently, the East Coast laboratory
examined a 1.56 ct highly saturated red
crystal (7.25 5.75 3.42 mm; figure
13). Gemological and spectroscopic
characterization identified it as an
HPHT-grown synthetic diamond that
apparently was artificially irradiated
and annealed. In the past, we have had
the opportunity to document similarly
color-treated pink to purplish pink synthetic crystals and red synthetic faceted
diamonds (T. M. Moses et al., Two
treated-color synthetic red diamonds
LAB NOTES
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159
Idocrase in JADEITE:
A Heavenly Home
The GIA Laboratory sees a wide variety of jade items for identification.
These examinations are usually routine and generally do not offer any
surprises. A recent exception was provided by a mottled translucent greenand-white bangle bracelet. The gemological identification as jadeite and
the determination that it had not
been treated were both straightforward. The surprise came during the
microscopic examination, when we
were searching for possible dye concentrations in any surface-reaching
cracks.
While no dye was observed in the
bangle, this inspection did reveal the
presence of several small euhedral-tosubhedral translucent white to light
brown modified prismatic inclusions
(figure 14) that appeared to have crystallized in the tetragonal system.
While it is often very difficult to identify inclusions that are completely
enclosed in a massive material such
as jade, several were exposed on the
bracelets surface, so they made convenient targets for Raman microanalysis. This conclusively identified
Figure 15. This unusual pattern appears to have been generated when
opal was deposited over a surface covered with numerous more-or-less
evenly spaced microcrystals of quartz. Field of view is 4.2 mm.
Figure 14. During an otherwise routine gem identification, it was a pleasant surprise to find these relatively well-formed translucent crystals of
idocrase included in a jadeite bangle bracelet. Field of view is 5.2 mm.
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LAB NOTES
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Figure 16. The play-of-color creates a hazy glow over the quartz casts on
the base of their opal host. Field of view is 4.2 mm.
PHOTO CREDITS
John I. Koivula1, 6, 12, and 1416; Jian Xin
(Jae) Liao2 and 8; Wuyi Wang3 and 9;
Jessica Arditi7; Jason Darley13.
Twenty-Five Years
at Your Fingertips
Twenty-five years of GEMS & GEMOLOGY
means a lot of valuable research. Fortunately,
weve got it allarticles, lab notes, gem
news, editorials, and book reviewsindexed
in this one handy volume. Its an invaluable
tool for the serious gemologist, for the
far-from-invaluable price of just $14.95.
($19.95 internationally) FREE shipping!
LAB NOTES
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161
EDITOR
Brendan M. Laurs (blaurs@gia.edu)
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Emmanuel Fritsch, IMN, University of
Nantes, France (fritsch@cnrs-imn.fr)
Henry A. Hnni, SSEF, Basel, Switzerland
(gemlab@ssef.ch)
Franck Notari, GemTechLab,
Geneva, Switzerland
(franck.notari@bluewin.ch)
Kenneth V. G. Scarratt, GIA Research,
Bangkok, Thailand
(ken.scarratt@gia.edu)
DIAMONDS
Bar code technology applied to diamonds. Inscribing diamonds using lasers and other technologies has become a
routine method for identifying a stone and personalizing it
for individual situations. At the same time, bar coding has
evolved from the traditional one-dimensional array of lines
to a two-dimensional matrix code that can hold far more
information.
Diamond laser inscription technology has now progressed to the point where a miniature matrix code can be
inscribed on the girdle of a diamond (see, e.g., figure 1).
Instead of just a grading report number, the matrix code
can store all of the information in the report itself, such as
clarity, cut, and color grades, as well as country of origin (if
known), the name of the manufacturer, and other
specifics. This has distinct advantages for diamond dealers
and manufacturers when managing inventory, security
issues, and finances. Unlike traditional laser inscriptions,
which can be read with a loupe or a microscope, a matrix
code requires a scanner to decode the information. While
this does entail investment in additional equipment, it can
also provide confidentiality to the owner of the stone.
One manufacturer of the inscription and code-reading
equipment, PhotoScribe Technologies of New York,
noted that the cost of applying a diamond matrix code is
comparable to that of current laser inscriptions.
Russell Shor (rshor@gia.edu)
GIA, Carlsbad
U.S. Supreme Court ruling may affect viability of some
diamond cut patents. On April 30, 2007, the United
States Supreme Court handed down a decision in the case
of KSR International v. Teleflex (available online at
www.supremecourtus.gov/opinions/06pdf/04-1350.pdf).
Although this case involved a patent for an automobile
gas pedal, the ruling affects the standards by which the
162
Editors note: The initials at the end of each item identify the
editor or contributing editor who provided it. Full names and
affiliations are given for other contributors.
Interested contributors should send information and
illustrations to Brendan Laurs at blaurs@gia.edu or GIA, The
Robert Mouawad Campus, 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad,
CA 92008. Original photos will be returned after consideration
or publication.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 43, No. 2, pp. 162183
2007 Gemological Institute of America
SUMMER 2007
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164
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166
in contrast to the alexandrite effect exhibited by alexandrite and color-change garnet, among other minerals,
which is due to a small number of broad bands linked to
chromium and/or vanadium absorption.
To the best of our knowledge, color change has not
been reported previously in bastnsite, and this was the
first example of color-change bastnsite seen in the AIGS
Laboratory.
Acknowledgments: This contributor wishes to
acknowledge K. Plagbunchong, S. Arepornrat, and T.
Thongtawee of the CIFS Laboratory for assistance with the
XRMF analysis.
Laurent Massi (info@aigslaboratory.com)
AIGS Gem Laboratory, Bangkok
Citrine with pyrite inclusions. At the 2007 Tucson gem
shows, these contributors were shown some unusual
faceted stones and cabochons of citrine that contained
conspicuous inclusions of pyrite. The material was
offered by Michele Macr (Laboratorio di Gemmologia
Geo-Land, Rome, Italy), who indicated that it was mined
in approximately 2002 in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Until
recently, only clean citrine gemstones had been cut from
the rough, while all the material containing inclusions
had been stockpiled. Mr. Macr obtained ~1 kg of the
rough material containing pyrite inclusions from the
mine owner, which yielded about 400 carats of faceted
stones and cabochons. The color of the citrine reportedly
is natural, and the material has not been treated in any
way. According to the mine owner, the property was
closed in 2005, but the deposit still contains additional
reserves of the material.
A 30.32 ct dark brownish orange oval buff-top citrine
was donated to GIA by Mr. Macr and examined for this
report (figure 6). Standard gemological testing verified that
this gem was quartz, while the condition of the pyrite (figure 7) and intact fluid inclusions provided evidence that the
citrine was natural and untreated. Although beautifully
SUMMER 2007
Figure 10. One of the danburites also contained elongate growth tubes. Photomicrograph by Hpone Phyo
Kan-Nyunt; magnified 20.
SUMMER 2007
167
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SUMMER 2007
blue to grayish blue (similar to iolite) in sunlight and in daylight-equivalent fluorescent light, and purple (like amethyst)
to reddish purple in incandescent light (figure 12). In addition, some of the deep reddish brown fluorite crystals
appeared deep red (like rhodolite) in incandescent light. The
other colors did not show the color-change effect, so it was
estimated that only 35% of the stones show this behavior.
Ethiopian fluorite has the potential to be an interesting
collectors gem. According to Mr. Desta, the total weight
of rough material available on the market as of May 2007
was approximately 200 kg.
Michele Macr (michele@minerali.it),
Adriana Maras, Elisa Melis, and Paolo Ballirano
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Rome La Sapienza
Rome, Italy
Heliodor and other beryls from Connecticut. For more
than a century, granitic pegmatites of the Middletown
District in Connecticut have been known for producing
small amounts of gem beryl and tourmaline, although
they have been principally mined for industrial feldspar,
mica, beryl, and other minerals (see E. N. Cameron et al.,
Pegmatite Investigations, 19421945, in New England,
U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 255, 1954, 347
pp.; J. A. Scovil, The Gillette Quarry, Haddam Neck,
Connecticut, Mineralogical Record, Vol. 23, No. 1, 1992,
pp. 1928). A variety of beryl colors have been reported
from these pegmatites, including colorless, golden yellow, blue to green, and pink (e.g., Scovil, 1992).
At the 2007 Tucson gem shows, Jim Clanin (JC
Mining, Hebron, Maine) obtained two faceted heliodors
from Connecticut that were notable for their saturated
golden yellow color (figure 13). The stones were purchased from Jan Brownstein (Songo Pond Gems, Bethel,
Maine), who had cut them from a collection of gem rough
that he recently obtained from the Howard Hewitt estate.
This beryl collection consisted mostly of rough pieces, polished rough, and preforms of various colors (e.g., figure 14)
that were mined by Mr. Hewitt over the past several
decades from three quarries in Connecticut: Merryall (or
Roebling) in Litchfield County (golden yellow), Slocum
near East Hampton (lemon yellow), and Turkey Hill
near Haddam (pale blue, with inclusions; John Betts, pers.
comm., 2007). In total, Mr. Brownstein obtained a few
kilograms of the Connecticut beryl, and he has faceted
about 250 stones so far with a maximum weight of ~13 ct.
All of the rough material consisted of broken pieces that
most likely were derived from beryl crystals that were
frozen in the pegmatite matrix; there was no evidence of
any crystal faces indicative of growth in gem pockets.
Examination of the two cut heliodors (1.54 and 2.36 ct)
by one of us (EAF) showed the following properties: color
orangy yellow to orange-yellow, with no pleochroism; RI
1.5751.581; birefringence0.006; hydrostatic SG2.73
and 2.75; Chelsea filter reactionnone; and fluorescence
inert to long- and short-wave UV radiation. These proper-
SUMMER 2007
169
K-feldspar
Weight (ct)
Color
RI (spot)
SG (hydrostatic)
Fluorescence
Long-wave
Short-wave
Spectroscope spectrum
Inclusions
Scapolite
19.32
Orangy brown
1.53
2.59
13.70
Brown-red
1.55
2.75
Inert
Very weak red
General absorption to
510 nm
Fine black needles, small
reddish trigonal platelets,
and long orangy rectangular
platelets
Inert
Very weak red
No features seen
Opal
Apatite
6.45
Orange-brown
1.45
2.09
15.13
Yellowish green
1.63
3.23
Inert
Inert
General absorption to
550 nm
Small red angular platelets, Long needles with an
fine red needles, and small almost fibrous appearance
black dendritic platelets
Inert
Inert
Line at 530 nm and
doublet at 580 nm
Fine iridescent needles or
growth tubes
No pleochroism or reaction to the Chelsea filter was seen in any of the samples.
170
SUMMER 2007
ented lath-shaped inclusions of hematite. A similar Kfeldspar (from an undisclosed source) was described in a
Summer 1997 Lab Note (p. 137), but in that cabochon the
platy inclusions were too large and poorly oriented to
account for the chatoyancy or asterism.
The properties obtained for the chatoyant scapolite are
consistent with those previously reported for this gem
variety (e.g., Summer 2003 Gem News International, pp.
158159; Spring 1984 Lab Notes, pp. 4950) except that
the RI we measured was slightly lower. Since the refractive indices (and specific gravity) of scapolite increase with
greater Ca content, our results indicate a composition that
is closer to the marialite end member (3NaAlSi3O8NaCl)
of the solid-solution series with meionite (2CaAl2Si2O8
CaCO3). A further decrease in Ca content would be
expected to cause a spot-RI value that is at or slightly
below 1.54 (e.g., P. C. Zwaan and C. E. S. Arps, Properties
of gemscapolites [sic] from different localities, Zeitschrift
der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 29,
No. 12, 1980, pp. 8285), which is quite similar to that of
K-feldspar.
The properties of the other chatoyant gems documented in this study are consistent with those described in the
literature for Tanzanian opal (Summer 1998 Gem News,
pp. 138140) and apatite (E. Gbelin and K. Schmetzer,
Eine neue Edelstein-Variett aus Tansania: Gelbe, grne
und rtlich-braune Apatit-Katzenaugen, Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 31, No. 4,
1982, pp. 261263).
The cats-eye K-feldspar can be readily separated from
chatoyant opal and apatite by its standard gemological
properties. However, distinguishing it from scapolite
might be difficult in cases where a stone cannot be
unmounted for SG measurement. In such situations, a
careful RI reading can separate the two minerals, but an
accurate identification may depend on performing more
advanced (spectroscopic) testing.
Eric Fritz (eric.fritz@gia.edu)
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
BML
Green opal. During the 2007 Tucson gem shows, one of
these contributors (BML) was shown some cabochons of
bright green opal by Hussain Rezayee (Pearl Gem Co.,
Beverly Hills, California). Mr. Rezayee obtained the rough
in December 2004 while in Turkey, but he was not able
to confirm its source. From several tons of mostly lowquality material, he selected 100 kg of usable pieces that
ranged from 20 g to 1 kg. He subsequently cut about 5,000
carats of cabochons, which weighed up to 7080 ct each.
He reported that none of the cabochons were treated in
any way.
Five of the opal cabochons (5.3617.74 ct; e.g., figure
16) were loaned to GIA by Mr. Rezayee for examination,
and the following gemological properties were determined
by one of us (KMR): colorsemitranslucent-to-translucent
light green; spot RI1.46 1.47; hydrostatic SG
Figure 16. Although the rough material was purchased in Turkey, these green opal cabochons
(5.3617.74 ct) have properties comparable to those
recorded for Serbian material. Courtesy of Hussain
Rezayee; photo by Robert Weldon.
SUMMER 2007
171
172
piece from a donor mollusk, in host mollusks that measured 6.47 cm in diameter. At that size, the mollusks are
about 18 months old. We were told that the pearl-growth
period ranges from six months to two years, but 1012
months is most common. Nacre thickness (per radius)
ranges from 0.1 to 1.2 mm, while 0.40.6 mm is most
common. Cultured pearl sizes range from 2 to 11 mm.
Shapes are round, near-round, semibaroque, baroque, drop,
pear, and oval. Colors include bleached white with a ros
overtone produced by pinking (immersing the cultured
pearls in an extremely dilute red pigment) and natural silver-blue (figure 17). Quality ranges from commercial to
gem grade.
According to Mr. You, processors in the Xuwen area
bleach about 98% of the akoya cultured pearls they handle. Many are also heavily dyed, with black being the most
common color. A medium-volume processing factory produces about 10,000 temporary strands (1616.5 inch
[4042 cm]) per year, while a large factory produces about
42,000 such strands annually.
About 50% of the Chinese akoya cultured pearls are
sold in Hong Kong, either at trade fairs or by direct sale
through five Hong Kong wholesalers. Local wholesalers in
the culturing region sell the balance by direct sale. In 2006,
the top wholesale markets were Japan, the U.S., and Europe.
The 2006 volume was down from the 27 metric tons
produced in 2005, and production is expected to dip again
in 2007 (You H. Q. and Cissy Wong, pers. comms., 2007).
The decline is partly due to falling demand, but the
motives of hundreds of independent Chinese akoya pearl
farmers also contribute. For akoya farmers in China, pearl
culturing is very much a dollars-and-cents business. When
the short-term gain looks better in shrimp farming or
another type of aquaculture, many farmers switch products. The akoya volume we see now can be determined by
how the farmers economic picture looked about a year ago.
Doug Fiske (dfiske@gia.edu)
GIA Course Development, Carlsbad
Jeremy Shepherd
PearlParadise.com Inc., Los Angeles
Pyrope-almandine from Tanzania. John D. Dyer (Precious
Gemstones Co., Edina, Minnesota) had some attractive
orange-red to orangy red garnets that he marketed as rose
malaya at the 2007 Tucson gem shows. This trade name
was based on the identification of the material as pyropespessartine by independent gemologists. The garnets
reportedly have been produced since mid-2005 from
Tanzanias Umba Valley.
Mr. Dyer loaned three samples and donated an additional 1.35 ct garnet to GIA for examination (figure 18).
The following properties were determined on all four
stones by one of us (EAF): colororange-red; RI1.742; no
birefringence; hydrostatic SG3.80; Chelsea filter reactionnone; fluorescenceinert to long- and short-wave
UV radiation; and absorption lines at 504, 520, and 573 nm
SUMMER 2007
Pink-to-red tourmaline from Myanmar. Rubellite tourmaline from Myanmar is well known as fibrous mushroomlike crystals from the Mogok area (see T. Hlaing and A. K.
Win, Rubellite and other gemstones from Momeik
Township, northern Shan State, Myanmar, Australian
Gemmologist, Vol. 22, 2005, pp. 215218). From late 2006
to February 2007, well-formed prisms of pink-to-red tourmaline were mined from a pegmatite located about 80 km
northeast of Mandalay, at Letpanhla in Singu Township.
The pegmatite is hosted by rocks of the Mogok metamorphic belt that strike in a north-south direction.
The tourmaline crystals had typical striated prism
faces and were terminated by rhombohedral faces (e.g.,
figure 19). This contributor estimates that ~5 kg of
fine-quality crystals were produced, as well as >100 kg
SUMMER 2007
173
Figure 20. This 31.5 ct cabochon of Letpanhla tourmaline shows a saturated pink color that is considerably more intense than is typically seen in tourmaline from this locality. Courtesy of U Tin Hlaing.
of lower-quality pink material. The tourmaline typically contains fine tubes parallel to the c-axis and abundant fluid inclusions (trichites). Several hundred cabochons have been cut, ranging from 5 to 50 ct each (e.g.,
figure 20). Rare cats-eye cabochons also have been produced from the Letpanhla material (figure 21).
There appears to be good potential for additional finds
of tourmaline and other pegmatite minerals from the
Mogok metamorphic belt in the area between Thabeikyin
and Sagyin.
U Tin Hlaing
Dept. of Geology (retired)
Panglong University, Myanmar
174
SUMMER 2007
Figure 23. A zone of concentric whitish bands, similar to those seen in flame-fusion synthetic sapphire, was visible through the base of the glass object (left); note the white crystallites along the inner edge of the zone. When
the glass object was viewed from the side (center), the curved whitish bands appeared as straight parallel
planes, as would be expected for a cross-section through concentric cylindrical tubes. At higher magnification
(right), the circular bands were seen to be composed of planes of white pinpoint inclusions. Photomicrographs
by G. Choudhary; magnified 10 (left and center) and 65 (right).
Figure 24. The zone containing the whitish bands exhibited strong pinkish purple fluorescence to short-wave
UV radiation (upper left in this photo), and the edge of
this zone fluoresced blue. Photo by G. Choudhary.
short-wave UV radiation, with a strong chalky blue luminescence on the surface; and chrome lines seen in the
absorption spectrum with a desk-model spectroscope.
These properties were consistent with ruby, while the
strong chalky blue surface fluorescence to short-wave UV
radiation suggested heat treatment.
When examined with magnification, this sample at
first showed internal features that looked very much like
those seen in flux-assisted heated natural rubies (figure
26). However, when examined carefully, these inclusions
proved to be various forms of flux residue, such as are
found in flux-grown synthetics. Also apparent were
white, high-relief, parallel rods; feather-like structures or
fingerprints; rain-like structures resembling comets;
and discoid features with so-called paint splash inclusions
(figure 27). These inclusions are typical of Kashan fluxgrown synthetic ruby. Also present were dissolved white
flux-filled negative crystals with associated discoid fis-
Figure 25. This 10.12 ct sample proved to be a heattreated Kashan flux-grown synthetic ruby. Photo by
S. Singbamroong, Dubai Gemstone Laboratory.
SUMMER 2007
175
Figure 26. The synthetic ruby contained internal features that resemble those seen in flux-assisted heated
natural rubies. Photomicrograph by S. Singbamroong,
Dubai Gemstone Laboratory; magnified 6.
176
SUMMER 2007
Figure 28. Dissolved white flux-filled negative crystals with discoid fissures, indicative of heat treatment, were also observed in the synthetic ruby.
Photomicrograph by S. Singbamroong, Dubai
Gemstone Laboratory; magnified 50.
Figure 29. This 4.63 ct cabochon proved to be a synthetic star sapphire with hexagonal zoning in its core,
which initially suggested natural origin. Photo by
G. Choudhary.
SUMMER 2007
177
178
The identification of the stone as a flame-fusion synthetic spinel was further confirmed by Raman spectroscopy,
which showed relatively wide Raman peaks at 866, 786,
693, and 413 cm1, compared to the characteristic narrow
peaks at 764, 662, and 406 cm1 in natural and flux-grown
synthetic spinel. The broadening and shift in these peaks is
due to structural disorder in Verneuil-synthetic nonstoichiometric spinel resulting from excess Al (P. Schaub,
Spectroskopische Untersuchungen an Al-Spinell, unpublished diploma thesis, University of Basel, Switzerland,
2004). The absence of Cr was further confirmed by a Raman
photoluminescence spectrum (514 nm laser), which showed
no characteristic chromium emission bands.
Pink flame-fusion synthetic spinel is very rare,
because chromium is not readily introduced as a chromophore during the Verneuil process. The UV-Vis absorption spectrum showed a predominant broad absorption
band at 553 nm, a smaller absorption centered at 630 nm,
a series of smaller absorption shoulders at 442, 472, and
530 nm, and an absorption cut-off at 400 nm (figure 34).
Light violet-pink spinels colored by iron (attributed to
SUMMER 2007
spin-forbidden electronic transitions of tetrahedrally coordinated Fe 2+) have shown similar absorption bands (see V.
T. Gritsyna et al., Spectroscopic features of iron-doped
magnesium-aluminum spinel crystals, Journal of
Applied Spectroscopy, Vol. 45, No. 2, 1985, pp. 837840;
M. N. Taran et al., Electronic absorption spectroscopy of
natural (Fe2+, Fe3+)-bearing spinels of spinel s.s.-hercynite
and gahnite-hercynite solid solutions at different temperatures and high-pressures, Physics and Chemistry of
Minerals, Vol. 32, No. 3, 2005, pp. 175188). It is possible
that very low concentrations of cobalt also contribute to
the pink color of this sample.
Although flame-fusion synthetic spinel is typically an
easy identification, this specimen was unusual in terms of
its pink color, the abundance of inclusions, and the
absence of any reaction to UV radiation. Most flamefusion synthetic spinels are colorless, yellowish green to
dark green, or light blue to blue. They often show a reddish fluorescence to long-wave UV radiation (due to
cobalt) and a chalky white fluorescence to short-wave UV.
Nevertheless, the RI and SG values, and the absence of
naturally occurring inclusions, provide identification criteria for an experienced gemologist.
Michael S. Krzemnicki (gemlab@ssef.ch)
and Pierre Lefvre
SSEF Swiss Gemmological Institute
Basel, Switzerland
SUMMER 2007
179
Figure 36. This chart shows the estimated global jewelry consumption by value for the eight key world
markets, projected to 2015 (total US$230 billion).
Shown in parentheses are values for 2005 (total $146
billion). Modified from The Global Gems and
Jewellery IndustryVision 2015: Transforming for
Growth, by KPMG India.
MISCELLANEOUS
KPMG report predicts growth for the global jewelry industry. KPMG is a global network of professional firms that
provide audit, tax, and advisory services. In December
2006, KPMG India released a comprehensive study of the
diamond and jewelry industry worldwide, The Global
Gems and Jewellery IndustryVision 2015: Transforming
for Growth (see www.in.kpmg.com/pdf/Gems_Jewelry_
report_06.zip). The report predicts that global jewelry sales
will grow by a combined 4.3% annually, from about US
$146 billion in 2005 to $230 billion in 2015 (figure 36). The
study also indicates that 2015 sales have the potential to
reach $280 billion, if the industry were to reform its marketing practices, adopt more transparent and professional
business methods, and invest more in product research.
Diamond jewelry accounted for 47.2% of world jewelry sales in 2005, according to the report, followed by plain
gold at 41.6%. Platinum was 6.2% (mainly in Japan and
China), with colored stones and cultured pearls at 5%. The
U.S. accounted for 30.8% of world jewelry sales, with
China second at 8.9%, and Japan and India tied for third at
8.3% each (again, see figure 36). Italy was the largest
European consumer, with a 5% world market share, while
the UK accounted for 3.1%.
Within the 2005 value chain that comprised the total
sales of $146 billion, retail margins accounted for nearly
half ($67.2 billion), while rough diamond production was
$12.7 billion and polished wholesale diamond sales were
$17.6 billion. Precious metals accounted for $40.6 billion,
180
and jewelry manufacturing costs were pegged at $20.6 billion. (The sales figures of the individual categories total
$158.7 billion, rather than $146 billion, due to some overlap between them.) However, the report offered few details
about colored stone and cultured pearl sales, citing the
lack of transparency and available statistics. (Note,
though, that the Jewelers of Americas Cost of Doing
Business Survey for 2006 reported that colored stone jewelry accounted for 9% of U.S. retail jewelry sales.)
In 2015, diamond jewelry is projected to decline to
41% of worldwide sales, with plain gold remaining steady
at ~41%. Platinum will rise slightly to 7% (with another
6% added for palladium jewelry). Synthetic diamonds will
likely grab some market share from natural diamonds.
KPMG also sees a decline in U.S. retail share of global
demand to 25.6%, losing ground to China (13.4%) and
India (12.3%). Japan will see its market share halved to
3.7%. Between 2005 and 2015, KPMG predicts, the industry will see further fragmentation of diamond sources and
heavy consolidation in the wholesale and retail sectors.
The De Beers Diamond Trading Companys share of
rough diamond production is expected to fall to less than
40% (from about 55% in 2005), as more small mining
companies market their goods through rough diamond
traders. Additionally, more rough will be sold on the open
market through invitational auctions, or through partner players upstream in the manufacturing and retailing
sectors. The polished diamond and finished jewelry markets will see the rise of large, fully integrated mine-toretail players. Manufacturers will concentrate in low-wage
countries, although there will be an increase in smaller
niche manufacturing. The industry will undergo consolidation, as difficult cash flow, financing problems, and
unsustainable inventory positions force a number of mergers and cause others to go out of business.
The KPMG report offered recommendations for improving marketing and business practices that could, purportedly,
result in an additional 15% growth over the 10-year period:
Promote jewelry as a category, combining separate (and
often competing) campaigns by the diamond, gold, and
colored stone/cultured pearl sectors into a unified effort
that enhances the value proposition of jewelry.
Identify and serve new consumer needs and segments,
create new occasions to sell jewelry, and make jewelry
more accessible to consumers.
Create more innovative designs and products in established markets, while generating demand in emerging
markets.
Improve the industrys public image. Lack of transparency and concerns over quality and treatments
dampen consumer demand and discourage involvement
by the financial industry.
Attract talent from outside the industryparticularly
the luxury goods sectorand professionalize familyowned businesses.
SUMMER 2007
The report noted that reducing finance costs by adopting these reforms (i.e., making the industry more attractive to lenders) and improving credit practices could
increase cash flow. Adoption of these measures could generate an additional $50 billion in annual sales by 2015.
Russell Shor (rshor@gia.edu)
GIA, Carlsbad
CONFERENCE REPORTS
Sinkankas Symposium: The Jades. This fifth annual symposium in honor of John Sinkankas took place April 21 at
GIA in Carlsbad. Approximately 140 people attended the
sold-out event, which was co-hosted by GIA and the San
Diego Mineral and Gem Society. As in previous years, the
Symposium was organized by Roger Merk (Merks Jade,
San Diego) and the participants were treated to displays of
items from various collections (see, e.g., figure 37).
Fred Ward (Gem Book Publishers and Friends of Jade,
Malibu, California) surveyed the various uses for jade (i.e.,
jewelry, decorative objects, utensils, and ritual items) and
described several important localities for jadeite and
nephrite. In particular, he indicated that Myanmar is the
worlds leading source of jadeite jade, whereas most
nephrite jade comes from British Columbia, Canada. Si
Frazier (El Cerrito, California) surveyed various types of
jade, including an interesting slab of white to pale blue
jadeite from Myanmar that showed distinct patches of a
brighter blue in transmitted light (figure 38). Mary Lou
Ridinger (Jades S.A., Antigua, Guatemala) described several varieties of Guatemalan jadeite that have been mined
from seven quarries discovered near the Motagua fault
zone from 1974 to 2004. She indicated that her companys
manufacture of realistic replicas of jade artifacts has drastically reduced the demand for illegally recovered antique
jades from Guatemala.
Don Kay (Mason-Kay Inc., Denver, Colorado) outlined
value factors for fine jadeite according to its color and form
(i.e., beads, bangles, and carvings). Pure green colors are
much more valuable than lavender, yellow, red, and black
varieties. In recent years, semitransparent colorless ice
jadeite (from Myanmar) has commanded high prices, but it
SUMMER 2007
181
ANNOUNCEMENTS
New CIBJO Blue Book available. CIBJOThe World
Jewellery Confederation has released an updated version
(2006-1) of its Blue Book, which provides standardized
guidelines pertaining to the nomenclature, treatments,
and/or care requirements for diamonds, colored stones,
and pearls. The updated Blue Book was ratified at the
March 2007 CIBJO Congress in Cape Town, South Africa.
PDF files for each of the three sections are available for
free download at www.cibjo.org.
AGTA Spectrum Awards competition. The 2008 AGTA
Spectrum Awards will recognize outstanding colored gemstone and cultured pearl jewelry designs from North
America, as well as achievements in the lapidary arts.
Winning entries will be displayed and award recipients
honored at the 2008 AGTA GemFairs in Tucson and Las
Vegas. The entry deadline is September 25; the competition will be held in New York City during October. For
entry forms and more information, visit www.agta.org or
call 800-972-1162.
Conferences
PegCamp 2007East. This one-week course, held August
613 in Poland, Maine, will cover the mineralogy, internal
structure, and evolution of granitic pegmatites through the
field examination of pegmatites and related granites. Visit
www.pegmatology.com/pegcamp.htm.
NAJA 28th Annual Mid-Year Education Conference. The
National Association of Jewelry Appraisers will hold this
conference August 1114 at the Cobb Galleria Convention
Center in Atlanta, Georgia. Topics will include financial
tips for appraisers, appraising antique jewelry, and expanding appraisal skill sets. Visit www.najaappraisers.com.
182
SUMMER 2007
CGA Gem Conference 2007. The Canadian Gemmological Associations annual gemological conference
will take place October 1921 in Vancouver, British
Colombia. Visit www.gemconference2007.com.
GSA Annual Meeting. The Geological Society of America
will be holding its annual meeting October 2831, 2007,
in Denver, Colorado. The program will include a short
course (on Oct. 28) covering the fundamentals and applications of laser ablationinductively coupled plasmamass
spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to the geological sciences and
other fields. Visit www.geosociety.org/meetings/2007.
Mineralientage Mnchen. The 44th Munich mineral show
in Germany will take place November 24 and feature a
special exhibit on gem crystals from Pakistan. Visit
www.mineralientage.com.
Art2008. Held May 2530, 2008, in Jerusalem, Israel, the
9th International Art Conference on Non-destructive
Investigation and Analysis will focus on items of cultural
heritage, but will have implications for gem testing. Visit
www.isas.co.il/art2008.
Quebec 2008: GAC-MAC-SEG-SGA. Held May 2628 in
Quebec City, Canada, this joint conference organized by
the Geological Association of Canada, Mineralogical
Association of Canada, Society of Economic Geologists,
and the Society for Geology Applied to Mineral Deposits
will include a symposium titled Challenges to a Genetic
Model for Pegmatites. Visit www.quebec2008.net.
SEG-GSSA2008: Africa UncoveredMineral Resources for
the Future. Diamond presentations will be covered at this
conference, hosted by the Society of Economic Geologists
and the Geological Society of South Africa in Muldersdrift,
South Africa, on July 69. Visit www.seg-gssa2008.org.
Goldschmidt 2008. Held July 1318 in Vancouver, British
Columbia, Canada, this geochemistry conference will
include a session titled Diamonds and Fluids in the
Mantle. Visit www.goldschmidt2008.org.
Exhibits
Exhibits at the GIA Museum in Carlsbad. From now
through March 2008, Reflections in Stone will showcase
For regular updates from the world of GEMS & GEMOLOGY, visit our website at:
www.gia.edu/gemsandgemology
SUMMER 2007
183
CIRCLE OF HONOR
$100,000 AND HIGHER,
CUMULATIVE
The Aaron Group
Dr. Suman Agrawal
Almaza Jewelers
(Ziad H. Noshie)
American Pearl Company
Amsterdam Sauer
Aurafin Oro America
Banks International Gemology, Inc.
(Daniel & Bo Banks)
The Bell Group/Rio Grande
Allan Caplan
Chatham Created Gems, Inc.
(Thomas H. Chatham)
PierLuigi Dalla Rovere
The De Beers Group
Fabricjewelry
Dallas R. Hales
2006 DONORS
$50,000 to $99,999
Robert & Marlene Anderson
Debbie and Mark Ebert
$10,000 to $49,999
ALgems
(Anita Tan)
Cos Altobelli
Pamela B. Bankert
Jerry Bearman
Dudley Blauwet
George Brooks
Jorge Brusa
Carl Rickly Frudden
Estet, Russia
(Gagik Gevorkyan)
Jack Hasson
Jewelmer
Chris & Karen Johnston
Robert E. Kane
Lithos Africa
Herb & Monika Obodda
Pala International
Mark Schneider
Tairus (Thailand) Co. Ltd.
(Walter Barshai)
Paul Wild
Tommy T. Wu
Timothy Zielinski
Zultanite Gems LLC
$500 to $999
JC Mining Inc.
(Jim Clanin)
Alice S. Keller
Mary Johnson Consulting
Raymond Naftule S.A.
Rhle - Diebener - Verlag
Publishing House
J. Blue Sheppard
Martin P. Steinbach
$5,000 to $9,999
Jacob Aminoff
Marya Dabrowski
JCK Magazine
Keiko Suehiro
Under $500
Dr. Ahmadjan Abduriyim
Bjrn Anckar
Gordon & Cheryll Austin
Beija Flor Gems
Bob Berdan
$2,500 to $4,999
Pangolin Trading
(Jo-Hannes Brunner)
Alexanders Jewelers
Barker & Co.
Chase Plastics Services, Inc.
Rui Galopim de Carvalho
Blue Fire
(Gordon Bleck)
Crystal Universe Pty. Ltd./Ausrox
Brumani
Makhmout Douman
Charles I. Carmona, G.G.
Gabriel J. Guerra, A.J.P., G.G.
Eric & Jean Carstensen
Brian House
Colgem EL 97, Ltd.
J. Hyrsl
Scott Davies
Cesar Jacinto Icasiano
Dalan Hargrave
J. Paul Getty Museum
Syed Iftikhar Hussain
Jaikishan Joshi
La Peregrina Ltd.
Dr. Arunas Kleismantas
Jackie Li
Sidney Schlusselberg Company, Inc.
(Mr. & Mrs. Sidney Schlusselberg)
John Lucking
Nicolai Slomovits
Kelli Ann Marcou
Thomas M. Schneider Gems
Neff Jewelers
David Olson
$1,000 to $2,499
David L. Penney
Pinkstone International
Corby Ltd.
Sara Olsen Ritchie
Excalibur
M. F. Ameen Sadik
Jewelry Judge
(Ben Gordon)
M. Sarin
Siber & Siber
Joseph DuMouchelle International
Jewelry Auctioneers
Robert A. Silverman
Lawrence W. Snee
Intimate Gems
Timothy Stevens
Family of Albert J. Lilly
Reg Thompson
Manoel Bernardes
Tsavo Gem Imports
Mark Mauthner
Marta Van Zandt
Natures Geometry
(Brian Cook)
Vasconcelos LTDA
John S. White
Terri Ottaway
If you are interested in making a donation and receiving tax benefit information, please contact Kimberly Vagner at
(800) 421-7250, ext. 4150. From outside the U.S., call (760) 603-4150, fax (760) 603-4199. Or e-mail kimberly.vagner@gia.edu.
BOOK
EDITORS
Susan B. Johnson
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith
Thomas W. Overton
R EVIEWS
Gemmology, 3rd Ed.
By Peter G. Read, 324 pp., illus.,
publ. by Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann, Burlington, MA, 2005.
US$39.95
Peter Reads third edition of Gemmology is a comprehensive work
covering the fundamentals of gemology and mineralogy. This book was
developed to assist students of the
British gemmological association
(Gem-A), but the scope goes well
beyond that of a simple textbook.
This revised edition has been updated
to include new treatments such as
HPHT processing of diamonds and
beryllium diffusion of sapphires, new
synthetics such as CVD diamonds,
and new instrumentation such as the
Raman spectrometer.
The book consists of 20 chapters,
beginning with a comprehensive
review of the development of gemology over the past 170 years, including
new synthetics and new gem finds.
Naturally, some of the rarer new gemstones such as musgravite are not
mentioned because of the time limit
one has to impose when writing such
a summary. The second chapter is a
short overview of the geology of gem
deposits, occurrences, major gem
localities, and mining techniques.
Chapter 3 covers the chemical composition of gems, and Chapter 4
describes their crystallographic systems. The next three chapters describe
the mineral properties relevant to
gems, such as cleavage, parting, and
fracture; hardness; and specific gravity
and relative density (including the
measurement of SG and the use of
heavy liquids).
BOOK REVIEWS
SUMMER 2007
185
186
BOOK REVIEWS
SUMMER 2007
BOOK REVIEWS
and techniques. The last section contains numerous illustrations and photos along with a history of horn
objects detailed by type, from combs
to window panes.
Before the development of plastic,
horn served as a common material for
lightweight objects such as fans,
combs, jewelry, snuff boxes, and
more. Its processing was extremely
malodorous (think of burning hair),
and skilled craftsmanship was
required to create beautiful and useful
objects. Hornworking techniques
ranged from simply using the natural
form of horn to make items such as
drinking vessels and baby bottles, to
more complicated processes that
required pressing it into plates or
leaves that could later be molded.
Schaveriens fascinating historical
account of how this was donethe
book focuses primarily on British
horning historytakes us back to a
time of innovation, when man needed
to make creative use of available
organic materials.
To the gemologist, horn is a semitransparent-to-opaque, yellow to
brown to almost black material with
an RI of 1.560. It has resinous-to-vitreous polish luster, uneven-to-splintery
fracture, and resinous-to-dull fracture
luster. When examined with magnification, it reveals an undulating,
fibrous structure. In more general
terms, horn can be material from the
projection of an animals head made
of a sheath of hardened protein over
bone, or it can be a solid outgrowth of
keratin and hair (as on a rhinoceros or
the bill of a bird). The most common
items covered in this book are made
from the horn of bovine and ovine
species, including buffalo, bison, and
certain types of antelope.
Horn is a material that often does
not survive the test of time because it
tends to decompose. Only small numbers of antique horn pieces remain in
museums and private collections.
This book is not only one of importance to both horners and historians,
SUMMER 2007
187
GEMOLOGICAL
A BSTRACTS
EDITORS
Brendan M. Laurs
Thomas W. Overton
GIA, Carlsbad
REVIEW BOARD
Christopher M. Breeding
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
Jo Ellen Cole
Vista, California
Sally Eaton-Magaa
GIA, Carlsbad
Eric A. Fritz
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
R. A. Howie
Royal Holloway, University of London
Alethea Inns
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
HyeJin Jang-Green
GIA Laboratory, New York
Paul Johnson
GIA Laboratory, New York
David M. Kondo
GIA Laboratory, New York
Taijin Lu
Vista, California
Wendi M. Mayerson
AGL Laboratory, New York
Kyaw Soe Moe
GIA Laboratory, New York
Keith A. Mychaluk
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
James E. Shigley
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Boris M. Shmakin
Russian Academy of Sciences, Irkutsk, Russia
Russell Shor
GIA, Carlsbad
Jennifer Stone-Sundberg
Portland, Oregon
Rolf Tatje
Duisburg, Germany
Sharon Wakefield
Northwest Gem Lab, Boise, Idaho
188
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2007
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2007
189
DIAMONDS
190
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2007
The H2 center is commonly observed in treated diamonds, but it is largely unknown in natural, untreated
diamonds. However, it was seen in these diamonds along
with a previously undocumented absorption peak at 905
nm that was tentatively attributed to hydrogen-related
defects. The authors propose that the strong H2 absorption is caused by the large amount of isolated nitrogen
along with A centers and the presence of vacancies. The
hydrogen-related absorptions are suggestive of rapid
growth in an environment that was rich in carbon, nitrogen, and hydrogen.
SE-M
Some observations on diamondiferous bedrock gully trapsites on Late Cainozoic, marine-cut platforms of the
Sperrgebiet, Namibia. J. Jacob [janajacob@namdeb.
com.na], J. D. Ward, B. J. Bluck, R. A. Scholz, and H.
E. Frimmel, Ore Geology Reviews, Vol. 28, 2006,
pp. 493506.
This article reviews the bedrock morphology underlying
the diamondiferous beach placer deposits of Namibia. It
has been well established, since the discovery of diamonds
there in 1928, that the Orange and Vaal river systems have
been transporting diamonds from the southern African
interior to the Atlantic coast since at least the mid-Eocene
(~4050 Ma). Longshore drift from the prevailing winds
has further transported diamonds northward along the
Namibian (specifically Sperrgebiet) coast for up to 120 km
from the Orange River mouth to Chemeis Baya zone
known as Mining Area No. 1 (MA1). This zones underlying bedrock consists of alternating hard (meta-arenite) and
soft (chloritic schistose) layers of Late Proterozoic metasediments beveled into platforms by wave action during
the Quaternary Period. Differential wave erosion of the
alternating layers has created gulliesactually, large
crevices (up to 100 m long by 4 m wide and 7 m deep)
which make superb trap sites for dense clastic material
(such as diamonds) that is being transported along the
beach.
The authors used air photo techniques, field mapping
(of exposures from mining activity), and airborne laser
topographic surveys to identify three major gully types: (1)
swash-parallel, (2) strike-parallel, and (3) joint gullies.
Swash-parallel gullies occur only in the southernmost
section of MA1 and are perpendicular to the paleo-wave
fronts. Since the sediment load in the south is both high
(in volume) and coarse (in grain size), the wave action
overrides local geologic structures such as joints. As this
coarse bedload (highest diamond counts) decreases to the
north, bedrock lithology and structure become the dominant factors in gully formation.
The central section of MA1 is dominated by strikeparallel gullies, which are directly related to the dip of
bedrock foliation (bedding parallel) of 8089W. In the
north, where the sediment load is both at its lowest and
finest, only joint gullies have formed along preexisting
cracks in the bedrock. Further, it was found that all the
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
gullies are deeper and closed (i.e., creating the best diamond trap sites) on their seaward margins, while they are
shallower and somewhat open on their landward end. A
specific example was measured by tacheometric survey
giving detailed elevations throughout the gully. The shallow incision on the landward margins of the gullies is
attributed to lower wave energy (being further from the
sea) of the tidal system. A model is also presented illustrating the growth of pot holes in the bedrock that
eventually coalesce into longer and longer gullies.
KAM
GEM LOCALITIES
Amethyst-bearing lava flows in the Paran Basin (Rio Grande
do Sul, Brazil): Cooling, vesiculation and formation of
geodic cavities. D. Proust [dominique.proust@
hydrasa.univ-poitiers.fr] and C. Fontaine, Geological Magazine, Vol. 144, No. 1, 2006, pp. 5365.
Large amethyst geodes (up to 2.5 m) are found in tholeiitic
basalt lava flows near the town of Ametista do Sul in the
state of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. This study was undertaken to better understand the degassing and cooling history of these lava flows that permitted the formation of the
large amethyst geodes. Whereas some geologists have
invoked the role of surface water in geode formation, the
present authors conclude that the cavities resulted from
the exsolution of water and other gases from the cooling
lava. They attribute the elongate shape and abnormal size
of some geodes to rapid cooling and the coalescing of multiple exsolving gas bubbles, respectively.
JES
Ar-Ar and U-Pb ages of marble-hosted ruby deposits from
central and southeast Asia. V. Garnier, H. Maluski,
G. Giuliani [giuliani@crpg.cnrs-nancy.fr], D.
Ohnenstetter, and D. Schwarz, Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences, Vol. 43, No. 4, 2006, pp. 509532.
Ruby deposits hosted by marbles are distributed along the
Himalayan mountain fold belt that formed during the
Tertiary collision of the Indian plate with Asia, as well as
in the Indochina crustal block extruded along shear zones
during this collision. These metamorphic deposits are
found in Tajikistan, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nepal,
Myanmar, and Vietnam. This study was undertaken to
relate the age of their formation to the geologic events
associated with the continental collision. Ruby itself is
not suitable for age dating, but inclusions in ruby, and certain associated minerals, can both be dated by certain
techniques.
Ar-Ar age dates of between 25 and 4.6 Ma document
Oligocene-Miocene cooling ages for the ruby-bearing
metamorphic belts, which in turn represent minimum
ages for ruby formation. These ages are in agreement with
published data on the tectonic-metamorphic history of
the marbles hosting the rubies. U-Pb age dates of 5436
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JEWELRY HISTORY
Italian gemology during the Renaissance: A step toward
modern mineralogy. A. Mottana [mottana@
uniroma3.it], Geological Society of America Special
Paper 411, 2006, pp. 121.
Significant advances in the study of gems and minerals
occurred in Italy during the height of the Renaissance in
the 16th century. Italy hosted the superior universities in
Europe at the time (such as Ferrara and Padua) and these
academic centers, together with the rediscovery of ancient
knowledge from the Greeks, Romans, and Arabs, led to
the publication of a number of works on minerals and
gems. Around 1469, the first of what became numerous
editions (over the next 150 years) of Plinys 37-volume
encyclopedia Naturalis historia was printed in Venice.
These and other books served to transfer historical knowledge of gems from Italy to the other countries of Europe.
The book Speculum lapidum by Leonardi (1502) serves as
a marker between the speculations about gems prevalent
during the Middle Ages and early scientific studies that
commenced during the Renaissance. The writer Agricola,
a native of Saxony who spent 15221526 as an apprentice
in Italy, went on to publish information (both accurate and
inaccurate) on minerals and gems in his De natura fossilium in 1546.
In the book De la pirotechnia, written primarily on
metallurgy by Biringuccio and published in Venice in
1540, the author describes gems as stones having a special
color, and divides them into transparent and translucent
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
categories. This was followed in 1544 by Mattiolis I discorsi, a book describing the (primarily medicinal) uses of
minerals, gems, and other materials. A 1565 Italian translation of Speculum lapidum helped spread gemological
knowledge among the general population, who were
largely ignorant of Latin. During this same period, another book appeared in Italy that described the relationship
between weight and value of 10 important gems, including diamond.
The growth of the arts in Italy during the Renaissance
contributed indirectly to the development of gemology,
because gems were used to decorate art objects (e.g., book
covers and crucifixes) as well as for jewelry, carvings,
cameos, and intaglios. The book De subtilitate by Cardano
summarized an enormous amount of information on gems
when it appeared in 1560. He ranked the key properties of
gems as brightness, hardness, murkiness, and color. In
order of commercial value, he listed the important stones
as emerald, opal, ruby, diamond, pearl, sapphire, chrysolite
(peridot), hyacinth (zircon), and smoky quartz. In a book
published in 1568, the artist Cellini described the four
main gems, in their order of value at the time, as ruby,
emerald, diamond, and sapphire.
Published in 1587, the book Questo l libro lapidario
(compiled by Costanti) discussed how Renaissance merchants evaluated gems. For example, a good diamond
should be well pointed and possess a square outline, equal
faces, sharp edges, transparency, and good reflectivity.
The book provided detailed tables of price vs. weight for
diamond, ruby, emerald, and spinel. It also showed how
gem merchants at the time were interested in learning
the sources of gems and where they could be obtained at
the best prices.
This period also witnessed the establishment in Italy
of several museums with collections of materials from
the natural world, including minerals and gems. Finally,
improvements in the cutting of gemstones also took
place; for example, Peruzzi is credited with introducing a
four-fold symmetrical diamond cut with 58 facets, which
became a precursor of the modern brilliant cut.
Near the end of the 1500s, Italy began to lose its position in culture and trade, and gemological knowledge
shifted northward to Antwerp, which then became the
center of diamond cutting.
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194
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
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TREATMENTS
High pressurehigh temperature (HPHT) natural diamond
enhancement. M. A. Viktorov and M. B. Kopchikov, Moscow University Geology Bulletin, Vol. 61,
No. 3, 2006, pp. 6168.
The authors examined two brown diamond crystals, both
before and after HPHT treatment, to document changes in
their gemological properties. Annealing conditions
employed temperatures of 19732073 K and a pressure ~6
GPa for five hours.
After treatment, the color of one crystal changed to
yellow-green, and its UV fluorescence (long- and shortwave) became a more intense yellowish green. Its absorption spectrum displayed strong 415 and weak 503 nm
bands, and an increase in overall absorption across the
spectrum. The photoluminescence spectrum showed a
pronounced 503 nm band. The color and UV fluorescence
of the other crystal remained basically unchanged,
although yellow phosphorescence that was present before
the treatment was removed. Its absorption and PL spectra
exhibited similar changes to those of the first crystal.
Both samples displayed a change in cathodoluminescence
colors from blue to yellowish green after treatment.
The authors discuss the changes in optical defects that
occur during HPHT annealing, and conclude that a careful selection of diamonds for this type of treatment is necessary to achieve particular color changes.
JES
Optical study of the annealing behaviour of the 3107 cm1
defect in natural diamonds. F. De Weerdt [fdw@hrd.be]
and A. T. Collins, Diamond and Related Materials,
Vol. 15, 2006, pp. 593596.
Hydrogen is a common impurity in diamond, and may be
observed in the mid-infrared spectral range as the bend
(1405 cm 1) and stretch (3107 cm 1) modes of the C-H
vibration; however, hydrogen concentration and the intensity of the 3107 cm 1 absorption are not proportional in
diamond. The authors monitored the effect of HPHT
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
SUMMER 2007
195
MISCELLANEOUS
Angola: The new blood diamonds. R. Marques, address
to the School of Oriental and African Studies,
London University, Nov. 28, 2006, www.businesshumanrights.org/Links/Repository/606731.
Although the civil war in Angola is long over, the government has recently enacted highly restrictive laws in the
diamond-bearing provinces of Lunda Norte and Lunda Sud
that deprive the local population of livelihoods outside of
diamonds, reports Angolan journalist Rafael Marques. The
laws prohibit all non-diamond-related economic activity,
including fishing, farming, and traditional industries.
Often, with the knowledge and cooperation of mining
companies, private security forces commit human rights
abuses in these areas in the name of security. In addition,
conflicting and confusing regulations allow many loopholes through which mining companies can exploit the
independent diamond diggers. Because the activities of
the independent diggers are officially prohibited, they are
denied rights and protection. Yet they routinely supply
the licensed buying offices with diamonds. The article
concludes that the top officials of the Angolan government benefit from this situation, and thus do not want to
change it.
RS
A cartels response to cheating: An empirical investigation of the De Beers diamond empire. D. J.
Bergenstock [bergebst@muhlberg.edu], M. E. Deily,
and L. W. Taylor, Southern Economic Journal, Vol.
73, No. 1, 2006, pp. 173189.
This paper examines how De Beers reacted to massive
Russian rough diamond sales during the 1990s, when it
still controlled a majority of the rough diamond market.
The authors found a correlation between rising Russian
state budget deficits after the Soviet era and increased diamond leakssales outside the countrys contract with
De Beers. They believe that, in contrast to traditional cartel behavior of aggressive discounting to chasten entities
that cheat by dealing independently, De Beers facilitated
the Russians in nontraditional ways to maintain diamond
price stability. These included both negotiation and
accommodation (by going against its stated policy of refusing to buy leaked Russian diamonds from the open market, and actually absorbing large quantities of such goods
under the guise of Zairian origin).
Although the strategy was successful in the short
term by protecting diamond prices, it came at a high cost
in the form of accumulating inventories, which contributed to the firms decision in 2000 to end its custodial role
of the diamond market and change its direction to a company selling branded diamonds.
RS
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SUMMER 2007