WN10

GEMS & GEMOLOGY
VOLUME XLVI
WINTER 2010
WINTER 2010
PAGES 259336
VOLUME 46 NO. 4
19922 GIA G&G Winter 10 Journal P BC
Synthetics Retrospective . . . Scapolite from Madagascar . . . Pietersite from China

and Namibia . . . New Mexifire Synthetic Opal . . . Identifying Historic Gems
THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF A MERICA
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GGWI10
Winter 2010
Volume 46, No. 4
EDITORIAL __________________
259
A Fond Farewell
Alice S. Keller
FEATURE ARTICLE __________________

260
Synthetic Gem Materials in the 2000s: A Decade in Review

Nathan Renfro, John I. Koivula, Wuyi Wang, and Gary Roskin
Looks back on an eventful decade in the synthetic gem industry, highlighted by the
commercial introduction of faceted gem-quality CVD synthetic diamonds.
NOTES & NEW TECHNIQUES ______________

pg. 262
274
Yellow Scapolite from Ihosy, Madagascar

Margherita Superchi, Federico Pezzotta, Elena Gambini, and Emanuela Castaman
Characterizes scapolite from this locality and examines established methods of
calculating the gems chemical composition.
280
A Microstructural Study of Pietersite from Namibia and China

Kaifan Hu and Peter J. Heaney
Compares the properties and characteristics of this unusual gem material from the
two known sources.
RAPID COMMUNICATIONS _______________
pg. 286
287
Update on Mexifire Synthetic Fire Opal

Rajneesh Bhandari and Gagan Choudhary
292
A Study of the Gems in a Ciborium from Einsiedeln Abbey

Stefanos Karampelas, Marie Wrle, Katja Hunger, Hanspeter Lanz,
Danilo Bersani, and Susy Gbelin
REGULAR FEATURES _________________________

298
Lab Notes
Large HPHT-treated type IIa diamonds A dapper diamond Pale pink diamonds, coated Fancy
pink Intense purplish pink HPHT-grown/treated synthetic Large yellow-orange HPHT-grown
synthetic Silicon-vacancy defect found in blue HPHT-grown synthetic Three melee-size synthetic
diamonds Artificial metallic veining in manufactured gem materials Natural green pearl Rock
containing richterite and sugilite Lead glassfilled ruby damaged during repair Sapphire with
a sapphire inclusion Synthetic spinel and synthetic ruby doublet
309
Gem News International

Amber with mineral inclusions Field research on Tibetan andesine Aquamarine and heliodor from
Indochina Dark blue aquamarine from Madagascar Diopside from Pakistan Record-breaking
emerald from Hiddenite, North Carolina Emerald-in-matrix from Bahia, Brazil 5th century garnet
jewelry from Romania Natural pearl diving off Bahrain Ruby and sapphire mining in Pakistan and
Afghanistan Rediscovery of sapphires in central France Sapphire mining in southern Madagascar
A strongly thermoluminescent spodumene Neon blue-to-green Cu- and Mn-bearing liddicoatite
LCD screen as a gemological tool Smartphone photomicrography Filled copal imitation of
amber Glass with crystalline aggregates Synthetic ruby specimen Louis XVs Golden Fleece,
recreated Conference reports Errata
S1
Book Reviews
S4
Gemological Abstracts
S12
2010 Subject and Author Index
pg. 319
www.gia.edu/gandg
EDITORIAL
STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Alice S. Keller
akeller@gia.edu
Editor
Brendan M. Laurs
Gemological Institute of America
The Robert Mouawad Campus
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(760) 603-4503
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Stuart D. Overlin
soverlin@gia.edu
Circulation Coordinator
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(760) 603-4000, ext. 7142
martha.rivera@gia.edu
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Carol M. Stockton
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James E. Shigley
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The desirability of natural fire opal has stimulated the production of synthetic counterparts. In this issue, Rajneesh
Bhandari and Gagan Choudhary characterize the new version of Mexifire synthetic opal, which has RI and SG
values much closer to those of natural fire opal, such as these two superb examples. Bernd Munsteiners Changing
Perspectives 181.36 ct fire opal carving (left) measures 100 23 mm. The 132 ct faceted fire opal on the right is
courtesy of W. Constantin Wild & Co., Idar-Oberstein, Germany. Photos by Robert Weldon.
Color separations for Gems & Gemology are by Pacific Plus, Carlsbad, California.
Printing is by Allen Press, Lawrence, Kansas.
2010 Gemological Institute of America All rights reserved. ISSN 0016-626X
A Fond Farewell
his is indeed a fond farewell. In January 2011, I am
stepping down from G&G, and retiring from GIA,
after 30 years first as managing editor, then editor,
and most recently editor-in-chief of the journal. As is
so often stated, I am doing so for personal reasons. But
there are no secrets here. My daughter, Elizabeth, is expecting twins in February, my first grandchildren. She has asked
for my help. How can I say no?
I can take little credit, though, for what is one of G&Gs

most important contributions to the science of gemology:
becoming the first gemological journal admitted to the
Thomson Reuters (formerly ISI) database, the worlds foremost resource for accessing scientific content. Editor
Brendan Laurs rallied the support of leading researchers to
secure this honor and thus enhance the stature of gemology
in the scientific community.
Elizabeth was less than a

year old when Richard
Liddicoat hired me in
1980 to remake G&G as
a true professional journal. I arrived at GIA with
several years experience
working for peer-reviewed marketing and medical
journals and with some
knowledge of the geology
and gemology communities. I thought I would
rework the journal and
move on. But as so many
of you know, gemology is
addictive. Soon I was enthralled with the possibilities G&G
offered to promote this relatively new science.
With this, my last issue, I extend to youthe readers of

G&Gmy heartfelt thanks for your support all these years.
I have loved interacting with you first by mail then by email, visiting with you at trade shows, and sharing experiences at the GIA International Symposia. In fact, GIA has
asked me to complete one last projectmy role as co-chair
of the business track of GIA Symposium 2011, which will be
held May 2930 at GIA headquarters in Carlsbad, California.
It will give me great pleasure to see many of you there and
thank you in person.
In the early years of the new G&G, most of our articles

revolved around colored stones: separation from simulants
and synthetics, identification of treatments, and especially
characterization of new and historic localities, such as emeralds from Colombia and lapis lazuli from Afghanistan. In the
1990s, we published some of the earliest reports on copperbearing tourmalines from Paraba, Brazil; rubies and sapphires from Vietnam; and rubies from Mong Hsu, Myanmar.
Since then, groundbreaking articles on emerging gem
deposits in Madagascar and countries on the African continent have appeared.
At this time, I turn the journal over to the capable hands of

interim editor-in-chief Brendan Laurs, managing editor Tom
Overton, and associate editor Stuart Overlin. Please give
them your support as well. They are the future of gemology,
as told through the pages of G&G.
With best personal regards,
Alice S. Keller
Editor-in-Chief
akeller@gia.edu
Over the years, though, diamonds became more prominent

in the pages of the journal. Perhaps G&Gs strongest contribution to the diamond community over the last three
decades has been the articles on the characterization and
identification of synthetic diamonds. Yet I am equally proud
of our reporting on diamond treatments and especially the
identification of glass-filled diamonds in the late 80s and
early 90s. A decade later, the more sophisticatedand
potentially more devastatingHPHT treatment of diamonds was successfully tackled in G&G by researchers
from the GIA, Gbelin, De Beers, and SSEF laboratories,
among others. We know that it is only by cooperation and
collaborationand the sharing of information in a respected forumthat gemology can progress as a science in support of public confidence in the gem and jewelry industry.
EDITORIAL
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
259
SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS

IN THE 2000S:
A DECADE IN REVIEW
Nathan Renfro, John I. Koivula, Wuyi Wang, and Gary Roskin
The first decade of the 2000s brought a constant flow of previously known synthetics into the
marketplace, but little in the way of new technology. The biggest development was the commercial introduction of faceted single-crystal gem-quality CVD synthetic diamonds. A few other interesting and noteworthy synthetics, such as Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emeralds and Mexifire
synthetic opals, also entered the market. Identification of synthetic gem materials continued to be
an important function ofand, in some cases, challenge forgemologists worldwide.
he development of synthetics and the methodologies used to detect new and existing materials is of great importance to the international
gem community. Indeed, whether a synthetic gem
was grown in the 2000s or the 1880s, todays gemologists must still be prepared to deal with it. Many
synthetic gems were prominent in the marketplace
in the first decade of the 2000s (see, e.g., figure 1).
The decade also saw some new synthetics. Among
the synthetic colored stones introduced was the
Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emerald (Adamo et
al., 2005), which was gemologically similar to both
Russian synthetic emeralds and those manufactured
by Linde-Regency in the United States. Also new to
this decade was a synthetic fire opal marketed as
Mexifire (Choudhary and Bhandari, 2008). On initial
examination, this nonphenomenal synthetic opal
resembled manufactured glass.
Yet it is clear from the overall volume of pub-
See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY, Vol. 46, No. 4, pp. 260273.
2010 Gemological Institute of America
260
SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S
lished literature that the most significant developmentsand the focus of most researchduring this
decade involved the production of gem-quality synthetic diamonds, primarily those grown by the comparatively new CVD (chemical vapor deposition)
process. Who can forget the September 2003 cover of
Wired magazine, with a diamond-pavd supermodel next to the headlines $5 a carat. Flawless. Made
in a lab.? This article proclaimed that The diamond wars have begun, and touted the potential for
outright cheap but extremely high-quality colorless
and fancy-colored synthetic diamonds grown by two
very different processes (CVD and HPHT). Although
neither of these technologies was new to the
2000sand neither has even approached a price as
low as $5 a caratboth made important commercial
statements and had a major impact on the diamond
trade and gemological research during this first
decade.
It is important to state that reviews such as this
can serve only as guides to the available gemological
literature. Anyone seeking in-depth information
regarding synthetic gems and their identification
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 1. Consisting of
synthetic alexandrite,
amethyst, beryl, corundum, diamond, and fire
opal, this collection
represents some of the
interesting and unusual
synthetic gem materials
encountered in the
decade of the 2000s.
The three smallest
stones are synthetic
diamonds weighing
0.060.14 ct. Photo by
Robert Weldon.
should consult the references at the end of the article to gain the knowledge required to recognize and
correctly identify the various materials under discussion. In addition, useful reviews of synthetic materials that have impacted the gem trade were previously published in Gems & Gemology (Nassau, 1990;
Koivula et al., 2000) and in Elements magazine
(Kane, 2009), while the largest collection of images
detailing inclusions and other microfeatures in
gemologically significant synthetics can be found in
the three volumes of the Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones (Gbelin and Koivula, 1986, 2005, 2008).
It should also be noted that only those synthetic
products that are actually new to the prior decade
are included in this review. For example, although
hydrothermally grown cobalt-colored synthetic blue
quartz was described in the Winter 2008 issue of
Gems & Gemology (Choudhary, 2008), it is actually
a material that was introduced in the 1990s (see
Koivula et al., 1993), so it was not included in this
retrospective.
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Synthetic diamonds were an important concern
throughout the past decade, although supplies of

gem-quality material were never extensive, and fashioned synthetic diamonds were only occasionally
submitted for diamond grading reports. In the GIA
Laboratory, for example, gem-quality synthetic diamonds have been seen only rarely (a fraction of a percent of the large volume of diamonds examined
daily), and the vast majority have had a (fancy) bodycolor. Kitawaki et al. (2008) of the GAAJ-Zenhokyo
Laboratory in Tokyo reported identifying more than
100 yellow synthetic melee diamonds (smaller than
0.20 ct) among material received for identification
over the course of four months, a significant amount
but still a small portion of the total number of melee
stones examined.
The big shift between the 1990s and the 2000s
came in the processes used to synthesize diamonds.
In the 1990s, synthetic diamonds grown by the
application of both high pressure and high temperature in molten iron/nickel fluxes (the HPHT process)
were of primary concern. Such lab-grown diamonds
produced today are still commonly yellow to brownish orange as grown (due to nitrogen; Shigley et al.,
2002), but they can also be grown with a blue body-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
261
color and treated to pink (Shigley et al., 2004). While

the quality, quantity, and size of these synthetics
have increased over the past decadewith the
largest faceted HPHT synthetic diamond submitted
to the GIA lab being 4.09 ct (Wang and Moses,
2010)the detection methods used to separate them
from natural diamonds have remained essentially
the same.
Early in the decade, companies like Gemesis
Corp. in Sarasota, Florida, began to produce and market HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds, primarily in
shades of yellow to orange (again, see Shigley et al.,
2002). Chatham Created Gems began to sell their
own branded HPHT-grown stones in a variety of colors (again, see Shigley et al., 2004), such as blue, yellow, and pink. It was CVD synthesis by Apollo
Diamond, however, that caused the largest stir in
the trade.
The CVD method involves bringing together the
needed gaseous reagentstypically a small amount
of methane (CH4) in hydrogen (H2)in a chamber
with a substrate. A reaction among these components is initiated at high temperatures and low pressures. The reactants, products, and reactive species
are transported throughout the chamber by diffusion and convection. Over the substrate surface,
various reactions (adsorption, diffusion, and desorption) occur among the chemical species, leading to
the deposition of synthetic diamond and, ultimately, the growth of a continuous layer of material
(Butler and Woodin, 1993; Davis, 1993; Spear and
Dismukes, 1994, Butler et al., 2009). When a diamond (natural or synthetic) is used as the substrate,
single-crystal CVD gem-quality synthetic diamond
can be produced.
The first successful and reproducible growth of
synthetic diamond as a thin film using a CVD technique was achieved by W. G. Eversole in 1952
(Kiffer, 1956, as referenced in Angus, 1994). It is
interesting to note that this event predated General
Electrics 1955 announcement that its researchers
had created single-crystal synthetic diamonds by the
HPHT method (Bundy et al., 1955, as referenced in
Angus, 1994). However, the early CVD products
were exclusively polycrystalline (and, therefore, not
gem quality), and the first single-crystal CVD-grown
synthetic diamonds were extremely small (on the
order of a few micrometers). Not until 1993 did
Badzian and Badzian report the growth of singlecrystal CVD synthetic diamond as thick as 1.2 mm;
subsequently, several other groups (e.g., Doering and
Linares, 1999; Linares and Doering, 1999) reported
262
Figure 2. This near-colorless synthetic diamond

(0.30 ct) illustrates the improvements in color and
clarity seen in the later CVD-grown products offered
by Apollo Diamond. Photo by Jian Xin Liao.
the CVD growth of undoped and boron-doped singlecrystal synthetic diamond of approximately 1 mm
thickness.
Early in the 2000s, however, Wang et al. (2003)
reported on the gemological and spectroscopic properties of 15 CVD synthetic diamonds from Apollo
Diamond; only a few were faceted. As a common
feature, these samples had a limited thickness or
depth (0.62.5 mm) and all displayed varying saturation of a brown hue. The faceted samples were small
(<0.30 ct) and contained abundant cleavage cracks
and pinpoint-sized black inclusions. Martineau et al.
(2004) described the experimental CVD products
from De Beers. More than a thousand samples (produced for research purposes only) were studied for
that report, including high-purity type IIa colorless,
brown, pink, and boron-doped type IIb blue synthetic
diamonds. The faceted goods ranged from ~0.3 to 2.6
ct, with clarities varying from IF to I3. Since then,
significant improvements in the CVD growth technique and, consequently, crystal quality have been
reported (Yan et al., 2004; Tallaire et al., 2005; Wang
et al., 2005; Miyatake et al., 2007).
Wang et al. (2007) analyzed the gemological and
spectroscopic properties of 43 samples of Apollos
later production (figure 2), which showed major
improvements in size, color, and clarity. In addition
to colorless and near-colorless material, fancy orangeto-pink hues were producedcomparable in color
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 3. This 0.61 ct round brilliant from Apollo

Diamond is an example of the strongly colored pink
synthetic diamonds now being produced by the CVD
method. Photo by Jian Xin Liao.
and clarity to natural diamonds. These colors were

attributed to a broad absorption band at ~520 nm,
which has not yet been observed in natural diamonds
and is distinctly different from the 550 nm band seen
Figure 4. Although they are also observed in some
natural diamonds, high-order interference colors
are considered an indicator of CVD-grown synthetic diamonds, as is the case with the sample
illustrated here. Photomicrograph by Jian Xin
Liao; magnified 46.
in natural pinks. More recently, Apollo Diamond

introduced strongly colored pink CVD synthetic diamonds (Wang et al., 2010; figure 3), with relatively
high concentrations of nitrogen-vacancy (NV) centers. These were color graded mainly as Intense to
Vivid pink, and weighed ~0.30.7 ct.
It is important to note thatthough still quite
rarefaceted CVD-grown diamonds are being traded
in the jewelry market, with a few having been identified in gem laboratories during routine testing (e.g.,
Chadwick, 2008; Chadwick and Breeding, 2008;
Wang, 2009; Kitawaki et al., 2010; Wang and Johnson,
2010). A near-colorless faceted CVD synthetic diamond weighing over 1 ct was identified recently by
the GIA lab (Wang and Moe, 2010).
CVD synthetic diamonds can be identified
through careful attention to their gemological and
spectroscopic properties. While not conclusive, several gemological observations serve as good indications: strong internal graining with an indistinct
fuzzy appearance, high-order interference colors
(figure 4), and the presence of pinpoints. These
gemological features do, however, appear in some
natural diamonds as well.
Early products from Apollo with varying saturations of brown color displayed a weak orange fluorescence to UV radiation that was considered a useful
indication of CVD synthesis (Roskin, 2003; Wang et
al., 2003; Martineau et al., 2004). However, this feature is absent from most of the new products.
Fluorescence and phosphorescence images obtained
with the DTC DiamondView continue to be very
useful for the identification of CVD synthetic diamonds. In particular, orange fluorescence with irregularly patterned areas of blue fluorescence, as well as
narrow growth bands, appear to be characteristic
when they are present. Spectroscopic features are
very important for CVD synthetic diamond identification. The 3123.5 cm1 absorption in the midinfrared region, strong emissions from NV centers,
the 596/597 nm doublet emission, and the doublet
[Si-V] emission at 736.6 and 736.9 nm are very useful (figure 5).
LifeGem Synthetic Diamonds. One synthetic diamond innovation the trade likely did not expect was
announced by LifeGem (now LifeGem Created
Diamonds), of Elk Grove Village, Illinois, in 2003
(Laurs and Overton, 2003). In 2004 during an
Accredited Gemologists Association panel in Tucson,
Arizona, Alex Grizenko of Lucent Diamonds stated
that LifeGem diamonds were being processed from
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
263
MID-IR ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
736.9
INTENSITY
736.6
735
736
737
738
739
WAVELENGTH (nm)
ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm-1)
PL SPECTRUM
3123.5
2.0
1.9
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
3200
3180
3160
3140
3120
3100
3080
3060
WAVENUMBER (cm-1)
Figure 5. Absorption at 3123.5 cm1 in the mid-IR region (right), strong emissions from NV centers,
a 596/597 nm doublet, and another doublet at 736.6 and 736.9 nm (left) are currently very useful
features in the identification of CVD-grown diamonds.
100% cremated carbon (Roskin, 2004). When a person decides in advance to undergo the LifeGem process, a special cremation procedure preserves enough
carbon to grow the diamond. In other cases, LifeGem
needs to add carbon to complete the gem, as ash from
traditional cremation doesnt retain enough for the
diamond growth process (Grahm, 2003). The company reported having partners in the mortuary business
worldwide and produced ~1,000 diamonds annually.
Dean VandenBiesen, one of the companys founders,
said they used 8 oz. (227 g) of cremated remains to
Figure 6. Possibly resulting from autoclave contamination, phantom planes consisting of dark blue crystallites
of copper chloride were observed for the first time in
Russian hydrothermal synthetic rubies.
Photomicrograph by J. I. Koivula; magnified 20.
264
retrieve the carbon needed to grow one LifeGem synthetic diamond (pers. comm., 2004). From those who
are not being cremated but prepared for burial, Mr.
VandenBiesen indicated that ~40% of the carbon
needed for a LifeGem was retrieved from a 5 g sample
of the deceaseds hair.
A Worried Trade. While the gem industry was well
aware of the commercial advances in gem-quality
synthetic diamonds, it was September 2003 when
the consumer was thrust into the mix. But the news
was not passed through the jewelry tradeit came
from a story in the technology magazine Wired
(Davis, 2003).
Daviss The New Diamond Age article was a
well-researched and entertaining docudrama: Armed
with inexpensive, mass-produced gems, two startups
are launching an assault on the De Beers cartel.
JCKs senior diamond editor Rob Bates (2003) later
wrote, Wired magazine sent shock waves through
the industry . . . . The story on diamond synthetics
covered mostly familiar territory for the industry
but its sensational tone caused some to worry.
The article described a concerned Antwerp dealer, who was quoted as saying that unless [CVD synthetics] can be detected, they will bankrupt the industry. Davis also noted a De Beers executive who
had gone pale and hands shaking at the thought of
mass-produced synthetic gem-quality diamonds. The
Wired feature did give consumers their first glimpse
of Gemesis HPHT and Apollos CVD gem-quality
synthetic diamonds, even going so far as to mention
their potential future use as a replacement for silicon
in computer microprocessors. As noted above, how-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 7. To produce a novelty, flame-fusion synthetic rubies and sapphires can be easily cut from
areas within a boule where near-colorless portions
join with the colored overgrowths. When this is
done, a strongly color-zoned synthetic is the result,
as shown by this 1.05 ct example. Composite
photo by H. A. Hnni, SSEF.
ever, well-equipped gemological laboratories can

identify all synthetic diamonds, and the $5 a carat
flawless lab-grown diamond remains a journalists
attention grabberwith no basis in the marketplace.
SYNTHETIC RUBY
No new types of synthetic rubies were introduced
into the gem trade in the past decade. However,
there were reports of interesting internal features in
previously known and well-documented products.
One of these inclusions consisted of phantom planes
in Russian hydrothermal synthetic rubies that were
randomly dusted with intense dark blue crystallites
(figure 6) of transparent-to-translucent copper chlo-
Figure 8. Containing numerous glass-filled surfacereaching cracks, this 3.50 ct flame-fusion synthetic
ruby illustrates that synthetics can be treated, and that
the presence of a treatment should not be construed as
indicating natural origin. Photo by Robert Weldon.
ride (Gbelin and Koivula, 2005). In theory, it is possible that the precipitation of these crystals resulted
from contamination, perhaps caused by a small
leak through the inert metal lining in a copper
containment vessel.
Another unusual sample was a strongly colorzoned flame-fusion synthetic ruby that had been
faceted into an off-round oval mixed cut with a purplish red color zone located near the culet (figure 7).
In face-up position, this synthetic appeared purplish
red, even though the bulk of the material, including
most of the pavilion and the entire crown, was actually very pale blue to almost colorless (Kiefert et al.,
2004). It is not known if the original crystal was
intentionally grown to be strongly color zoned or
whether this was an accident of the growth process.
In the past, flame-fusion synthetic rubies and sapphires have been grown using colorless synthetic
corundum rods as seeds. Synthetic gems could be
cut from those areas where the near-colorless portions join with the colored overgrowth.
A continuing problem for gemologists is the
many treated synthetics in the marketplaceand
the risk they could be misidentified as treated natural stones. One such synthetic product is lead
glassfilled flame-fusion synthetic ruby (see, e.g., figure 8). Jang-Green and Befi (2007) reported on a 12.84
ct sample that was apparently quench crackled to
induce surface-reaching fractures, and those fracFigure 9. With immersion microscopy, curved striae
were spotted in this quench-crackled, lead glassfilled
12.84 ct flame-fusion ruby, which readily served to
identify it as a synthetic. Photomicrograph by
Riccardo Befi and HyeJin Jang-Green; magnified 40.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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265
Figure 10. Distinctive

roiled-to-angular growth
structures, sometimes
described as chevron
shaped, make hydrothermally grown yellow synthetic sapphires relatively easy to identify.
Photomicrographs by J. I.
Koivula; magnified 15
and 40.
tures were then filled with lead glass to reduce their

visibility. When the sample was examined with
immersion, curved striae readily identified it as a
synthetic (figure 9). Relatively inexpensive, highquality flame-fusion and Czochralski-pulled synthetics are available in large quantities, so it is not too
surprising that they would be subjected to treatments of all types, including glass infilling. Therefore, it is important to identify not only the presence
of a treatment, but also the natural or synthetic origin of the starting material to which that treatment
has been applied.
SYNTHETIC SAPPHIRE
Hydrothermal synthetic sapphires grown in Russia
continued to be available, in colors other than the
normally expected blue. The Gem Testing Laboratory in Jaipur, India, examined ~20 faceted synthetic
yellow sapphires that proved to be grown by the
hydrothermal method (Choudhary, 2005). They
ranged from 3.50 to 5.30 ct and had characteristic
inclusions such as scattered flake-like breadcrumbs
Figure 11. This 0.91 ct bluish green flame-fusion synthetic sapphire displayed a bodycolor and inclusions
the GIA Laboratory had never encountered before.
Photo by Robert Weldon.
266
and distinctive roiled-to-angular growth structures

(figure 10) sometimes described as chevron-shaped.
As with synthetic rubies, unusual internal features were also observed in synthetic sapphires during this decade. Koivula et al. (2008) reported on
bluish green flame-fusion synthetic sapphires (e.g.,
figure 11) that contained numerous vibrant blue
solid inclusions, as well as the more expected rounded and distorted gas bubbles (figure 12). Because of
their color, the inclusions were suspected to contain
cobalt. Indeed, a very weak visible-light absorption
spectrum attributed to cobalt was detected with a
standard gemological spectroscope. Raman analysis
could not conclusively identify these isotropic inclusions, but it suggested that they were related to
spinel.
SYNTHETIC EMERALD AND OTHER BERYLS

Available in the gem trade since 2004, the Malossi
product (reportedly grown in the Czech Republic
using Italian technology) was the only new developFigure 12. Associated with the gas bubbles more typical of flame-fusion material, these cobalt-colored blue
inclusions in the synthetic sapphire in figure 11 could
not be conclusively identified. Photomicrograph by J. I.
Koivula; magnified 25.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 13. Malossi hydrothermal synthetic emeralds have been available in the trade since
2004. The rough specimen on the left (~6 cm long) is partially encrusted with white synthetic
phenakite crystallites. Photos by Ilaria Adamo.
ment in the area of synthetic emeralds in the 2000s

(see figure 13 and Adamo et al., 2005). This is
believed to be a new type of synthetic emerald colored only by Cr3+. The highly diagnostic growth
structures normally encountered in hydrothermally
grown material were all but absent from the samples
examined. Nevertheless, the reported growth
method is similar to that described for other hydrothermal synthetic emeralds: that is, use of a natural
beryl seed plate in an autoclave. The producer indicated that hydrochloric acid is used to prevent Cr
from precipitating out of the solution so it can
instead be incorporated into the crystals (Adamo et
al., 2005); features in the mid-IR spectrum are consistent with this statement.
Separation of the Malossi product from natural
emerald is relatively straightforward. Irregular growth
features, a seed plate, and synthetic phenakite-like
crystals (figure 14) all readily indicate synthetic origin. Chemically, the presence of Cl concentrations
greater than 0.2 wt.% and the absence of additional
Figure 14. A cluster of small inclusions, probably

synthetic phenakite, were observed in this Malossi
hydrothermal synthetic emerald. Photomicrograph
by Renata Marcon; magnified 50.
trace elements can provide supporting evidence for

the Malossi product, but these criteria should not be
relied on independently. Mid-IR spectroscopy can
also be used to aid in the separation, as there are several bands related to Cl in the 31002500 cm1 range.
Although Russian hydrothermal synthetic emeralds are not new to the 2000s, an excellent review
article discussing their microscopic properties was
published by Schmetzer et al. (2007).
Hydrothermally grown synthetic aquamarines,
some violetish blue, were also reported in the 2000s
as having been grown by Malossi in the Czech
Republic (Adamo et al., 2008; see, e.g., figure 15). Just
as with previously described synthetic aquamarine
(Koivula and Kammerling, 1988) from Novosibirsk,
Russia, that was marketed through the Tairus joint
venture (Thailand-Russia), these new Malossi manufactured aquamarines also displayed characteristic
Figure 15. During the first decade of the 2000s, in
addition to synthetic emeralds Malossi also produced
hydrothermally grown synthetic aquamarines, such
as the rough (1416 g) and faceted (2.05.0 ct)
material shown here. Photo by Alberto Malossi.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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267
Figure 16. Like those previously produced in Russia,

the Czech-Italian Malossi-manufactured blue beryls
display characteristic roiled-to-angular structures or
patterns of subgrain boundaries and intergrowths.
Photomicrograph by Ilaria Adamo; magnified 25.
roiled-to-angular growth structures or patterns of subgrain boundaries or intergrowths (figure 16).

Although hydrothermally grown synthetic red
beryl was produced in earlier decades, the detailed
descriptions by Shigley et al. (2001) and Fumagalli et
al. (2003) are particularly useful in separating it from
natural red beryl. Manufactured by the Institute of
Crystallography and an affiliated company, Emcom
Ltd., both located in Moscow, this material is produced under conditions similar to those used to
grow other varieties of synthetic beryl. To give the
red, pinkish red, and orange-red colors (figure 17), Co
and Mn are introduced into the nutrient solution. RI
and SG measurements were within published ranges
for natural red beryl. Magnification revealed
Figure 17. Manufactured in Moscow, these hydrothermally grown orange-red and pinkish red synthetic beryls
derive their color from cobalt (left and center, 1.08
and 1.95 g) and manganese (right, 6.32 g) introduced
into the nutrient solution. Photo by Robert Weldon.
268
chevron-shaped growth zoning, typical of hydrothermal synthetic beryl products. Several absorption
bands were seen between 530 and 590 nm; these are
due to Co2+ and are not observed in natural red beryl.
Chemical analysis showed that Co and Ni were the
two most diagnostic trace elements, as these elements are not seen in natural red beryl. Another
diagnostic feature is an absorption band in the
infrared between 4200 and 3200 cm1. This band is
related to water and is absent from natural red beryl,
which formed in a pneumatolytic high-temperature
igneous (rhyolitic) environment that contained very
little water.
SYNTHETIC JADEITE
The production of intense green, highly translucent
synthetic Imperial jadeite was perhaps one of the
most interesting and exciting developments in the
first decade of the 2000s. While the synthesis of
jadeite had been attempted by General Electric for
more than 20 years (Nassau and Shigley, 1987), it
was not until this decade that a truly successful
product was achieved (Moses, 2002). As shown in
figure 18, the quality of this synthetic rivals that of
the finest natural green jadeite. Most of the material
is very slightly mottled in white and intense green,
with the overall effect being a rich green color. Only
one cabochon examined contained an inclusionan
irregular black patch that could not be identified (figure 19). The small number of samples seen had
gemological properties that overlapped those of natural jadeite of similar color and translucency.
Fortunately, there are obvious differences in the IR
region (Cao et al., 2008). Since FTIR analysis is a
standard technique used to check jadeite for polymer
impregnation, it is doubtful that any of these synFigure 18. During the past decade, General Electric
grew extremely high-quality synthetic jadeite, as
illustrated by these two cabochons (5.20 and 6.73 ct).
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 19. The only inclusion observed in the two

cabochons of GE synthetic jadeite was this unidentifiable irregular dark spot. Photomicrograph by J. I.
Koivula; magnified 20.
thetic jadeite cabochons will be undetected in the

laboratory if or when this synthetic is commercially
manufactured and distributed (which, to the best of
our knowledge, is not yet the case).
SYNTHETIC QUARTZ
Hydrothermal growth of synthetic quartz on prepared
seed crystals was a significant synthesis technique
throughout the 1990s. While synthetic amethyst (figure 20) is not a new development, a detailed study by
Balitsky et al. (2004) compared the infrared absorption
spectra of numerous synthetic amethyst samples
grown from K2CO3 and NH4F solutions, along with a
limited number of Chinese and Japanese hydrothermal synthetics.
Absorption bands at ~3595 and 3543 cm1 have
diagnostic value in separating natural and synthetic
amethyst (see also Karampelas et al., 2005). While the
3595 cm1 band has not been observed in synthetic
amethyst, it is occasionally also absent from natural
material, which limits its diagnostic effectiveness.
When the 3543 cm1 band is found in amethyst grown
in a near-neutral NH4F solution (indicated by additional bands at 3680, 3664, and 3630 cm1), synthetic
origin is certain. The 3543 cm1 band, however, is
commonly seen in more commercially significant
synthetic amethyst grown in alkaline K2CO3 solutions, and it has occasionally been observed in natural
amethyst from a few localities. For the most part,
then, these features are not independently conclusive
of natural or synthetic origin in amethyst, but they
provide supporting evidence for origin determination
(Balitsky and Balitskaya, 2009). A combination of
microscopic observations, such as growth features and
inclusions, should be used in conjunction with these
IR features.
Figure 20. While synthetic amethyst, such as this

3.90 g crystal and 10.10 ct round brilliant, was not
new in the last decade, advances were made in the
use of FTIR spectroscopy to identify it. Photo by
Robert Weldon.
SYNTHETIC ALEXANDRITE
Synthetic alexandrite of high clarity is commonly
grown by the Czochralski process, which was not
new to the 2000s. Such material generally does not
cause any real concern among gemologists, since we
are immediately suspicious of any nearly flawless
colored stone. Melt-grown synthetic alexandrites
can be readily separated from natural stones by FTIR
analysis (Stockton and Kane, 1988).
As with any gem material, however, unusual
examples may occasionally appear. Some synthetic
alexandrites contain odd-shaped gas bubbles (figure 21) that, on first observation, can appear very
similar to the negative crystals seen in natural
alexandrite (Mayerson and Kondo, 2005). While
faceted synthetic alexandrites are often virtually
flawless, cabochons usually contain at least a few
easily observed gas bubbles that are useful in identification. However, if a few high-relief negative crystals are the only inclusions present, care should be
exercised to make sure they are not the distorted gas
bubbles found in a Czochralski-pulled synthetic.
SYNTHETIC OPAL
A nonphenomenal synthetic fire opal called Mexifire
(figure 22) was one of the few new synthetic colored
stones produced and marketed in the 2000s
(Choudhary and Bhandari, 2008; Bhandari and
Choudhary, 2010; Henn et al., 2010). While synthetic
opal has been commercially produced since 1975,
most of this material shows play-of-color. Mexifire
does not, and its structure is reportedly similar to that
of natural opal (i.e., composed of silica spheres); it also
owes its orange color to traces of iron. One notable
advantage to the synthetic material is that it does not
appear to craze, as its natural counterpart often does.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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269
Figure 21. The distorted gas bubbles that sometimes

occur in Czochralski melt-grown synthetic alexandrites can have the appearance of high-relief negative
crystals. Such inclusions may be quite deceptive.
Photomicrograph by J. I. Koivula; magnified 25.
Gemological properties of the initial Mexifire

product showed RI readings that were slightly lower
(1.3801.405) than those reported for natural fire
opal (1.4201.430). The SG (1.631.77) was also
lower than what would be expected for natural fire
opal (~2.00). The Mexifire product has a zonal turbid
structure, and minute pinpoints are scattered
throughout the material (figure 22, right). Unlike
synthetic opals from other manufacturers, the
Mexifire synthetic opals do not show a characteristic
chicken wire or columnar structure. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectroscopy
showed traces of Fe and Ca in the Mexifire product,
which is consistent with natural fire opal. While Zr
has been used to impregnate and stabilize opal in the
past, it was not detected in this material. IR spectroscopy showed an absorption hump at 46004300
cm1 that is sometimes absent from natural opal.
While this feature cannot provide proof of natural or
synthetic origin, the absence of this feature may suggest natural material.
Since late 2009, the process has been modified
such that the new Mexifire product has gemological

properties much more like those of natural fire opal.
While the microscopic properties of the two generations of material are similar, the new Mexifire synthetic opal has a consistent RI reading of 1.47 and an
SG of 2.19. Although these measurements are not
exactly the same as natural material, they are close
enough to cause concern, and careful testing is
required if an opal is suspect. Fortunately, the new
Mexifire material shows a characteristic infrared
spectrum that allows conclusive separation from
natural opal. Features observed in the new generation of Mexifire opal are a weak hump at ~5440
cm1, a sharp peak with a shoulder ~4520 cm1, an
absorption band in the 40003250 cm1 region, a
weak shoulder at 2652 cm1, and complete absorption of wavelengths below 2400 cm1 (Bhandari and
Choudhary, 2010).
While Mexifire synthetic opal is very similar to
natural opal in many respects, careful RI and SG
measurements should give a strong indicator of its
synthetic origin. When identifying gem materials in
this property range, it should be noted that manufactured glass is also a possibility.
UNUSUAL SYNTHETICS
Experimentation and failed laser development sometimes result in unusual synthetic gem materials.
Such was the case with two materials reported in
the 2000s.
A synthetic apatite (figure 23) with a color change
from purple pink in incandescent light to violetish
blue in fluorescent light was reported by McClure
(2001). While most of the gemological properties
were consistent with natural apatite, suspicion arose
from an unusual spectrum (seen with a desk-model
spectroscope) that was different from natural material. EDXRF analysis showed that the synthetic
Figure 22. At 1.47 and 1.56 ct

(left), these two Mexifire synthetic opals show the color
range and transparency of this
nonphenomenal material.
These synthetics commonly
have a turbid appearance and
minute pinpoints (right). Left
photo by Robert Weldon; right
photomicrograph by J. I.
Koivula, magnified 60.
270
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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Figure 23. Significant amounts of neodymium and strontium were detected in this unusual 3.03 ct
color-change synthetic apatite. Magnification (right) revealed features that indicated synthetic
origin, such as these elongated gas bubbles. Left photo by Robert Weldon; right photomicrograph
by J. I. Koivula, magnified 30.
apatite contained a significant amount of neodymium and a small amount of strontium. Magnification
revealed chevron-type growth and elongated gas bubbles, features that strongly supported a synthetic origin (figure 23, right). While synthetic apatite is an
oddity in the gem world, it has previously been
reported for laser applications (Koivula et al., 1992).
Another oddity reported in the early 2000s was
the growth of synthetic topaz crystals up to 20 g (100
ct) in size (Lu and Balitsky, 2001). This may strike
the reader as particularly unusual given the abundance of natural topaz in large sizes. The stated reason for growing this synthetic was to better understand crystal formation, morphology, and causes of
color in natural pegmatitic topaz. This material was
hydrothermally grown using crushed natural quartz
and topaz dissolved in an aqueous fluoride-bearing
fluid. Light gray to colorless crystals were produced
as overgrowths on a natural topaz seed plate suspended in the nutrient solution. Experiments were then
conducted to modify the color of the as-grown crystals. As is also the case with treated-color natural
topaz, reddish brown was produced by ionizing irradiation (Balitsky et al., 2004) and blue was produced by
high-energy electron irradiation with subsequent
heat treatment (Lu and Balitsky, 2001). The gemological properties and Raman and FTIR spectra were
within the ranges for natural material. Chemical
analysis by EDXRF showed traces of germanium,
nickel, and iron.
CONCLUSION: PREDICTIONS
FOR THE NEXT DECADE
It is safe to predict that technology will continue to
advance, and with that will come improvements in
existing synthesis techniques and products. As with

synthetic apatite and topaz, there will always be
unusual materials produced with what appear
nowto have limited commercial potential. Such
synthetics will surely arise from time to time and
present their own unique gemological challenges.
We believe, however, that the greatest advances in
synthesis will continue to be focused on the most
commercially important gems: diamond, emerald,
ruby, and sapphire.
Currently, the vast majority of gem-quality synthetic diamonds are melee-size HPHT-grown material (Quinn, 2005; Kitawaki et al., 2008), which
require care to identify. Eventually, the trade will
have to decide at what point it is no longer economic to identify such small synthetic diamonds, especially if swift, accurate, and inexpensive testing
methods are not developed.
Will the jewelry industry be ready for these developments? When you consider that many synthetic
growth processes are more than a century old and
still plague the trade, our preparedness must be questioned. If tradespeople continue to submit flamefusion synthetic rubies, sapphires, and spinels to gem
laboratories for identification, then one must ask:
How are they handling the thousands of carats of
more technologically advanced flux-grown,
hydrothermal, and Czochralski-pulled synthetics?
We believe the answer will be found through gemological education. Over the next decade, every jewelers goal should be to gain gemological expertise on a
par with their computer age business skills. It is
vital to have a sound working knowledge of the identifying characteristics for all synthetics, past and present. Such knowledge will also help the gemologist
prepare for future developments.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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271
stones purchased over the Internet as heated natural

sapphires (figure 24). Since they were advertised as
heated, he assumed when he purchased them that
the worst case scenario would be that they turned
out to be beryllium diffused. After examination,
worse news was evident: They all were flame-fusion
synthetic sapphires, with not a heat-treated natural
stone in the group.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Figure 24. Purchased over the internet, these were

advertised as heat-treated natural sapphires, but all
turned out to be flame-fusion synthetics (4.57.0 ct).
Photo by G. Roskin.
New treatment processes were by far the big

news of the past decade. Because of that, todays
experts too often expect sapphires to be beryllium
treated, or diamonds to be HPHT treated. In Las
Vegas in June 2010, a 1977 GIA classmate of one of
the authors (GR) handed him a parcel of seven
Mr. Renfro (nathan.renfro@gia.edu) is staff gemologist, and

Mr. Koivula is chief gemologist, at the GIA Laboratory in
Carlsbad, California. Dr. Wang is director of research at the
GIA Laboratory in New York. Mr. Roskin is based in Downingtown, Pennsylvania, and is editor of the online magazine
Roskin Gem News Report.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are indebted to Dr. Ilaria Adamo, of the Universit
degli Studi di Milano, and Robert Weldon, of GIA Carlsbad, for
help in preparing certain sections and for performing archival
research for this article.
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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273
NOTES & NEW TECHNIQUES
YELLOW SCAPOLITE
FROM IHOSY, MADAGASCAR
Margherita Superchi, Federico Pezzotta, Elena Gambini, and Emanuela Castaman
Attractive yellow to light greenish yellow gem

scapolites have been mined from a skarn deposit
near the town of Ihosy, in southern Madagascar,
since the late 1990s. Chemical analysis indicates
that the scapolites have a mostly meionite content, with lesser amounts of marialite and a small
percentage of silvialite. These results are agreeable with the RI measurements and IR spectra.
Inclusions were identified as diopside, garnet
(andradite-grossular), and mica (probably phlogopite), consistent with the minerals accompanying scapolite in Ihosy skarns. The samples UV
fluorescence appears to be distinctive from that
of commercially available scapolites from other
localities.
capolite is a silicate mineral that occurs in

crystals often characterized by good transparency, significant size, and a wide variety of
colors: greenish yellow, yellow, pink, purple,
dark pinkish purple, and violet. Colorless crystals
also exist. Despite its relatively low hardness (Mohs
6), it has interest as a collectors gem. The most
important localities for gem-quality scapolite are
Afghanistan (Badakhshan), China (Xinjiang-Uygur
Autonomous Region), Myanmar (Mogok), Pakistan,
Sri Lanka, Tajikistan, Kenya, Madagascar,
Mozambique, Tanzania, and Brazil.
The scapolite group consists of two main end
members: marialite (Na4[Al3Si9O24]Cl) and meionite

274
NOTES AND NEW TECHNIQUES
(Ca4[Al6Si6O24]CO3). Intermediate compositions in

the solid-solution series are named after the closest
end member (Deer et al., 1992). Meionite (Me) possesses higher RI and SG values than marialite. The
meionite end member has refractive indices of no =
1.600 and ne = 1.564, and an SG of 2.78; the marialite
end member has RIs of no = 1.539 and ne = 1.531 and
an SG of 2.50 (Deer et al., 1992). A third end member
of the group, silvialite, is characterized by an SO4
anionic group (Ca4[Al6Si6O24]SO4; Teertstra et al.,
1999); however, silvialite has not been considered in
previous gemological studies of gem scapolite.
It has not yet been systematically established
whether the different colors of scapolite correspond
to different compositions. Likewise, it is also unclear
if properties such as RI and SG are related to specific
colors. However, Couper (1991), reporting on a study
of scapolite from Myanmar, noted that violet-topink samples plotted in the marialite field, and yellow and colorless samples fell in the meionite field.
Because of the uncertainties concerning minerals of
this group, a better knowledge is needed of the composition of gem-quality scapolites and the methods
for their identification.
This study characterizes yellow scapolite from
the Ihosy deposit in Madagascar, and investigates
the suitability of previously established methods for
calculating scapolite composition so it can be properly identified.
BACKGROUND
Yellow gem scapolite has been known from
Madagascar since the beginning of the 20th century
(Lacroix, 1922). In the past, production was sporadic
and large gem crystals were rare. In the late 1990s,
however, a new discovery was made about 35 km
south of the town of Ihosy, in veins associated with
skarn rocks typical of southern Madagascar
(Martelat et al., 1997). The high-grade gneiss host
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 1. The largest of

these rough scapolites
from Ihosy weighs
about 10 g and measures 2.7 cm in diameter. A standard penlight
is shown for scale.
Photo by F. Pezzotta.
rocks contain a network of narrow granular scapolite veins associated with calcite, apatite, diopside,
and minor spinel.
Local miners equipped with hand tools have
worked the veins close to the surface in partially
weathered horizons, and in fresh rock to a depth of a
few meters. In 2007, occasional finds of good-quality
scapolite caused them to work the deposits more
actively, and there was a significant increase in production. The material showed an attractive yellow
color (figure 1), and several kilograms of gem-quality
roughincluding clean, well-formed crystals up to
90 gbegan to reach the local market. The faceted

scapolites usually range from 4 to 12 ct, with some
pieces as large as 30 ct (e.g., figure 2).
MATERIALS AND METHODS

Five cut stones (4.147.50 ct) and 16 pieces of rough
(0.742.15 g) scapolite were analyzed (figure 3).
Samples were selected from a large parcel of rough
purchased from local miners in Ihosy by author FP.
The studied samples are representative of the quality
range produced from this locality. The five faceted
stones were cut in Antsirabe (Madagascar) by a local
Figure 2. These
faceted scapolites
from Ihosy weigh
22.5 ct (left) and
29.7 ct (right).
Courtesy of
Giovanni Bossi and
Riccardo Caprilli,
respectively; photos
by Roberto Appiani.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
275
voltage of 15 kV and a current of 15 nA. Minerals

used as standards for each element were apatite (F),
albite (Na), olivine (Mg), corundum (Al), wollastonite
(Si, Ca), sphalerite (S), vanadinite (Cl), orthoclase (K),
synthetic MnTiO3 (Ti, Mn), hematite (Fe), and
celestite (Sr).
Infrared absorption spectroscopy of the scapolite
was performed, but the spectra were not useful
because the thickness of the whole samples resulted
in total saturation in the 1600400 cm 1 region
(obscuring the diagnostic area for scapolite at 610.4
cm1). Accordingly, we used the KBr disc method on
powder from one of the pieces of rough, and ana-
Figure 3. These five faceted scapolites (4.147.50 ct)

and 16 rough crystals (0.742.15 g) from Ihosy were
studied for this report. Photos by E. Castaman.
NEED TO KNOW
gem cutter; they were examined by standard gemological methods to determine their refractive indices,
hydrostatic specific gravity, and microscopic features
(using 2060 magnification). Long-wave (365 nm)
and short-wave (254 nm) ultraviolet fluorescence
was observed using a standard UV lamp.
Semiquantitative analyses of all 21 samples were
performed with energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence
(EDXRF) spectroscopy using a Philips 9100 instrument operated with a voltage of 35 kV and a current
of 100 A. We also performed quantitative analyses
of two representative pieces of rough (S2-P and S4-P),
which were mounted in resin and polished, using a
Cameca SX50 wavelength-dispersive spectroscopy
(WDS) electron microprobe with an accelerating
RI, SG, and IR spectral features vary with

chemical composition.
TABLE 1. Properties of five cut scapolites from

Ihosy, Madagascar.a
Sample
1
2
3
4
5
RI
(neno)
SG
Me (%)b
4.13
4.32
5.70
7.23
7.50
1.5551.575
1.5551.580
1.5541.581
1.5551.581
1.5521.574
2.68
2.71
2.72
2.72
2.68
60.0
64.9
64.9
65.9
56.0
All samples fluoresced pale yellow to long-wave UV radiation and

strong purplish red to short-wave UV.
b Calculated from refractive indices following the formula reported in
Deer et al. (1992).
276
Gem-quality yellow scapolite has been produced sporadically from the Ihosy area since the
late 1990s.
Unlike most other gem scapolite, which is primarily marialite, Ihosy scapolite is mostly meionite with
lesser marialite and minor silvialite components.
lyzed it with a Jasco FTIR 410 spectrometer (64

scans and a resolution of 4 cm1).
The few inclusions we observed in both the
rough and faceted samples were analyzed by Raman
spectroscopy (Renishaw 1000 instrument equipped
with a 514 nm laser). One surface-reaching inclusion
was analyzed by electron microprobe.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Weight
(ct)
Gem scapolite is a solid-solution series consisting of two main end members, marialite and
meionite, and a third end member, silvialite.
The samples were yellow to light greenish yellow

(Munsell 10Y 9/4 to 10Y 9/6), with moderate light
yellow to light yellow-green pleochroism. Standard
gemological data for the five cut stones are reported in table 1. The refractive indices were n o=
1.5741.581 and ne=1.5521.555, with a birefringence
of 0.0220.027; the SG ranged from 2.68 to 2.72.
These values are consistent with meionite-dominant
scapolites (Deer et al., 1992). All the samples fluoresced pale yellow to long-wave UV radiation and
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
TABLE 3. Quantitative electron microprobe analyses of

two rough scapolite samples from Ihosy, Madagascar.
strong purplish red to short-wave UV. The fluorescence of Ihosy scapolite is similar only to that of the
rare crystals found in Switzerland (table 2).
Semiquantitative EDXRF data from all samples
suggested a limited compositional range. Therefore,
we believe the two rough pieces chosen for quantitative WDS electron microprobe analysis (table 3) are
representative for all these samples. The data
revealed they were mainly meionite (54.762.0%)
with lesser marialite (29.937.8%) and minor silvialite components (7.58.1%; see also figure 4). The
chemical composition had significant influence on
the physical properties of the gem material.
Ulbrich (1973), Arem (1987), and Deer et al.
(1992) related scapolites refractive indices to its
meionite content. Their methodology for calculating
composition from RI values does not take into
account the silvialite component (a rather new addition to the scapolite group). Moreover, Deer et al.
(1992) pointed out the uncertainty of the method for
specimens containing relatively large amounts of K,
S, or Cl, and suggested a typical error of 6.5% in the
Me value. Nevertheless, in view of the rather consistent and relatively low silvialite component of our
samples, we applied the method proposed by Deer et
al. (1992), represented by the equation (ne+no)/2 =
1.5346 + 0.000507(Me%). The results, shown in
table 1, indicate a meionite content of 56.065.9%,
assuming a two-component composition. These
results are in good agreement with the microprobe
data obtained from the two crystals. Moreover, the
SG values of the samples generally agreed with their
meionite content, per Deer et al. (1992).
Wehrenberg (1971) proposed an indirect method for
Oxide (wt.%)
S2-P a
S4-P b
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
SO3
Cl
F
44.71
0.01
26.83
0.06
0.01
0.03
16.24
3.82
0.66
0.71
1.24
0.01
49.29
0.01
25.77
0.04
0.01
0.02
14.41
4.95
0.80
0.70
1.86
0.02
94.34
97.88
62.0
29.9
8.1
54.7
37.8
7.5
Total
Calculated components
Meionite
Marialite
Silvialite
(%) c
Average of 16 point analyses.

Average of 18 point analyses.
c Calculated using Mincalc software; CO used for the meionite
2
component was calculated to obtain the best stoichiometry.
b
Figure 4. This ternary diagram shows the composition of the two scapolite samples analyzed by electron microprobe. The oval field illustrates the compositional variation (from EDXRF semiquantitative
analyses) of all 21 samples.
MEIONITE
0 100
Scapolite S2-P
Scapolite S4-P
TABLE 2. UV fluorescence of yellow scapolite from

various geographic origins.
Madagascar a
Tanzaniaa
Tanzaniab
Myanmar a,b
Brazil (Espirito
Santo)a
Switzerland (Lake
Tremorgio)a
a
b
Long-wave (365 nm)
Strong purplish red
Samples from the Natural History Museum of Milan.

Data from Arem (1987).
80
70
60
50
Pale yellow
Pale purple
Strong yellow
Pale yellow to orange
Pale yellow
20
40
Short-wave (254 nm)
Strong purplish red

Strong purple
Strong yellow
Moderate yelloworange to pink
Inert to pale lilac-pink Strong red to purple
90
30
UV fluorescence
Locality
10
50
40
60
30
70
20
80
90
100
0
10
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
MARIALITE
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
90
0
100
SILVIALITE
WINTER 2010
277
FTIR ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

1.4
90
1004
80
459
1.0
70
543
1105
60
1168
610.4
0.8
50
1529
0.6
1423
699
840
40
740
30
0.4
% Me
ABSORBANCE
1.2
Figure 5. The FTIR

spectrum on the left
and the diagram on
the right (after
Wehrenberg, 1971)
illustrate the correlation between the
absorption peak at
610.4 cm 1 and Me
content.
610
20
0.2
0
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
10
660 640 620 600
WAVENUMBER (cm-1)
determining meionite content based on the position of

the IR band located at ~610 cm 1, which is directly
related to meionite content in scapolites containing
2090% Me. Sample S2-Ps diagnostic peak was centered at 610.4 cm1, which corresponds to 67% 5%
meionite (figure 5). This is somewhat similar to the
62.0% Me obtained by microprobe analysis if we consider that the latter value was calculated for a threecomponent system (i.e., accounting for silvialite, in
addition to marialite and meionite). On the same sample, the refractive indices obtained on a polished area
before mounting in epoxy correlated to 62.9% Me.
Inclusions were rare in all samples, and most

consisted of hollow channels, probably related to
growth structures that were affected by late-stage
corrosion. The few mineral inclusions observed in
the samples (e.g., figure 6) were identified by Raman
spectroscopy as garnet (andradite-grossular), mica
(very likely phlogopite, the most abundant mica in
the host rock), and calcic pyroxene. Microprobe
analysis of the (surface-reaching) pyroxene identified
it as diopside. All of these inclusions correspond
with minerals present in the skarn host rocks at the
Ihosy deposit.
Figure 6. Microscopic
examination revealed
inclusions of tabular
hexagonal mica and
brownish orange garnet
(left), as well as diopside (right). Photomicrographs by E.
Castaman; fields of
view 0.5 mm (left) and
0.8 mm (right).
278
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
CONCLUSIONS
Various analytical techniques allowed us to establish the meionite-dominant composition of Ihosy
scapolites, in the approximate range of 5565% Me.
The results obtained from different samples using
the three methods applied (electron microprobe, RI,
and FTIR) were generally in good agreement.
Moreover, the electron microprobe analyses showed
the silvialite content of the Ihosy scapolite was ~8%.
To our knowledge, this is the first gemological study
in which the silvialite content of scapolite has been
reported. We have yet to make compositional com-
parisons with scapolites from other sources.

Nevertheless, it is interesting to note that these
scapolites fell in the meionite field, while the majority of commercial gem scapolite from other localities are marialite (see, e.g., Graziani and Gbelin,
1981 [Tanzania]; Peili, 1992 [China]; Kammerling et
al., 1995 [Tajikistan]; Gomes et al., 2004 [Mozambique]; Zwaan, 1996 [Sri Lanka]; and McClure et al.,
2005 [Afghanistan]).
Although only limited mining for Ihosy scapolite
is being conducted, there is strong potential for
future production from this deposit.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Margherita Superchi is scientific gemological consultant, and Elena Gambini and Emanuela Castaman are staff members,
at the Gemmological Centre of the Milan Chamber of Commerce (CISGEM), Milan, Italy. Federico Pezzotta
(fpezzotta@yahoo.com) is mineral curator of the Natural History Museum of Milan, Italy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Antonello Donini and Andrea Marzola of CISGEM for their help in collecting and analyzing the data. We also
thank Alessandro Guastoni of the University of Padua for the electron microprobe analyses and Alberto Paleari of the University
of Milan-Bicocca for helpful discussions. This study is based in part on the diploma thesis of Barbara Gorini (2006).
REFERENCES
Arem J.E. (1987) Color Encyclopedia of Gemstones, 2nd ed. Van
Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 166167.
Couper A.G. (1991) Colour as a guide to the composition of scapolite
from Burma. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp. 259263.
Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1992) An Introduction to the
Rock-Forming Minerals. Longman Scientific & Technical,
London, 696 pp.
Gomes C.L., Quinn E.P., Koivula J.I. (2004) Gem News International:
Scapolite from Mozambique. G&G, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp. 172173.
Gorini B. (2006) Caratterizzazione della scapolite di Ihosy,
Madagascar. Unpublished B.S. thesis, Universit degli Studi di
Milano-Bicocca, 128 pp.
Graziani G., Gbelin E. (1981) Observations on some scapolites of
central Tanzania. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 6, pp.
395405.
Kammerling R.C., Koivula J.I., Johnson M.L., Alitsch E. (1995) Purple
scapolite from Tajikistan. G&G, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp. 211212.
Lacroix A. (1922) Minralogie de Madagascar, Vol. 13. A.
Challamel, Paris.
Martelat J.E., Nicollet C., Lardeaux J.M., Vidal G., Rakotondrazafy R.

(1997) Lithospheric tectonic structures developed under highgrade metamorphism in the southern part of Madagascar.
Geodinamica Acta, Vol. 10, pp. 94114.
McClure S.F., Rossman G.R., Shigley J.E. (2005) Gem News
International: Tenebrescent scapolite from Afghanistan. G&G,
Vol. 41, No. 3, pp. 269271.
Peili Z. (1992) Gem-quality scapolite from Sinjiang region, west
China. Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 115117.
Teertstra D.K., Schindler M., Sherriff B.L., Hawthorne F.C. (1999)
Silvialite, a new sulfate-dominant member of the scapolite group.
Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 63, pp. 321329.
Ulbrich H. (1973) Crystallographic data and refractive indices of
scapolites. American Mineralogist, Vol. 58, pp. 8192.
Wehrenberg J.P. (1971) The infrared absorption spectra of scapolite.
American Mineralogist, Vol. 56, pp. 16391654.
Zwaan P.C. (1996) Enstatite, cordierite, kornerupine, and scapolite
with unusual properties from Embilipitiya, Sri Lanka. G&G, Vol.
32, No. 4, pp. 262269.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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279
NOTES & NEW TECHNIQUES
A MICROSTRUCTURAL STUDY OF PIETERSITE

FROM NAMIBIA AND CHINA
Kaifan Hu and Peter J. Heaney
Pietersite has been described as a brecciated

variety of tigers-eye. This study examined
pietersite specimens from Namibia and China
(the main sources) using powder X-ray diffraction, optical microscopy, environmental scanning electron microscopy, and conventional
gemological methods. On the basis of the
results, quantitative approaches were developed
to distinguish pietersite samples from the two
localities. It is also proposed that the petrogenesis of this gem material is quite different from that
of South African tigers-eye.
ietersite is named after its discoverer, Sid

Pieters, a well-known gem and mineral dealer
who first described it in 1962 from a locality in
Namibia (Thomas, 2008). The term is now used generally to describe brecciated varieties of tigers-eye.
Tigers-eye sensu stricto occurs within Precambrian
banded iron formations as seams that run parallel to
layers of jasper. It is characterized by lustrous golden brown bands that exhibit a radiant chatoyancy
when polished due to the inclusion of crocidolite
fibers within a microcrystalline silica host (Heaney
and Fisher, 2003). (Crocidolite is an asbestiform variety of an amphibole called riebeckite.) Although
Namibian pietersite exhibits the same mineralogy as
tigers-eye, the chatoyant field is not observed as a
continuous band. Rather, pietersite contains angular
fragments that are cemented as an irregular patch-

280
work of bundles, some of which exhibit sheen

(Koivula et al., 1992). Thus, pietersite offers a chaotic
chatoyancy, with a brecciated texture that has been
likened to bold paint strokes that flow in many
directions (see, e.g., figure 1).
Pietersite has been found at two main sources:
Kuraman, Namibia; and Xichuan, Henan Province,
China. Mr. Pieters discovered the Namibian
pietersite within round dolostone cobbles while
prospecting some farmland in the neighborhood of
Outjo, in the Kuraman district. He registered the
gem in the mineral records of Great Britain in 1964
and brought it to market in the 1970s (Koivula et
al., 1992; Thomas, 2008). In 1996, Zeitner reported
that much of the minable stock in Namibia was
depleted and that material was becoming scarce.
Chinese pietersite was discovered in 1966 while
geologists were prospecting for crocidolite. It was
mined in the 1970s and 1980s, but it did not come
to market until the 1990s (Zhong, 1994). Although
it appears that both mining areas are still closed,
material from these localities continues to appear
in the marketplace.
In this article, we compare the properties of
pietersite from Namibia and China, identify their
distinguishing characteristics, and propose mechanisms for their formation that account for differences in their appearance and phenomena. A comparison to South African tigers-eye is also provided.
MATERIALS AND METHODS

The specimens examined included five samples from
China and six from Namibia (e.g., figure 2). The
Chinese specimens consisted of two flat polished
oval slabs from the GIA Collection (no. 32394, donated by the late Hannes Kleynhans) and three cabochons labeled as Chinese and purchased at the 2008
Tucson Gem and Mineral Show. The Namibian
specimens consisted of three polished pieces and
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 1. China and Namibia are the only known sources of gem-quality pietersite. Studied
for this report, this Chinese sample (left, 39.85 g) displays an overall brownish red color,
whereas the polished specimen of Namibian pietersite (right, 80.76 g) is dominated by
blue-gray,golden yellow, and white hues. Photos by K. Hu.
three flat unpolished slabs from author PJHs personal collection (purchased at the 2008 and 2009 Tucson
gem shows). Two of the six Namibian samples contained traces of the original host rock. The specimens
ranged from 7 to 85 g.
Standard gemological tests were performed on
all samples. RI values were measured from the
five Chinese and three Namibian polished specimens with a GIA Duplex refractometer. We
obtained hydrostatic SG values using a Scout Pro
SP 602 electronic balance. UV fluorescence was
observed with standard long-wave (366 nm) and
short-wave (254 nm) UV lamps.
Figure 2. These are some of the Namibian pietersite

specimens that were investigated for this report
(3.36.0 cm in maximum dimension). Photo by K. Hu.
Eight doubly polished petrographic thin sections

were prepared from both the Chinese and the
Namibian material (four from each), and these were
examined with an Olympus SZ-CTV microscope
and an Olympus BX40 petrographic microscope.
Photomicrographs were obtained with a Nikon DS5M camera. Powder X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns
were collected using a Rigaku DMAX-Rapid microdiffractometer. Environmental scanning electron
microscope (ESEM, in which the sample does not
need an electrically conductive coating) analysis of
all eight thin sections was performed using an FEI
Quanta 200 microscope operating at 20 kV, and
chemical analyses were obtained using an Oxford
INCA energy-dispersive spectroscopy system. All
work was conducted in the Pennsylvania State
University Mineralogy Laboratory in the Department of Geosciences, and in the Materials Characterization Laboratory at the Pennsylvania State
University Materials Research Institute.
RESULTS
The gemological properties of the samples are
described below and summarized in table 1.
Visual Appearance. The Chinese pietersite specimens were intensely brecciated, with individual
fields measuring 28 mm in diameter. The overall
color was a jasper-like brownish red hue, but regions
of chatoyant blue and yellow were discernible, with
white flecks from calcite. The chatoyant effect was
best developed in the yellow regions, but it was
noticeably less vibrant than is typically observed in
Namibian pietersite.
The color of the Namibian specimens was not as
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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281
TABLE 1. Gemological properties of pietersite from China and Namibia.

Property
China
Color
Diaphaneity
Refractive index
Specific gravity
UV fluorescence
Long-wave
Short-wave
XRD analysis
Textural features observed by
optical microscopy and ESEM
Namibia
Brownish red, golden yellow to brown,

rarely blue
Opaque
1.541.55
2.672.74
Blue-gray, golden yellow to brown, rarely red

Semitranslucent to opaque
1.541.55
2.502.58
Inert
White in calcite areas
Quartz, minor calcite
Brecciated clasts measuring 28 mm in diameter;
fibrous crocidolite intensely coated by hematite
and chlorite; quartz veins cross-cutting crocidolite; calcite inclusions
Moderate-to-weak light green

Moderate-to-strong bright green
Quartz, minor calcite
Brecciated clasts measuring 510 mm in diameter;
fibrous crocidolite occasionally coated by
goethite and hematite; chalcedony spherulites;
inclusions of calcite, dolomite, barite, and pyrite
varied as that of the Chinese material. Blue-gray and

golden yellow fibrous regions predominated, with
rare secondary brownish red fields, and the overall
bodycolor of the Namibian specimens was blue-gray.
The brecciated clasts ranged from 5 to 10 mm in
diameter, but on average they were larger than those
seen in the Chinese specimens. Chatoyancy was particularly well developed in the blue fields. Three of
the Namibian specimens had ~2-mm-thick veins of
colorless translucent chalcedony. Chalcedony was
observable in the Chinese specimens only with the
aid of light microscopy.
lite was detected. This result is similar to our experience with many tigers-eye specimens from
Griquatown, South Africa, for which crocidolite
was detected only by synchrotron X-ray radiation
(Heaney and Fisher, 2003). We infer from these
results that despite the intense chatoyancy of
pietersite, the mass fraction of crocidolite is on the
order of a few weight percent or less.
Refractive Index. The RI values, around 1.54, were

consistent with quartz for all samples. There was no
difference in RI values between the Chinese and
Namibian specimens.
Pietersite, often described as a brecciated variety

of tigers-eye, is known from China and Namibia.
Specific Gravity. The SG values of the Chinese specimens ranged from 2.67 to 2.74. The SG values of
the Namibian specimens were notably lower,
2.502.58. The SG of quartz is 2.65.
UV Fluorescence. Most of the Namibian specimens
luminesced a moderate-to-weak light green to longwave UV radiation and a moderate-to-strong bright
green to short-wave UV. This bright green luminescence is most likely explained by the greater chalcedony content in those sectors. Portions of some of
the Chinese specimens luminesced white to shortwave but were inert to long-wave UV; these areas
corresponded to calcite.
Powder X-ray Diffraction. Our XRD patterns for the
Chinese and Namibian specimens were indistinguishable, producing diffraction peaks only for
quartz with minor calcite. No evidence of crocido-
282
NEED TO KNOW
Pietersite from the two localities has similar RI

ranges, but the Namibian material has a lower SG.
Crocidolite fibers are more densely intergrown
(parallel, radial, and disordered textures) in
Chinese samples. The fibers in Namibian specimens are generally oriented parallel to one another.
Namibian pietersite formed under very different
geologic conditions from those that produced
South African tigers-eye.
Optical Microscopy. Examination of thin sections of

pietersite from both China and Namibia revealed
the presence of crocidolite embedded within microcrystalline quartz. The crocidolite could be distinguished on the basis of its moderately high relief,
pleochroic grayish blue to greenish blue coloration,
and optical extinction of 810 in cross-polarized
light.
We also noted significant textural differences
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
fabric of the microcrystalline quartz also differed significantly; it was commonly fibrous chalcedony and
quartzine, whereas in Chinese samples it was uniformly fine-grained and equant, similar to jasper
(Heaney and Veblen 1992). Radial spherulites of
chalcedony grew within both calcite and hematite in
the Namibian pietersite (figure 3).
Figure 3. In cross-polarized light, this Namibian

pietersite exhibits fibrous chalcedony (Qtz) spherulites that are embaying calcite (Cc) and are surrounded by fine-grained hematite. Photo by K. Hu.
between the Chinese and Namibian specimens. In

the Chinese samples, the fibers were more densely
intergrown, and they showed a broader variety of
fabricsparallel, radial, and disordered. They ranged
from 20 m to 2 mm long and rarely exceeded 2 m
wide. Both hematite and chlorite coated the fibers of
crocidolite. The Chinese pietersite also differed from
the Namibian samples in the presence of fibrous
chlorite inclusions. The chlorite fibers exhibited
strong pleochroism from deep green to yellowish
brown.
Unlike the Chinese material, the crocidolite
fibers in the Namibian specimens were generally oriented parallel to one another. Fiber lengths were
shorter than in the Chinese material, typically
1050 m, and they were less than 2 m wide. The
ESEM Analysis. Consistent with the overall jasperlike red bodycolor of the Chinese pietersite, ESEM
imagery showed that the crocidolite fibers were coated with hematite to a much greater degree than in the
Namibian specimens (figure 4, right). Both Chinese
and Namibian pietersite included calcite as an accessory mineral (figure 4, left), but ESEM revealed that
the Namibian pietersite also contained microcrystalline dolomite, barite, and pyrite (figure 5), which we
did not observe in the Chinese specimens. In places,
these minerals were partly replaced by quartz, with
only the edges of crystals visible (figure 6).
Backscattered electron images of the quartz
matrix in the Namibian pietersite revealed growth
textures that were unusual and instructive. Rims of
fine-grained hematite typically enveloped radially
fibrous chalcedony spherules, which embayed the
precursor dolostone (figure 7, left). The chalcedony
spherules displayed concentric, oscillatory spheres of
microquartz fibers and open cavities. Crocidolite
fibers grew out radially from the hematite-rimmed
spherulites into open spaces between them (again,
see figure 7, left). In regions marked by a higher
degree of overall silicification, the chalcedony
spherules appear to have coalesced, and the cores
locally contained fibers of crocidolite coated with
hematite. In more silicified samples, the crocidolite
fibers were seen transecting multiple spherulites (figure 7, right).
Figure 4. Parallel aggregates

of crocidolite (Cro) and
intergrowths of calcite (Cc)
are evident in the backscattered electron (BSE)
image of Chinese pietersite
on the left. On the right,
the BSE image of a Chinese
specimen shows the coating of some crocidolite
fibers (dark gray) by
hematite (Hem; light gray).
Micrographs by K. Hu.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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283
Figure 5. As revealed in BSE images (and identified by energy-dispersive spectroscopy),

Namibian pietersite included barite (Brt; left), pyrite (Py; center), and dolomite (Dol; right).
Micrographs by K. Hu.
Consistent with a previous report (Leake et al.,

1992), energy-dispersive spectroscopy revealed that the
crocidolite in both Chinese and Namibian material
contains variable amounts of Mg in solid solution with
Fe and should be classified as magnesioriebeckite.
DISCUSSION
Pietersite has been described as a breccia aggregate
made up largely of hawks-eye and tigers-eye
(Schumann, 2009, p. 320) and as a disoriented pseudo-crocidolite mass with limonite (ManutchehrDanai, 2008, p. 368). Our analyses indicate that
pietersite specimens from Namibia and China do
share many hallmarks of tigers-eye. Mineralogically, both tigers-eye and pietersite contain asbestiform fibers of crocidolite embedded within a finegrained quartz host, and the included crocidolite is
responsible for the chatoyancy of the material.
Chatoyancy is degraded where the crocidolite has
altered to iron (hydr)oxides. For example, much of

the Chinese material that we examined contained
nonphenomenal areas in which a jasper-like dullness
superseded the original chatoyancy because of this
alteration reaction. Finally, like tigers-eye, the
pietersite samples revealed no evidence for pseudomorphism of quartz after crocidolite, despite popular
assumptions to the contrary.
Nevertheless, our analyses suggest that the petrogenesis of pietersite is quite different from that of
the tigers-eye found in Griquatown, South Africa.
Heaney and Fisher (2003) proposed that South
African tigers-eye formed through a crack-seal
process: The hydrofracture of banded-iron formations generated flat seams parallel to the jasper bedding planes, and these cracks were sealed by quartz
and crocidolite as an antitaxial infilling (i.e., growth
from opposing crack walls toward the center of the
vein). The quartz crystals in tigers-eye exhibit a
Figure 6. These BSE

images of Namibian
pietersite show the
replacement of barite
by quartz, leaving only
the outer rims of the
crystals. Micrographs
by K. Hu.
284
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
characteristic columnar habit with an elongation

parallel to the c-axis. The crocidolite fibers asymmetrically cross-cut the quartz boundaries, and the
ends facing the vein wall are jagged while those facing the vein interior are tapered.
The textures in Namibian pietersite rule out a
crack-seal origin. Many lines of reasoning suggest
instead that the Namibian (and perhaps the Chinese)
pietersites are solution breccias. (Solution breccias
form when soluble minerals are partly or wholly
removed by circulating groundwater, creating cavities into which overlying rock collapses and fragments. Often, the fragmented material is subsequently welded into a breccia by precipitation of a
silica or calcite cement from the groundwater.)
Namibian pietersite is developed within dolostone
cobbles that underwent fragmentary dissolution and
were silicified. During this process, silica-rich fluids
partially dissolved the original dolomite and deposited chalcedony spherulites. The presence of hematite
crystals at the centers of the spherulites suggests
that hematite served as nucleation centers for silica.
The growth of chalcedony fibers radially outward
from these nuclei bulldozed residual hematite to
form exterior rims of hematite.
We propose that a later episode of fluid infiltration resulted in the formation of crocidolite (a sodic
amphibole) from reactions between chalcedony and
hematite in the presence of aqueous Na+. The formation of crocidolite during the coalescence of chalcedony spherulites generated regions in which the
crocidolite fibers grew as parallel thatches. These
sheaves of crocidolite are responsible for the spectacular chatoyancy observed in the highest-quality
pietersite specimens. As is typical of dissolution
breccias, however, the replacement of dolostone by
silica was localized, and resulted in distinct patches

of crocidolite with differing fiber orientations. This
produced the chaotic chatoyancy that differentiates
pietersite from South African tigers-eye. The optical
homogeneity that is characteristic of the latter probably can be attributed to the large-scale tectonic
forces that exerted a broad control over crack-seal
fiber growth. Chemical dissolution, by contrast, is
not correlated over long spatial scales.
As is also typical of many South African tigers-eye
specimens, the last stage of pietersite formation
involved a back-reaction of crocidolite to hematite
and/or goethite. These microcrystalline iron
(hydr)oxides initially coated the crocidolite fibers;
then, in some instances, they completely replaced the
fibers pseudomorphically. This final alteration reaction may have occurred at low temperatures much
more recently than the crocidolite reaction, which
presumably required low-grade metamorphism
(Miyano and Klein, 1983). The breakdown of the crocidolite to iron (hydr)oxides proceeded to a greater
extent in the Chinese than in the Namibian material,
and it greatly diminished the capacity for chatoyancy.
CONCLUSION
Despite similarities in color, appearance, and mineralogy, we believe pietersite crystallized under very
different geologic conditions from those that produced South African tigers-eye. Whereas South
African tigers-eye probably can be attributed to
crack-seal events related to tectonic stress fields,
Namibian pietersite (e.g., figure 8) is a brecciated
gem material created by fragmentary dissolution of
precursor dolomite and replacement by silica.
Subsequent reactions between silica and hematite in
the presence of aqueous Na+ formed crocidolite.
Figure 7. On the left, BSE imaging reveals radially fibrous chalcedony (Qtz) surrounded by
white-appearing rims of
hematite (Hem). Dark gray
fibers of crocidolite (Cro) are
present between the chalcedony
spherulites. The black areas are
empty cavities. The BSE image
on the right shows crocidolite
fibers transecting chalcedony
spherulites in Namibian pietersite. Micrographs by K. Hu.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
285
Figure 8. This slab

of pietersite (12 cm
across) shows the
colorful appearance
and brecciated texture that are typical
of fine Namibian
material. Photo by
John Passaneau.
With little published information on the geologic

setting of the Chinese pietersite, assigning the same
petrogenetic model to the material from Xichuan is
less certain. Despite their geographic separation, the
microscopic textures of the Namibian and Chinese
materials are strikingly similar. Nevertheless, our
investigations have revealed that Namibian pietersite can be distinguished from its Chinese counterpart in several ways. Careful microscopic examination along with specific gravity and UV fluorescence characteristics can readily discriminate gems
from these different localities.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ms. Hu (hukaifan@gmail.com) is a Ph.D. candidate at the Faculty of Material Science and Chemistry Engineering, China
University of Geosciences, Wuhan. Dr. Heaney is professor of mineralogy in the Department of Geosciences, Pennsylvania
State University, University Park.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors gratefully acknowledge support from NSF grant EAR07-45374 and from the Penn State Schreyer Honors
College. One of us (KH) was supported as a visiting scholar at Penn State University by the Joint-Training Research Program
sponsored by the Chinese Scholarship Council. The authors are grateful for the insightful reviews of Dr. George Rossman,
Dr. James Shigley, and Alan Jobbins.
REFERENCES
Heaney P.J., Fisher D.M. (2003) New interpretation of the origin
of tigers-eye. Geology, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 323326.
Koivula J.I., Kammerling R.C., Fritsch E., Eds. (1992) Gem News:
Pietersite from Namibia. G&G, Vol. 28, No. 1, p. 61.
Leake B.E., Woolley A.R., Arps C.E.S. (1997) Nomenclature of
amphiboles: Report of the subcommittee on amphiboles of the
International Mineralogical Association, Commission on New
Minerals and Mineral Names. Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 35,
No. 1, pp. 219246.
Manutchehr-Danai M. (2008) Dictionary of Gems and Gemology,
3rd ed. Springer, New York.
286
Miyano T., Klein C. (1983) Conditions of riebeckite formation in

the iron-formation of the Dales Gorge Member, Hamersley
Group, Western Australia. American Mineralogist, Vol. 68, pp.
517529.
Schumann W. (2009) Gemstones of the World, 4th ed. Sterling,
New York.
Thomas A. (2008) Gemstones: Properties, Identification and Use.
New Holland Publishers, London.
Zeitner J.C. (1996) Gems and Lapidary Materials for Cutters,
Collectors, and Jewelers. Geoscience Press, Tucson, AZ.
Zhong H. (1994) Gemstone sources in Henan Province. China
Lapidary, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 4346.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Rapid Communications
UPDATE ON MEXIFIRE SYNTHETIC FIRE OPAL

Rajneesh Bhandari and Gagan Choudhary
As a result of changes in the manufacturing

process, recent production of the synthetic fire
opal marketed as Mexifire exhibits some new
properties. While the earlier material could be
identified on the basis of low RI and SG values,
the new synthetics have values that are quite
similar toand partially overlap those of
natural fire opals. With the change in the
manufacturing process, the water content has
also changed, as reflected in the IR spectra.
n Choudhary and Bhandari (2008), we described

a new synthetic fire opal marketed as
Mexifire. The article detailed the materials
gemological properties, chemical composition,
and infrared spectra, as well as provided a brief outline of the manufacturing process. Since November
2009, this process has been slightly modified.
Water content is now controlled in such a manner
that the refractive index and specific gravity values
are much closer to those of natural fire opal. This
article presents the properties of this new generation of Mexifire; the previous generation is no
longer being produced, although some material
undoubtedly remains in the marketplace.
energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF)

chemical analyses of all samples were conducted
using a PANalytical Minipal 2 instrument under
two different conditions: Elements with a low
atomic number (e.g., Si) were measured at 4 kV
tube voltage and 0.850 mA tube current, while
transition and heavier elements were measured at
15 kV and 0.016 mA. Spectroscopic measurements
of all samples in the infrared range (6000400 cm1)
were performed with a Shimadzu IR Prestige 21
Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectrometer,
operating at room temperature with a diffuseFigure 1. These new samples of Mexifire synthetic fire
opal (3.404.40 ct) were manufactured by a modified
process and exhibit properties different from those
recorded in the original production in 2008. Photo by
G. Choudhary.
Materials and Methods. We examined nine faceted

ovals (3.404.40 ct; figure 1) representative of the
new Mexifire production. Standard gemological
tests were performed on all samples. Qualitative
RAPID COMMUNICATIONS
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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287
TABLE 1. Properties of Mexifire synthetic opals (new and original products) and natural fire opals.
New Mexifire synthetic
fire opal (this study)
Properties
Color
Color distribution
Mexifire synthetic fire opal

(Choudhary and Bhandari, 2008)
Quality of polish
Refractive index
Brownish orange to orangy brown

Typically even; on rotation, color
appeared to concentrate in the center
Transparent under normal viewing
conditions; translucent/turbid with
fiber-optic light
Good
1.470
Transparent under normal viewing

conditions; translucent/turbid with
fiber-optic light
Good
1.3801.405
Specific gravity
2.19
1.631.77
Polariscope
reaction
Long- and short-wave
UV fluorescence
Spectroscope
Weak strain pattern; no snake-like

bands observed
Inert
Strong strain pattern with snake-like

bands
Inert
Dull to good
1.4401.460 (Simoni et al., 2010);
1.4001.435 (Choudhary and
Bhandari, 2008); and 1.4351.455
(Webster, 1994)
2.152.38 (Simoni et al., 2010);
1.922.06 (Choudhary and
Bhandari, 2008); and 1.972.06
(Webster, 1994)
Weak strain pattern; no snake-like
bands observed
Inert
No features
No features
No features
Internal features
Zoned turbidity
Scattered pinpoints
Zoned turbidity
Scattered pinpoints
Whisker-like inclusion in one
sample
EDXRF analysis
Si, Fe, and Ca
FTIR spectroscopy
Weak hump at ~5440 cm 1; sharp

peak with a shoulder at ~4520 cm 1;
absorption band in the 40003250
cm 1 region; weak shoulder at 2652
cm 1; a sharp peak at 2262 cm 1 and
complete absorption below 2100 cm 1
Diaphaneity
Brownish orange to orangy yellow

Typically even
Natural fire opal
Choudhary and Bhandari (2008):

Zoned turbidity
Scattered pyrite or some flakelike inclusions
Dendritic inclusions common
Flow patterns, cloudy zones, and
fluid inclusions
Si, Fe, and Ca
Si, Fe, and Ca (Choudhary and
Bhandari, 2008); Al (Gaillou et al.,
2008)
Absorption band in the 53505000
Absorption band in the 53505000
cm 1 region; hump from 4600 to
cm 1 region; hump from 4600 to
4300 cm 1; detector saturated below 4300 cm 1 (absent from some
4000 cm 1
stones); detector saturated below
4000 cm 1 (Choudhary and
Bhandari, 2008)
reflectance accessory in transmittance mode. We

used a standard resolution of 4 cm1 and recorded
50 scans per sample. In addition to the nine faceted
samples, two slices (one from the previous production and one from the new production) with parallel surfaces were prepared for FTIR analysis; both
measured 10.06 8.06 4.75 mm.
Results and Discussion. Physical and Optical
Properties. The physical and optical characteristics
of the new Mexifire synthetic fire opals are given in
table 1, together with the Mexifire properties
reported in Choudhary and Bhandari (2008) and
those of natural fire opal. Most of the samples we
examined for the current study were brownish
orange; only one was orangy brown (again, see figure 1). The samples exhibited even coloration and
good transparency under normal lighting condi-
288
Brownish orange to orangy yellow

Often color zoned; flow-like or wavy
pattern
Transparent to translucent
tions, but (as with the earlier product) they

appeared slightly turbid when viewed with a fiberoptic light (figure 2). When the specimens were
rotated and viewed from different directions, the
color appeared to be concentrated toward the center.
The most significant development with these
products was the fact they had higher RI and SG
values than the Mexifire synthetics studied previously. All the new samples yielded consistent RI
and SG readings of 1.470 and 2.19, respectively,
which are closer to those of their natural counterparts (again, see table 1). Simoni et al. (2010) reported RI values for natural fire opal from Bemia,
Madagascar, of 1.4401.460 and SG values of
2.152.38. The SG values of these new Mexifire
synthetics clearly overlap those of the fire opals
from Madagascar, though the RI values, while close
to natural fire opals, are sufficiently higher to allow
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 2. The turbid zones observed in almost every

Mexifire sample remain an identifying criterion.
Photomicrograph by G. Choudhary, fiber-optic
illumination; magnified 15.
a clear distinction. However, because there are

minute variations in the calibration of refractometers of different makes and models, one must be
very careful when using RI to separate natural from
synthetic fire opals.
Microscopic Features. In addition to the zoned turbidity, these samples displayed fine pinpoints scattered throughout (figure 3), like the earlier product
(Choudhary and Bhandari, 2008). These pinpoints
were clearly seen with fiber-optic illumination, but
they were only weakly visible with darkfield illumination. We could not resolve the exact nature of
the pinpoints with the instruments we used.
Although similarly scattered flake-like inclusions
have been seen previously in natural opals, and
Gbelin and Koivula (2005) mentioned tiny grains
of pyrite scattered throughout one stone, we did
not find any reports of such pinpoint inclusions
in natural opal.
EDXRF Analysis. As was reported for the earlier
material in Choudhary and Bhandari (2008), only
Si, Fe, and Ca were detected in the new Mexifire
synthetic fire opals. There were no additional elements. Gaillou et al. (2008) reported Al as a major
impurity in natural opals; however, we did not
detect any Al in the natural samples we studied for
the previous article or received for identification at
the laboratory over the years. In our samples, we
recorded the same results for both the natural and
the synthetic opals.
Figure 3. The exact nature of the scattered pinpoints

in the Mexifire material could not be resolved at 80
magnification. Photomicrograph by G. Choudhary,
fiber-optic illumination.
FTIR Analysis. The IR spectra of the new Mexifire

product were quite different from those of either natural fire opal (studied in the previous article or at the
Gem Testing Laboratory in Jaipur) or the earlier synthetic product. All nine samples displayed a weak
hump at ~5440 cm1, a sharp peak with a shoulder
~4520 cm1, an absorption band in the 40003250
cm1 region, a weak feature at 2652 cm1, and complete absorption of wavelengths below 2400 cm1.
The earlier version of Mexifire had an absorption
band in the 53505000 cm1 region; this feature also
consisted of a series of sharp peaks, depending on
the transmission. A hump was observed in the
46004300 cm1 range, often with small peaks (a feature absent in some natural opals, including fire
opal). The detector was saturated by strong absorption below ~4000 cm1. The absorption at ~5440
cm1 in the new Mexifire product is attributed to OH stretching/vibration, the peak at ~4520 cm1 is
due to a combination of O-H stretching and Si-O-H
bending, and the absorption band in the 40003250
cm1 region is due to the presence of O-H groups
(Yamagishi et al., 1997).
These differences in the IR spectra reflect the
lower water content of the new type of Mexifire opal.
Although some of the differences could also have
been due to variations in sample thickness (i.e.,
thicker samples would have greater absorbance and
vice versa), the fact that the samples previously studied were smaller (0.233.50 ct) than those in the present study (3.404.40 ct) negates this possibility. To
confirm this, we cut slices of equal thickness (4.75
mm) from one piece each of old and new Mexifire
opal and polished two parallel faces; the IR spectra of
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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289
IR ABSORPTION SPECTRA
6.0
5.0
New Mexifire synthetic
4.0
2262
3.0
2.0
4520
2652
5440
1.0
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
6.0
ABSORBANCE
5.0
Original Mexifire synthetic
4.0
3.0
4300
2.0
1.0
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
6.0
5.0
Natural opal
4.0
4020
3.0
both slices were similar to the spectra described

above for faceted samples (figure 4). However, for the
slice of new Mexifire synthetic opal, a sharp peak at
2262 cm1 was resolved and the area of complete
absorption was reduced to 2100 cm1. The other features and peaks remained unchanged between the
slice and faceted samples of the new product.
It should be noted, though, that some natural
opals from Ethiopia show absorption features similar to those seen in this new Mexifire product (E.
Gaillou, pers. comm., 2010). Therefore, it does not
appear that IR spectra provide a conclusive means
of differentiating these new Mexifire opals from
natural opal.
Conclusions. The higher RI and SG values of these
new Mexifire synthetic fire opals will make their
identification more difficult. The microscopic features are unchanged, however, and the fine pinpoints scattered throughout remain helpful in identifying the synthetic product. IR spectra, when used
carefully, can offer some identification criteria,
although similar absorption features have been
seen in some natural opals from Ethiopia. The
changes in the RI and SG values correlate with
changes seen in the IR spectra as a result of a lower
water content. Since the water content in these synthetics can be controlled, we anticipate additional
changes in the properties of future product. Work is
ongoing to further characterize this material.
4400
2.0
1.0
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
WAVENUMBER (cm-1)
Figure 4. This IR spectrum of a slice of the new

Mexifire synthetic opal (top; 4.75 mm thick) is
quite different from that of a slice from the previous generation (center; 4.75 mm) and from natural fire opals (bottom; 0.64.0 ct) studied by the
authors in the past.
REFERENCES
Choudhary G., Bhandari R. (2008) A new type of synthetic fire
opal: Mexifire. G&G, Vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 228233.
Gaillou E., Delaunay A., Rondeau B., Bouhnik-Le Coz M.,
Fritsch E., Cornen G., Monnier C. (2008) The geochemistry
of opals as evidence of their origin. Ore Geology Reviews,
Vol. 34, pp. 113126.
Gbelin E.J., Koivula J.I. (2005) Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones, Vol. 2. Opinio Publishers, Basel, Switzerland.
290
Mr. Bhandari is a chemical engineer and owner of Rhea

Industries (Jaipur, India), the manufacturer of Mexifire.
Mr. Choudhary (gtl@gjepcindia.com) is deputy director
of the Gem Testing Laboratory in Jaipur.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors acknowledge Dr. Elose Gaillou of the

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, for her
valuable input on the manuscript.
Simoni M., Caucia F., Adamo I., Galinetto P. (2010) New occurrence of fire opal from Bemia, Madagascar. G&G, Vol. 46,
No. 2, pp. 114121.
Webster R. (1994) Gems: Their Sources, Descriptions and
Identification, 5th ed. Edited by P. G. Read, ButterworthHeinemann, Oxford, UK.
Yamagishi H., Nakashima S., Ito Y. (1997) High temperature
infrared spectra of hydrous microcrystalline quartz. Physics
and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. 24, pp. 6674.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Rapid Communications
A STUDY OF THE GEMS IN A CIBORIUM

FROM EINSIEDELN ABBEY
Stefanos Karampelas, Marie Wrle, Katja Hunger, Hanspeter Lanz,
Danilo Bersani, and Susy Gbelin
The gemstones that adorn a late-16th-century

ciborium from Einsiedeln Abbey in Einsiedeln,
Switzerland, were investigated by nondestructive gemological methods and EDXRF and
Raman spectroscopy at the Collections Center
of the Swiss National Museum. The ciborium is
decorated with 17 colored stones: 10 almandine garnets, four grossular garnets, and three
sapphires. Inclusions in the sapphires and a historic description of the piece suggest a Sri
Lankan origin for the gems.
group of four sacred objects belonging to the

treasury of Einsiedeln Abbey, an important
Benedictine monastery in Einsiedeln,
Switzerland, were recently loaned to the Swiss
National Museum in Affoltern am Albis, for identification of the materials used in their construction.
This article presents the results of the investigation
of the oldest object, a late-16th-century ciborium (a
container for storing the consecrated host from a
Mass; figure 1).
Einsiedeln Abbey dates from the 10th century. It
is dedicated to Our Lady of the Hermits and is a destination on a major Roman Catholic pilgrimage, the
Way of Saint James. The ciborium was crafted by
Nikolaus Wickart, an established goldsmith, in Zug

292
about 1592. Its construction cost 300 krones (equivalent to 975 g of gold), paid for by donations from
Maximilian III of Habsburg and numerous other
contributors. The main body of the ciborium depicts
the 12 apostles of Jesus Christ, while the lid illustrates the passion of Christ and is where the
Christogram IHS is engraved. On the underside of
the ciborium, there are several stamps, including
those of Maximilian III, Wickart, and Einsiedeln
Abbey. For more information regarding the history
of the ciborium, as well as a stylistic and iconographic description, see Distelberger and Lanz
(2009).
The ciborium could not be removed from the
Swiss National Museum laboratory for security reasons; thus, all testing took place there. The results
were compared with the observations made by
Father Eustache Tonassini from 1794 to 1798, during the documentation of the treasures of Einsiedeln
Abbey (figure 2). Father Tonassini mentioned that
all the stones and the gold had an oriental origin.
Materials and Methods. Only nondestructive means
could be used to examine this artifact, and all the
investigators wore cotton gloves to avoid causing
damage. Microscopic examinations were performed
on all gems using a Zeiss Stemi 2000-CS binocular
microscope equipped with a fiber-optic light source
and a camera. However, the object was difficult to
handle under the microscope, which impacted the
quality of the photos. Fluorescence reactions to
standard long-wave (366 nm) and short-wave (254
nm) UV radiation were observed on all stones with
an 8 watt UV lamp from System Eickhorst UV. On
six stones, where the geometry of the object permitted, we performed semiquantitative chemical analy-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
sis by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF)

with an Edax Eagle III XXL micro-analyzer. This
instrument has a large sample chamber and is
equipped with a lens for micro-measurements (spot
size ~50 m). A rhodium tube was used for the analysis, under the following conditions: no filter, 20 kV,
100 A, a livetime of 200 seconds per measurement
point, and 30 points per measurement area.
Conclusive identifications were made by taking
Raman spectra of all the gems and comparing them
to the Gbelin Gem Labs reference spectra as well
as those in the RRUFF project (http://rruff.info) and
other published references. Spectra were obtained
with a Horiba Jobin Yvon (LabRam Aramis) spectrometer coupled to an Olympus metallurgical
microscope. As all stones were difficult to access, we
used an additional L-shaped lens (magnification 30)
to take the spectra (figure 3) and a camera for adequate positioning of the beam. Measurements were
carried out using excitation wavelengths of 532 nm
(Nd:YAG laser), 633 nm (He:Ne laser), and 785 nm
(diode laser). Laser power was 50 mW, with a 60 second acquisition time, at various resolutions (24
cm1) in the range from 200 to 2000 (sometimes up
to 4000) cm1. To confirm the results, we took measurements on at least two different points of each
gemstone.
Results and Discussion. The ciborium contains 17
colored stones10 pinkish red, four orange, and
three light bluemounted in metal settings that are
attached to the body and lid. Its total weight is 1,350
g, and its height is 33 cm (about 13 in.). All the gems
are held in closed-back settings; thus, their faceting
arrangements were identified only from the crown.
They were polished in near-round, rectangular,
octagonal, and cushion shapes (all the light blue
stones had slightly domed tables; e.g., figure 4), with
one step of parallel facets on the crown. Table 1 provides a summary of the sizes, colors, and
shapes/cuts. No indications of doublets, imitations,
glasses, or synthetics were observed with magnification.
Raman spectroscopy demonstrated that all 10 red
stones were Al-garnets. Father Tonassini had
described these stones as rubies. All four orange
stones were Ca-garnets. These were identified by
Father Tonassini as hyacinth (an archaic term for
red-orange-yellow zircon). Although some slight differences in the spectra of the 10 Al- and four Ca-garnets were observed (reflecting differences in compo-
Figure 1. This gold and gem-set ciborium (33 cm

high), which dates from the end of the 16th century,
is part of the treasures of Einsiedeln Abbey in
Switzerland. Photo by Donat Stuppan, Swiss
National Museum.
sition), all were close to almandine and grossular,

respectively (see table DD-1 and figure DD-1 in the
G&G Data Depository at gia.edu/gandg; for more
information regarding the semiquantitative analysis
of garnets, see Smith [2005] and Bersani et al. [2009]
and references therein).
The blue stones all showed the main characteristic vibration band of corundum at about 415 cm1.
Additionally, bands at 1400 and 1370 cm1 were
observed with 633 nm excitation; these are the characteristic Cr photoluminescence emission bands of
corundum (see figure DD-2 in the G&G Data
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
293
Figure 2. The ciborium

(left) is mentioned in
an 18th century inventory (right) prepared
by Father Eustache
Tonassini. Photos by
Hanspeter Lanz, Swiss
National Museum
(left), and Franz Klin,
Einsiedeln Abbey
(right).
Depository). Father Tonassini correctly identified

these stones as sapphires.
The EDXRF results for the six stones analyzed
were in agreement with the Raman data. Different
points on the metal were also analyzed and found to
contain 8285% gold, 78% silver, and 69% copper. No evidence was observed that any of the stones
had been removed after they were originally set.

All the garnets were inert to UV radiation. The
three sapphires fluoresced faint orange-yellow to
long-wave UV and faint orange to short-wave UV.
With magnification, the almandines showed mainly
rutile needlelike inclusions and zircons, while the
grossulars contained negative crystals and healed
Figure 3. A Raman spectrometer with an L-shaped

lens was used to take spectra on the mounted ciborium gems (inset), which
were difficult to access
with conventional equipment. All the stones were
conclusively identified
with this instrument.
Photos by Michael Wrle.
294
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 4. Sapphire KS1

(see table 1), like the
other sapphires in the
ciborium, has a slightly
domed table (left; stone
is 10.4 mm wide) and
rutile needle-like inclusions (right; field of view
~90 m). Photos by
Marie Wrle.
fissures. In the sapphires we saw mainly rutile needles (figure 4, right), fissures, negative crystals, and
black particles. Taking into account when these
stones were set and the oriental origin mentioned
by Father Tonassini, Sri Lanka is the most probable
source. The inclusions in these sapphires are consistent with sapphires from that island nation. At the
time, garnets were also known from the same
region (as well as from India). However, more
research with other methods and reference materials would be necessary to build a comprehensive
database with which to compare these samples.
Conclusion. The Einsiedeln ciborium is decorated

with 17 colored stones, all of which have old cuts
and are natural. We saw no evidence that any were
doublets or imitations, contrary to studies on other
historical objects (e.g., Hnni et al., 1998, and references therein). Using Raman spectroscopy, we found
that 10 were almandine (identified by Father
Tonassini as rubies), four grossular (originally identified as hyacinths) and three were sapphires (identified by Father Tonassini as such). Further research
would be needed to confirm the geographic origins,
though Sri Lanka is possible.
TABLE 1. Characteristics of the colored gems set in the ciborium from Einsiedeln Abbey.
Identification
Tonassini
This study
(179498)
Color
Shape/Cut
Measurements
(crown; mm)
CN1S1
CN1S2
CN1S3
Pinkish red
Pinkish red
Pinkish red
Modified rectangular/step
Near round/step
Near round/step
5.9 5.6
5.4 5.2
5.2 4.9
Almandine
Almandine
Almandine
Ruby
Ruby
Ruby
CN1S4
CN1S5
Pinkish red
Pinkish red
3.7 3.5
4.4 3.4
Almandine
Almandine
Ruby
Ruby
CN2S1
CN2S2
CN2S3
CN2S4
CN2S5
CN2S6
Orange
Pinkish red
Pinkish red
Orange
Pinkish red
Pinkish red
Near round/step
Near round/step
Near round/step
Oval/step
7.4 6.3
5.5 5.2
5.2 4.7
5.5 5.4
5.1 4.7
7.6 6.0
Grossular
Almandine
Almandine
Grossular
Almandine
Almandine
Hyacinth
Ruby
Ruby
Hyacinth
Ruby
Ruby
KS1
KS2
KS3
KS4
KS5
KS6
Light blue
Orange
Light blue
Orange
Light blue
Pinkish red
Octagonal/step
Octagonal/step
Octagonal/step
Octagonal/step
Oval/cabochon
10.4 9.0
10.0 7.3
10.1 8.0
13.3 10.0
12.4 9.7
13.9 10.7
Sapphire
Grossular
Sapphire
Grossular
Sapphire
Almandine
Sapphire
Hyacinth
Sapphire
Hyacinth
Sapphire
Ruby
Numbera
The numbering of the stones begins from the stamp of Einsiedeln and proceeds clockwise: C indicates the lid, K the body, and S the stone. On the lid,
two levels are present: N1 for the upper level and N2 for the lower. For example, stone CN2S5 is in the lid, in the second level, the fifth stone clockwise
from the Einsiedeln stamp.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
295
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Karampelas (s.karampelas@gubelingemlab.ch) is a research scientist and Mrs. Gbelin is a gemologist at Gbelin Gem
Lab, Lucerne, Switzerland. Dr. Wrle is head of conservation research, Mrs. Hunger is an archeometrist, and Dr. Lanz is a
curator at the Swiss National Museum, Zurich. Dr. Bersani is a researcher in the physics department at the University of
Parma, Italy.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors thank Dr. Rudolf Distelberger (Kunsthistorisches Museum of Vienna, Austria) and the priests of the Benedictine
Abbey of Einsiedeln for facilitating access to the ciborium.
REFERENCES
Bersani D., And S., Vignola P., Moltifiori G., Marino I.-G., Lottici
P.-P., Diella V. (2009) Micro-Raman spectroscopy as a routine
tool for garnet analysis. Spectrochimica Acta Part A, Vol. 73,
No. 3, pp. 484491.
Distelberger R., Lanz H. (2009) Gold fr das seelenheil kostbare
weihegeschenke an die Madonna von Einsiedeln aus der Zeit
um 1600 [Gold for salvation: Votive offerings to the Madonna
of Einsieldeln from around 1600]. Journal of Swiss Archaeology
and Art History, Vol. 66, No. 4, pp. 193262 [in German].
Hnni H., Schubiger B., Kiefert L., Hberli S. (1998) Raman inves-
tigations on two historical objects from Basel Cathedral: The

Reliquary Cross and Dorothy Monstrance. G&G, Vol. 34, No.
2, pp. 102113.
Smith D.C. (2005) The RAMANITA method for non-destructive
and in situ semi-quantitative chemical analysis of mineral
solid-solutions by multidimensional calibration of Raman
wavenumber shifts. Spectrochimica Acta Part A, Vol. 61, No.
10, pp. 22992314.
Tonassini P.E. (17941798) Beschreibung des Kirchenschatzes
Teil I [Description of the church treasure Part I]. Archive of
Einsiedeln Abbey, Einsiedeln, Switzerland.
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
SpringWinter 2009
Spring 2006
Paraba-type Tourmaline from Brazil, Nigeria,
and Mozambique: Chemical Fingerprinting by
LA-ICP-MS
Identification and Durability of Lead GlassFilled
Rubies
Characterization of Tortoise Shell and Its Imitations
Summer 2008
Emeralds from Byrud (Eidsvoll), Norway
Creating a Model of the Koh-i-Noor
Diamond
Coated Tanzanite
Coloring of Topaz by Coating and
Diffusion Processes
Summer 2006
Applications of LA-ICP-MS to Gemology
The Cullinan Diamond Centennial
The Effects of Heat Treatment on Zircon Inclusions
in Madagascar Sapphires
Faceting Transparent Rhodonite from New South
Wales, Australia
Fall 2008
Identification of Melee-Size Synthetic
Yellow Diamonds
Aquamarine, Maxixe-Type Beryl, and
Hydrothermal Synthetic Blue Beryl
A New Type of Synthetic Fire Opal:
Mexifire
The Color Durability of Chocolate Pearls
Fall 2006Special Issue

Proceedings of the 4th International Gemological
Symposium and GIA Gemological Research
Conference
Winter 2006
The Impact of Internal Whitish and Reflective
Graining on the Clarity Grading of D-to-Z
Diamonds at the GIA Laboratory
Identification of Chocolate Pearls Treated by
Ballerina Pearl Co.
Leopard Opal from Mexico
The Cause of Iridescence in Rainbow Andradite
from Japan
Winter 2008
Color Grading D-to-Z Diamonds at the GIA
Laboratory
Rubies and Sapphires from Winza, Tanzania
The Wittelsbach Blue
Spring 2007
Pink-to-Red Coral: Determining Origin of Color
Serenity Coated Colored Diamonds
Trapiche Tourmaline from Zambia
Spring 2009
The French Blue and the Hope: New Data
from the Discovery of a Historical Lead Cast
Gray-Blue-Violet Hydrogen-Rich Diamonds
from the Argyle Mine
Hackmanite/Sodalite from Myanmar and
Afghanistan
Pink Color Surrounding Growth Tubes and
Cracks in Tourmalines from Mozambique
Identification of the Endangered Pink-to-Red
Stylaster Corals by Raman Spectroscopy
Summer 2007
Global Rough Diamond Production since 1870
Durability Testing of Filled Diamonds
Chinese Freshwater Pearl Culture
Yellowish Green Diopside and Tremolite from
Tanzania
Polymer-Impregnated Turquoise
Summer 2009
Celebrating 75 Years of Gems & Gemology
The Type Classification System of Diamonds
Spectral Differentiation Between Copper and Iron
Colorants in Gem Tourmalines
Andalusite from Brazil
Peridot from Sardinia, Italy
Fall 2007
The Transformation of the Cultured Pearl Industry
Nail-head Spicule Inclusions in Natural Gemstones
Copper-Bearing Tourmalines from New Deposits
in Paraba State, Brazil
Type Ia Diamond with Green-Yellow Color Due to Ni
Winter 2007
Latest CVD Synthetic Diamonds from Apollo
Diamond Inc.
Yellow Mn-Rich Tourmaline from Zambia
Fluorescence Spectra of Colored Diamonds
An Examination of the Napoleon Diamond Necklace
Spring 2008
Copper-Bearing (Paraba-type)
Tourmaline from Mozambique
A History of Diamond Treatments
Natural-Color Purple Diamonds
from Siberia
Fall 2009
Characterization of Green Amber
Crystallographic Analysis of the Tavernier Blue
Fluorescence Cage: Visual Identification of
HPHT-Treated Type I Diamonds
Ammolite Update
Polymer-Filled Aquamarine
Yellow-Green Hayne from Tanzania
Aquamarine from Masino-Bregaglia Massif, Italy
Winter 2009
Ruby and Sapphire Production and Distribution:
A Quarter Century of Change
Cutting Diffraction Gratings to Improve
Dispersion (Fire) in Diamonds
Chrysoprase and Prase Opal from Haneti,
Central Tanzania
Demantoid from Val Malenco, Italy
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EDITORS
Thomas M. Moses
Shane F. McClure
GIA Laboratory
DIAMOND
Lab Sees Increasing Number
of Large HPHT-Treated
Type IIa Diamonds
It is well known that natural type IIa
brown diamonds can be decolorized
through annealing under high pressure and high temperature (HPHT).
Recent studies have shown that the
annealing process removes vacancy
clusters, which are the cause of brown
coloration. While not all brown diamonds are suitable for decolorization,
gem labs frequently see colorless to
near-colorless HPHT-treated type IIa
diamonds, with most under 5 ct. In
recent weeks, however, the New York
lab has examined an increasing number of relatively large HPHT-treated
type IIa diamonds, many of them over
5 ct and some 10+ ct.
One example is the round-cut
18.12 ct (17.11 17.04 10.24 mm)
diamond in figure 1, which was color
graded F. While many HPHT-treated
diamonds have no observable internal
features except for some graining, this
stone contained a tiny hexagonal
graphite inclusion surrounded by a
tension fracture (figure 1, right). It is
Editors note: All items were written by staff

members of the GIA Laboratory.
Figure 1. The New York lab has been seeing a greater number of relatively
large HPHT-treated type IIa diamonds, such as this 18.12 ct round brilliant (left). The hexagonal graphite inclusion it contained (right, magnified
112) is a good indication of this treatment.
very likely that this inclusion was
formed due to graphitization of the
host diamond; its presence and the
tension fracture are good indications
that this stone was HPHT treated.
Careful spectroscopic analysis provided confirmation of HPHT treatment.
HPHT annealing involves a higher
risk of damaging the diamond than
other treatment techniques, so it is
somewhat unusual to see it applied to
such large stones. It is not clear if this
increase in the number of large treated diamonds is a short-term phenomenon or the beginning of a trend. One
possible explanation is that more of
the suitable starting material has become available in the market.
Wuyi Wang
298
LAB NOTES
One Dapper Diamond

Gemological microscopy occasionally
reveals unusual inclusions that stimulate the imagination and remind the
viewer of landscapes, insects, flowers,
and the like. An unlikely new source
for playful imagery is the DTC
DiamondView, which reveals a diamonds growth patterns by exposing
the stone to intense short-wave ultraviolet (UV) radiation.
The Carlsbad laboratory recently
examined an ~1 ct Fancy Deep brownish greenish yellow round brilliant to
determine its origin of color. Initial
examination with a microscope
revealed only a few small clouds, and
Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy indicated that the diamond
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
but not to be confused with, the

cuboctahedral growth structure seen
in synthetic diamonds (figure 2, right),
which is more structured and has a
predictable symmetry and geometry.
DiamondView imagery is becoming more widely published because of
the intriguingly complex and even
beautiful compositions of pattern and
color that can be seen in both natural
and synthetic diamonds. Such images
offer yet another perspective on the
fascinating micro-world of gems.
Laura L. Dale
Figure 2. The DiamondView image at left, which depicts a pattern reminiscent of a necktie, reveals a pseudo-cuboctahedral growth structure
unique to some natural type Ib diamonds. HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds can show similar structures (right), but the patterns are more
angular and symmetrical due to their controlled artificial growth conditions. Fields of view ~7 mm.
was type Ib. Since almost all HPHTgrown synthetic diamonds are type Ib,
the laboratory often examines the fluorescence patterns of type Ib stones
with the DiamondView when other
gemological testing proves insufficient to establish natural or synthetic
origin. However, when this stone was
placed in the DiamondView, we were
amused to see a fascinating geometric

growth pattern that resembled a mans
necktie worn around the culet, complete with tie clip (figure 2, left).
This fluorescence image reveals a
pseudo-cuboctahedral growth structure that is unique to some natural
type Ib diamonds and is proof that
this stone is natural. It is similar to,
Figure 3. A pink coating was detected on this Very Light pink heart
shape (1.50 ct) and Faint pink pear shape (1.68 ct). The diamonds
initially appeared equivalent to Fancy pink and Fancy Light pink,
respectively (see insets for approximate color representations).
LAB NOTES
Pale Pink Diamonds,

Coated Fancy Pink
Numerous reports have described diamonds that were coated pink, by
techniques ranging from the ancient
practice of painting a stone (e.g.,
Summer 1983 Lab Notes, pp. 112
113) to sophisticated thin-film coatings (e.g., A. H. Shen et al., Serenity
coated colored diamonds: Detection
and durability, Spring 2007 G&G,
pp. 1634). Recently, the Carlsbad lab
received a 1.50 ct heart shape and a
1.68 ct pear shape (figure 3) that initially appeared the equivalent of
Fancy pink and Fancy Light pink,
respectively. Their FTIR and photoluminescence (PL) spectra were consistent with type IIa pink diamonds.
However, their Vis-NIR spectra (taken
at low temperature) were anomalous
for such stones, which show a broad
band centered at 550 nm. Instead, the
spectra of both displayed peaks centered at ~505 and 540 nm (e.g., figure
4, top trace). Additional exposure to
the liquid-nitrogen bath decreased the
intensity of these absorption peaks
(e.g., figure 4, middle trace).
Microscopic observation revealed
a nearly imperceptible trace of reddish residue on a natural of one of the
diamonds. After both were thoroughly cleaned in soapy water and, ultimately, acetone, they were noticeably
lighter in color, indicating they had
been treated with a coating that was
removed by such a solvent.
The cleaned diamonds now
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
299
VIS-NIR ABSORPTION SPECTRA

540
505
ABSORBANCE
Initial spectrum
Retest
550
After cleaning
400
500
600
700
800
900
WAVELENGTH (nm)
Figure 4. The initial Vis-NIR spectrum for the 1.68 ct pear shape (top)
was not consistent with a type IIa pink diamond and was weaker
when retested after additional exposure to a liquid-nitrogen bath
(center). After all traces of the coating were removed with soapy
water and acetone, the spectrum showed the expected 550 nm band
(bottom). Per standard procedure, all Vis-NIR spectra were collected
at liquid-nitrogen temperature.
showed the expected Vis-NIR spectra
(e.g., figure 4, bottom trace). When
they were color graded a second time,
without the coating, the heart shape
was Very Light pink and the pear
shape Faint pinka decrease of several color grades for both. Despite a
slight reduction in some broad fluorescence bands, the PL spectra
showed no changes. This was not surprising, as surface treatments are usually not detectable with analytical
methods that penetrate deep into the
diamond, such as FTIR and PL (again,
see Shen et al., 2007).
The treatment was undoubtedly
meant to intensify the color of these
pale pink diamonds, likely with the
knowledge that the coating would not
be permanent but the hope it would
at least last through the grading
process. The coating generally withstood normal handling with tweezers
and cleaning with a gem cloth, and
some was still present after exposure
300
LAB NOTES
to the liquid-nitrogen bath. However,

a simple but thorough cleaning with
soapy water removed most of the
coating, and acetone removed the
rest.
Sally Eaton-Magaa
low-temperature annealing to create

suitable concentrations of nitrogenvacancy (NV) centers, which are
responsible for the pink-to-red color
(e.g., Winter 2005 Lab Notes, pp.
341343). This technique has also
been applied to HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds since the 1990s (e.g.,
T. M. Moses et al., Two treated-color
synthetic red diamonds seen in the
trade, Fall 1993 G&G, pp. 182190).
However, it appears that some HPHTgrown synthetic diamonds can be produced with very low controlled nitrogen concentrations for a more intense
color appearance with after-growth
treatments.
The 0.20 ct round brilliant in figure 5 was color graded Intense purplish pink at the New York laboratory. Although there were few internal
inclusions, it had a large surfacereaching fracture with a cavity on the
table and crown facets. It displayed
strong color zoning, with zones of
intense pink color, and fluoresced
strong orangy red to both long- and
short-wave UV radiation.
Our initial observations suggested
that this might be one of the multiply
treated natural diamonds described
above. The mid-IR spectrum showed
a type Ia diamond with a very low
nitrogen concentration. The UV-Vis
spectrum, taken with a custom-made
high-resolution UV-Vis spectrometer,
indicated that the pink color was
caused by strong NV centers at 575
Figure 5. This 0.20 ct Intense purplish pink round brilliant proved to

be a treated synthetic diamond.
SYNTHETIC DIAMOND
Intense Purplish Pink
HPHT-Grown/Treated
Synthetic Diamond
Many of the pink-to-red diamonds
currently in the jewelry market owe
their color to artificial treatment.
This usually involves natural starting
material and multiple treatment
processes, including HPHT annealing
combined with irradiation and
annealing at relatively low temperatures. HPHT annealing can be used to
create isolated nitrogen, followed by
irradiation to create vacancies, and
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 6. In the DiamondView, the round brilliant in figure 5 showed a

subtle synthetic growth structure, which was more obvious on the pavilion (left).
and 637 nm. These strong vacancy

centers can be produced by HPHT
treatment, and their intensity is related to the amount of nitrogen in the
diamond. Other features in the visible
spectrum, such as a strong peak at
595 nm, were indicative of artificial
irradiation. All these observations
confirmed that an irradiation/annealing treatment was involved in introducing the NV centers, which are
responsible for the attractive pink
color. These features are very similar
to those observed in natural diamonds that have undergone multiple
treatments.
However, careful examination
with the DTC DiamondView
revealed a subtle growth structure
that was indicative of an HPHTgrown synthetic diamond. Seen faceup, the unusual growth zoning was
suspicious but not definitive, while
the pattern seen on the pavilion
showed obvious multi-sectoral synthetic growth (figure 6). It appeared
that this synthetic diamond was carefully grown with a very low concentration of nitrogen (~1 ppm), but
enough to induce the high concentration of NV centers during post-growth
treatments.
Care is needed to separate these
types of synthetic pink-to-red diamonds from treated natural diamonds.
Paul Johnson
LAB NOTES
Large (4+ ct) Yellow-Orange

HPHT-Grown Synthetic Diamond
Lab-grown diamonds have improved
dramatically in recent years. In the
Summer 2010 G&G, W. Wang and
K. S. Moe reported on the first nearcolorless chemical vapor deposition
(CVD)-grown synthetic diamond over
1 ct identified by the New York laboratory (Lab Notes, pp. 143144). Now
we have examined a yellow-orange
HPHT-grown synthetic diamond (figure 7) that is also notable for its large
size and high quality.
The rectangular sample (9.07
8.54 5.98 mm) weighed 4.09 ct,
making it the largest faceted synthetic diamond submitted to the GIA
Laboratory for testing and grading to
date. It was color graded Vivid yelloworange and had notably even color distribution (color zoning is common in
HPHT synthetic diamonds). Some
strings of black pinpoint inclusions
were seen with the microscope, and
the clarity grade was VS1, which is
remarkable for a large synthetic diamond. Fluorescence images collected
using the DiamondView showed typical synthetic growth sectors, with
patterns of varying intensity and
color. These features were more obvious when viewed through the pavilion than through the table.
The mid-IR absorption spectrum
revealed a high concentration of pre-
dominantly A-form nitrogen. Also

observed was a weak absorption at
1344 cm1 from isolated nitrogen,
which was responsible for the yelloworange color. The UV-Vis absorption
spectrum showed a gradual increase
in absorption from ~570 nm to higher
energies, a typical feature caused by
isolated nitrogen. A moderately
strong, sharp absorption at 793.6 nm,
attributed to a Ni-related defect, was
also recorded, and we observed a
weak peak at 986.2 nm from the H2
defect.
The predominantly A-form nitrogen and the occurrence of the H2 optical center strongly suggested growth
at a relatively high temperature. An
advantage to high-temperature growth
is that it limits the development of
growth sectors other than {111}. As a
result, the color appears more evenly
distributed. This samples size, clarity,
and vivid, evenly distributed yelloworange color were exceptional and
demonstrate continued improvements
in the HPHT growth technique.
Subsequently, Gemesis president
and CEO Stephen Lux stated that this
was the largest cut stone the company had produced (M. Graff, Gemesis
to sell lab-grown whites to consumers, National Jeweler, Nov. 24,
2010).
Wuyi Wang and Tom Moses
Figure 7. This 4.09 ct HPHT-grown

synthetic diamond was clarity
graded VS1 and color graded Vivid
yellow-orange.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
301
process. During treatment, an existing Si impurity could have combined

with other optical centers such as a
vacancy and formed the [Si-V] defect.
As always, care is required in identifying synthetic diamonds, particularly when post-growth treatment is
involved.
Kyaw Soe Moe and Wuyi Wang
Three Melee-Size
Synthetic Diamonds
Figure 8. This 0.30 ct Vivid blue round brilliant (left) was identified as an
HPHT-grown synthetic diamond by the growth pattern displayed in the
DiamondView (right). It contained a Si-related defect that usually occurs
only in CVD synthetic diamonds and is believed to result from postgrowth treatment.
Gem-quality type IIb synthetic diamonds, which contain traces of boron

and usually have a blue color, can be
created by both HPHT and CVD
growth processes. The Si-related lattice defect is widely considered an
identifying feature of CVD synthetic
diamond. At the New York lab, however, we recently tested an HPHTgrown synthetic type IIb diamond
that contained this defect.
The 0.30 ct round brilliant (4.43
4.33 2.67 mm) was color graded
Vivid blue (figure 8, left). Like other
HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds, it
contained some pinpoint inclusions
and showed uneven color distribution along growth sectors that were
clearly revealed in DiamondView fluorescence images (figure 8, right).
These were the only internal features
seen. The mid-IR absorption spectrum showed a relatively high concentration of boron, consistent with
the intense blue coloration. However,
PL spectroscopy at liquid-nitrogen
temperature using 514 nm laser excitation revealed clear Si-related emission lines. The sharp peaks at 736.7
and 737.0 nm (figure 9), attributed to
a [Si-V] lattice defect, closely matched
302
LAB NOTES
those observed in CVD synthetic

diamonds.
This is the first documented [Si-V]
defect in an HPHT-grown synthetic
gem diamond. Its occurrence strongly
suggests some post-growth treatment
Figure 9. Sharp emissions at 736.7 and 737.0 nm were detected in

the 0.30 ct HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds PL spectrum. These
lines, assigned to the [Si-V] lattice defect, correspond closely to
those observed in CVD synthetic diamonds.
PL SPECTRA
737.0
736.7
HPHT synthetic diamond
INTENSITY
Silicon-Vacancy Defect
Found in Blue HPHT-Grown
Synthetic Diamond
Small synthetic diamonds pose a special concern in the trade, since they
are often mixed in parcels with loose
natural melee and are less likely to be
sent for a lab report. A Fall 2008 G&G
article, H. Kitawaki et al.s Identification of melee-size synthetic yellow
diamonds in jewelry (pp. 202213),
described the identification of very
small synthetic diamonds by combining analytical techniques with standard gemological testing. The GIA
Laboratory in New York recently
examined three melee-size yellow
CVD synthetic diamond
728
730
732
734
736
738
740
WAVELENGTH (nm)
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 10. Melee-sized synthetic diamonds such as these (0.009, 0.010, and 0.080 ct) are usually
set in jewelry as accent stones, making them difficult to identify without careful examination.
round brilliants (0.009, 0.010, and
0.080 ct) submitted for color origin
reports (figure 10) that confirmed how
challenging the identification of small
diamonds can be.
Microscopic examination at high
magnification revealed that two of
the round brilliants contained metallic flux inclusions (that were attracted
to a magnet) and pinpoints, which are
characteristic of synthetic diamond.
The third sample showed no inclusions indicative of a synthetic. All
three displayed even color zoning,
without the hourglass growth structure typical of synthetic diamond.
The three samples were inert to longwave UV radiation and exhibited a
weak-to-moderate chalky yellow
reaction to short-wave UV. None
showed the cross-shaped green luminescence typically seen in synthetic
diamonds when exposed to long- and
short-wave UV. With only limited
evidence that these were synthetics,
we turned to advanced testing.
Infrared absorption spectroscopy
revealed that all three samples were
type Ib, as expected for HPHT synthetic diamonds, with moderate concentrations of isolated nitrogen. Examination with the DTC DiamondView
showed growth structures that confirmed they were synthetics, with
much weaker fluorescence in the {110}
and {113} growth sectors (figure 11).
It is important for the trade to be
aware of the presence of melee-size
LAB NOTES
synthetic diamonds, which are normally used as accent stones in jewelry. They may require careful examination to identify. When standard
gemological testing proves inconclusive, advanced laboratory analysis is
needed.
Jason Darley, Sally Chan, and
Michelle Riley
Artificial Metallic Veining in

MANUFACTURED GEM MATERIALS
The Carlsbad laboratory recently
Figure 11. This DiamondView

image of the 0.010 ct sample displays a typical synthetic diamond
growth structure, with much
weaker fluorescence in the {110}
and {113} growth sectors.
examined one purple and one greenish blue cabochon (26.24 and 6.11 ct)
manufactured from turquoise, plastic,
and metal flakes (figure 12). While
composite turquoise is becoming
increasingly common in the gem
trade, this was the first time we had
encountered artificial metallic veining in this material.
The gemological properties of the
cabochonsespecially the spot RIs of
1.58 (the purple cab) and 1.60 (the
greenish blue)were consistent with
those of impregnated turquoise,
which can have a refractive index
lower than that of untreated material
(1.611.65) due to the plastic impregnation. When exposed to long-wave
UV radiation, the purple cabochon
fluoresced moderate-to-strong orange
and the greenish blue cabochon fluoresced weak blue. Microscopic examination of the purple cabochon
showed obvious veins of red plastic.
Plastic veining was also observed in
the greenish blue cabochon, but those
veins appeared colorless. With the
exception of the metallic veining, this
purple material was similar to that
reported earlier this year (Spring 2010
Lab Notes, pp. 5657).
Closer inspection of the metallic
veining in both stones revealed that
these veins were actually composed
of fine flattened particles of metal suspended in a plastic. These flakes typically were aligned parallel to the walls
of the veins (figure 13) and showed a
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
303
factured gem materials. Although we

have only seen this technique in composite turquoise and imitation lapis,
it could be readily applied to other
materials, such as gold-veined quartz
or composite coral. The structure of
the vein, characterized by fine metal
flakes in a plastic suspension, provides visual evidence that the item
has been manufactured.
Nathan Renfro and Phil Owens
A Rare Natural Green PEARL

Figure 12. Artificial metallic veining is prominent in both of these
composite turquoise cabochons (6.11 and 26.24 ct).
finely foliated structure. Similarappearing material was recently

reported by G. Choudhary (Summer
2010 G&G, pp. 106113), but the
metallic veining was not identified.
By contrast, natural turquoise occasionally contains black or brown
veins of limonite and also grains of
pyrite.
With client approval, small samples were collected from the purple
and greenish blue host material for
advanced testing. Mid-IR spectroscopy confirmed that they were
turquoise. To identify the metallic
component, we removed small areas
of those veins and analyzed them
Figure 13. The metallic veins in
this composite turquoise cabochon
are composed of tiny copper flakes
suspended in a plastic resin. Note
the fine foliation of the flakes.
Magnified 60.
304
LAB NOTES
using energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectroscopy. The yellow metal from the greenish blue
cabochon was identified as copper;
also present in the turquoise host
were fragments of pyrite. The only
element detected in the white metal
from the purple cabochon was zinc.
This type of artificial metallic
veining has also been seen recently in
imitation lapis lazuli. Diane Hankinson loaned GIA a 36.43 ct pierced
carving of what she assumed to be
natural lapis lazuli (figure 14). The
testable gemological properties were
in the range of those published for the
natural material, but magnification
revealed a manufactured structure of
finely ground blue fragments punctuated by small areas of brassy metallic
veining. Magnification of the veins
revealed the same finely foliated
structure as in the turquoise veining
described above. EDXRF testing of the
vein material confirmed the presence
of both copper and zinc, the major
components of brass. This veining
was obviously used to simulate pyrite
in natural lapis lazuli, and was quite
convincing without magnification.
As the popularity of turquoise and
other affordable ornamental gem
materials grows, there will be an everincreasing number of treatments to
make a competitive saleable product.
Adding metallic veining is surprisingly effective at creating interesting and
sometimes natural-appearing manu-
Natural pearls are quite rare, and

those with a natural green color are
rarer still. Even then, the color tends
to be greenish gray, where gray is the
dominant hue. The Bangkok laboratory recently examined a green-gray
round pearl (figure 15) that measured
10.35 9.98 9.18 mm (6.72 ct). The
pearl was mounted with a 0.70 ct Dcolor SI1 diamond in a yellow and
white metal pendant suspended from
a linked chain interspersed with natural seed pearls.
Figure 14. This 36.43 ct pierced
carving of imitation lapis also
showed artificial metallic veining
caused by microscopic metallic
flakes suspended in a plastic resin
(inset, magnified 60). The metal
is a brass alloy
composed of
copper and zinc.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 15. This 10.35 9.98 9.18

mm (6.72 ct) natural pearl had a
rare untreated green-gray color.
Microscopic examination of the
pearl revealed overlapping platelets of
aragonite that varied from green to
blue-green, with none of the artificial
color concentrations at the platelet
edges that would indicate dye (figure
16). It fluoresced a dull, mottled green
to long-wave UV radiation and was
inert to short-wave UV. Microradiography revealed the concentric
growth structures characteristic of
natural origin. We used EDXRF to
determine the Mn and Sr concentraFigure 16. The surface structure of
the green-gray natural pearl
revealed serrated black lines
against a green background,
denoting the edges of overlapping
platelets of nacre. Magnified 180.
tions and thereby establish whether

the pearl formed in a saltwater or
freshwater mollusk. EDXRF detected
77 ppmw Mn and 2148 ppmw Sr, indicating a saltwater origin.
The pearls Raman spectrum contained a major peak at 1087 cm1 and
a doublet situated at 703.6 and 706.9
cm1, confirming that the outer
platelet layer was composed of aragonite, the norm for natural saltwater
pearls. The pearls UV-Vis reflectance
spectrum showed troughs at 229, 282,
343, 489, and 834 nm, extending from
the near-infrared through the visible
and UV regions. These features are
not found in typical spectra for
Pinctada margaritifera pearls, which
have a reflectance trough at 700 nm.
Because the reaction to long-wave UV
did not match that expected for pearls
from Pteria sterna, the most likely
mollusk host is Pinctada mazatlanica, the black-lipped oyster from Baja
California, Mexico.
Kenneth Scarratt
Rock Containing
RICHTERITE and SUGILITE
In the laboratory, where we typically
examine homogeneous materials, it is
Figure 17. This 5.59 ct modified
triangular step cut proved to be a
rock composed primarily of richterite and sugilite.
interesting to encounter a combination of minerals in a single stone. The

Carlsbad laboratory recently received
such a specimen, a 5.59 ct translucent
dark blue and purple modified triangular step cut that was submitted for
identification (figure 17). In addition
to its purple and blue sections, the
stone contained a brown accessory
mineral; overall, it had a slightly layered structure (figure 18).
The blue and purple sections had
spot RIs of 1.62 and 1.61, respectively.
In the handheld spectroscope, the blue
portion displayed a weak 540580 nm
band and a strong 650680 nm band,
while the purple section showed a 550
nm band. Raman spectra yielded good
matches with richterite for the blue
mineral, sugilite for the purple mineral (consistent with the 550 nm absorption band), and aegirine for the brown
accessory mineral.
Richterite (Na[CaNa]Mg5Si8O22[OH]2)
belongs to the amphibole group;
blue richterite is a potassium-bearing
version of the mineral. Sugilite
(KNa2[Fe,Mn,Al]2Li3Si12O30) is from
the milarite group, while aegerine
(NaFeSi2O6) is in the pyroxene group.
All three minerals have commonalities in their chemical composition
and mode of formation, so finding
them together in one rock is not too
surprising. The client suggested that
the rock might be from the Wessels
mine in South Africa, which is
known for yielding potassian richterite and sugilite.
Alethea Inns
Lead GlassFilled RUBY Damaged

During Jewelry Repair
Ruby filled with lead glass has been
the source of much concern in the
jewelry industry for several years.
One of the main reasons is that the
filler material is not durabletests
have shown that it is highly susceptible to damage from solvents, even relatively mild ones such as lemon juice.
The initial study of the durability of
these stones (S. F. McClure et al.,
Identification and durability of lead
glassfilled rubies, Spring 2006
LAB NOTES
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
305
Figure 18. The stone in figure 17 showed a sharp boundary between the blue richterite and purple
sugilite in some areas (left), and an intergrowth (center) or layered structure (right) with brown
aegirine in others. Magnified 15.
G&G, pp. 2234) found that jewelers

pickling solution rapidly etched the
lead glass filler at the surface. To prevent such damage, we recommended
that jewelers remove all rubies treated
in this way from their settings before
undertaking repair procedures.
Of course, to follow that advice
one would first need to know a ruby
has been treated by this method. It is
unfortunate that sometimes a jeweler
will not examine a stone thoroughly
enough or will depend on what the
client says about it. Inevitably, this
practice leads to problems.
One such case is illustrated in figure 19. This ~6 ct ruby was sent to the
Carlsbad lab because it had been damaged during repair procedures and the
jeweler wanted to know what had
happened. While the exact circumFigure 19. This ~6 ct lead
glassfilled ruby appears to have
been damaged by immersion in
jewelers pickling solution.
306
LAB NOTES
stances were not revealed to us, the

appearance of the stone suggested it
was left in the setting during soldering
or retipping and subsequently placed
in a pickling solution for cleaning.
This is standard procedure and usually will not harm a ruby. As outlined
above, however, rubies filled with lead
glass are certain to be damaged, causing a significant change in the stones
appearance and a very unhappy client.
As far as we know, these stones cannot be retreated once they are damaged; in this case, it appears that someone tried to hide the damage by applyFigure 20. A red substance applied
at the surface of the fractures may
have been intended to disguise the
damage to the ruby. Field of view
~1.1 mm.
ing a red substance (possibly ink) to

the surface, hoping it would penetrate
into the fractures (figure 20) and make
them less visible. If that was the
intent, it did not succeed.
Shane F. McClure
Natural SAPPHIRE with a

Sapphire Inclusion
Of the many sapphires submitted to
the Bangkok laboratory for identification, a 43.05 ct blue cushion cut
received recently proved to be particularly unusual. The RIs of 1.760 and
1.769, together with a hydrostatic SG
of 3.99, identified it as corundum. But
microscopic observation revealed a
very interesting inclusion.
Under the crown and just below
the girdle, we found a crystal with the
hexagonal shape typical of sapphire.
And this inclusion had inclusions of
its own (figure 21). The area where the
crystal reached the surface (part had
been removed during cutting) showed
a uniform luster with the host, supporting its identification as sapphire.
Further examination of both the host
and the included crystal using Raman
microspectroscopy confirmed both
were corundum. The included sapphire crystal contained exsolved needles, many colorless crystals, and
some secondary fluid inclusions (figure 22). By contrast, the host sapphire
was relatively free of internal features.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 21. This sapphire crystal is

included in a 43.05 ct blue sapphire (magnified 20).
A variety of inclusions are common in sapphires, but included crystals with their own inclusions are seldom encountered. This is the first
sapphire in sapphire this contributor
has seen.
Garry Du Toit
SYNTHETIC SPINEL and

SYNTHETIC RUBY Doublet
The Carlsbad lab has seen a number
of corundum doublets over the years,
most with natural corundum crowns
and synthetic corundum pavilions.
We have also encountered colorless
spinel crowns attached to a variety of
materials.
We recently received a 4.85 ct red
specimen for identification. Standard
gemological testing produced refractive indices of 1.725 on the crown and
Figure 23. These gas bubbles are
trapped in a colorless, transparent
layer of glue along the separation
plane between the doublets two
layers. Curved striae from the synthetic ruby pavilion are also visible. Magnified 22.5.
LAB NOTES
Figure 25. Immersed in water, the

4.85 ct doublet displays different
colors in the crown and pavilion,
and an abrupt termination of the
fracture at the crown.
Figure 22. At 50 magnification,
needles, crystals, and secondary
fluid inclusions can be seen inside
the included sapphire crystal.
1.7601.770 on the pavilion. Viewed

face-up with magnification, the sample revealed a single plane of transparent, colorless glue with planar gas bubbles (figure 23). The glue layer separated a blue crown from a red pavilion.
The separation plane was easily visible
in reflected light (figure 24). These
results indicated an assembled stone.
The crown showed a slightly different luster from the pavilion when
viewed with reflected light. Combined with the properties mentioned
above, the curved striae indicated
synthetic spinel. The pavilion had a
large fracture that terminated at the
crown, making the doublet even
more apparent. Also evident in the

pavilion were gas bubbles and curved
striae, both typical of flame-fusion
synthetic ruby. When viewed with
immersion, the two components of
the doublet were obvious (figure 25).
The two components also reacted
differently to UV radiation. The
crown was inert, while the pavilion
showed moderate red fluorescence
when exposed to long-wave UV radiation. With short-wave UV, the crown
showed moderate chalky green fluorescence, typical of synthetic spinel,
while the pavilion had a weak-tomoderate red reaction.
It was unclear what gem this doublet was intended to imitateperhaps red spinel. We were surprised to
see a doublet with a synthetic crown
and pavilion, since it is unlikely to
pass for a natural material.
Alethea Inns
Figure 24. In reflected light, the

separation plane between crown
and pavilion is obvious.
Magnified 40.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
PHOTO CREDITS
Jian Xin (Jae) Liao1 (left), 5, and 7;
Wuyi Wang1 (right) and 8 (right);
Laura L. Dale2; Robinson McMurtry
3 and 17; Paul Johnson6; Sood-Oil
(Judy) Chia8 (left) and 10; Jason
Darley11; C. D. Mengason12, 14,
and 17; Nathan Renfro13 and 14
(inset); Adirote Sripradist15; Ken
Scarratt16; Alethea Inns18 and
2325; Shane F. McClure19 and 20;
Pantaree Lomthong21 and 22.
WINTER 2010
307
OUR EDUCATION.
YOUR WORLD OF OPPORTUNITY.
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on 5 carat solitaire.
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CARLSBAD
4:00 AM
Student completes gem ID project.
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to reect new research.
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Almost anywhere you go, someone is using education acquired from GIA. Our international campuses, traveling classes,
corporate seminars and online courses help individuals dene and rene vital skills.
And GIA supports that learning with credentials valued throughout the gem and jewelry world.
W W W. G I A . E D U
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Editor
Brendan M. Laurs (blaurs@gia.edu)
Contributing Editors
Emmanuel Fritsch, CNRS, Team 6502,
Institut des Matriaux Jean Rouxel (IMN),
University of Nantes, France (fritsch@cnrs-imn.fr)
Michael S. Krzemnicki, SSEF Swiss
Gemmological Institute, Basel,
Switzerland (gemlab@ssef.ch)
Franck Notari, GemTechLab,
Geneva, Switzerland
(franck.notari@gemtechlab.ch)
Kenneth Scarratt, GIA Laboratory,
Bangkok, Thailand (ken.scarratt@gia.edu)
COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Amber with mineral inclusions. Besides its use as a gem
material, amber has scientific value because of the wide
variety of inclusions it contains. However, most such
inclusions are organic in nature. Inorganic inclusions are
rare, though pyrite and quartz have been reported (e.g., E. J.
Gbelin and J. I. Koivula, Photoatlas of Inclusions in
Gemstones, 2nd ed., ABC Edition, Zurich, 1992, pp.
212228).
Recently, two transparent yellow samples (189.35 and
115.33 ct) with an unusually wide variety of inclusions
including some with a metallic appearance (figure 1)were
Figure 1. In addition to a variety of organic materials,
these two samples of Baltic amber (189.35 and 115.33
ct) contain inclusions of pyrite and other minerals.
Photo by Li Haibo.
submitted to the NGTC Gem Laboratory for identification

reports. Among the internal features were trapped insects,
gas bubbles, reddish brown flow lines, plant debris, and
minerals. Those with a metallic luster occurred in various
sizes and shapes, and two were large enough to be seen
with the unaided eye (again, see figure 1). With magnification, we observed a large number of round metallic inclusions, measuring several microns to several hundred
microns, in one piece; a few reached the surface of the host
and showed a golden metallic luster (figure 2). In the
other sample, the metallic inclusions were interspersed
with other minerals and organic material.
The specimens fluoresced chalky blue to both longand short-wave UV radiation, while the surface-reaching
metallic inclusions were inert. Both samples had unpolished areas, making it easy to remove a minute amount of
material for FTIR analysis. The spectra showed two characteristic peaks, at 1735 and 1157 cm1, indicating that the
specimens were Baltic amber. Energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence (EDXRF) spectroscopy of the metallic inclusions
suggested pyrite, as both Fe and S were identified. The
inclusions Raman spectra showed two strong, sharp peaks
at 372 and 339 cm1, with a weak peak at 425 cm1; these
features are also characteristic of pyrite. Analysis of the
other mineral inclusions in the 189.35 ct sample by
Raman spectroscopy and microscopic examination
between crossed polarizers identified them as feldspar,
quartz, and jet (figure 3).
Editors note: Interested contributors should send information and illustrations to Brendan Laurs at blaurs@gia.edu or
GIA, The Robert Mouawad Campus, 5345 Armada Drive,
Carlsbad, CA 92008. Original photos will be returned after
consideration or publication.
GEM NEWS INTERNATIONAL
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
309
Figure 2. Where they reach the surface of the samples,

the pyrite inclusions show a golden metallic luster.
Photomicrograph by Li Haibo; magnified 100.
In November 2010, a Burmese amber sample submitted to our laboratory displayed similar pyrite inclusions.
Li Haibo (lhb@ngtc.gov.cn), Lu Taijin,
Shen Meidong, and Zhou Jun
National Gemstone Testing Center Gem Laboratory
Beijing, China
Additional field research on Tibetan andesine. In late
September 2010, an international group investigated andesine occurrences in Tibet in an effort to resolve the controversy over the origin of red andesine from China. The
group was organized by coauthor AA and hosted by miner
Li Tong and his wife, Lou Li Ping. It also included Richard
Figure 3. Microscopic examination of the larger amber
sample between crossed polarizers reveals additional
inclusions, composed of feldspar, quartz, pyrite, and
jet. Photomicrograph by Li Haibo; magnified 100.
Quartz
Hughes (Sino Resources Mining Corp., Hong Kong), Flavie

Isatelle (geologist, France), Christina Iu (M. P. Gem Corp.,
Kofu, Japan), Thanong Leelawatanasuk (Gem & Jewelry
Institute of Thailand, Bangkok), Young Sze Man (Jewellery
News Asia, Hong Kong), and coauthor BML. The group
flew from Guangzhou, China, to Lhasa, Tibet, and then
drove west for ~7 hours (350 km) to Shigatse, Tibets second-largest city. The andesine mining area is located about
1.5 hours drive from Shigatse. Paved roads lead to within
13 km of all three reported Tibetan andesine localities:
Bainang, Zha Lin, and Yu Lin Gu (see table 1 for GPS coordinates).
The Bainang mine, allegedly Tibets principal source of
andesine, was visited by one of us in 2008 (see Winter 2008
Gem News International, pp. 369371; A. Abduriyim,
The characteristics of red andesine from the Himalaya
highland, Tibet, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 31, No. 58,
2009, pp. 283298). The deposit is located ~2.2 km southwest of Nai Sa village, where we saw ~10 kg of material
that local people claimed to have collected and stockpiled
over the past three years. We were told most of the mining
at Bainang took place in 20052008 and was organized by
Li Tong. Unfortunately, we were forbidden from visiting
the deposit by a powerful local lama, despite having official
permission from the Chinese government and police
escorts.
The Zha Lin deposit is located adjacent to a village of
the same name. Reportedly it was mined by local people
in 20062008 using simple hand tools, and ~2 tonnes of
andesine were produced there. (Author AA did not visit
the deposit in 2008 because Li Tong was not yet aware of
it.) We saw a series of shallow pits in the mining area, but
there was no evidence of recent digging. The deposit is
hosted by medium-gray silty soil (figure 4, left) that underlies alluvial material consisting mainly of shale and mudstone with less-common quartz vein material. The
authors dug two small pits (~0.71.2 m maximum depth)
where we saw pieces of andesine on the surface, and many
pieces were found at depth in both of them. We also dug
three pits in random areas of alluvium (under thorn bushes) located 3050 m upslope from the mining area where
there was no surface evidence of andesine or prior digging
(figure 4, right). These pits ranged up to 0.3 m deep, and
andesine was found below the surface in two of them.
Pyrite
Jet
Feldspar
TABLE 1. Location of reported Tibetan andesine

occurrences.
Location
GPS coordinates
Elevation
Bainang
2902.48N, 8922.25E
(south mine)
2902.72N, 8922.11E
(north mine)
2903.95N, 8920.88E
2903.08N, 8920.76E
4,100 m (13,452 ft.)
Zha Lin
Yu Lin Gu
310
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4,076 m (13,373 ft.)

3,929 m (12,891 ft.)
4,102 m (13,460 ft.)
WINTER 2010
Figure 4. Shallow pits dug in silty soil appear to be the source of andesine at the Zha Lin deposit (left).
The site of one of the random test pits near Zha Lin from which the authors recovered andesine is
shown on the right. Photos by B. M. Laurs.
As seen previously in andesine allegedly of Tibetan origin,

all the rough material appeared waterworn and ranged
from pale to deep red, with a few pieces containing bluish
green areas.
At Yu Lin Gu, we found andesine scattered across an
alluvial fan (figure 5) located ~2 km up-valley from Zha
Lin. Reportedly ~200 kg of andesine have been collected
there by local people since 2006, with no organized mining; the andesine has only been picked up from the surface. We collected several pieces that were locally concentrated in patches consisting of 410+ pieces per square
meter. Most were found on raised portions of the dissected
alluvial fan, and also in an active intermittent creek on
one side of the fan. We recovered andesine from the surface or slightly below the surface in loose silty soil, but no
stones were found when we dug pits into the alluvial fan.
The range of color and degree of rounding in these pieces
were similar to what was seen in the material from Zha
Lin, but many were less saturated (figure 6).
We were unable to verify whether Yu Lin Gu is a true
andesine deposit because we could not find samples at
depth. At Zha Lin, our discovery of andesine within pits
dug in random, previously unexplored areas near the
reported mining area is consistent with what we would
expect for a genuine Tibetan andesine deposit. The original
source rock for the andesine was not evident in the area,
and it may have eroded away. Our final conclusion regarding the controversies surrounding Tibetan andesine will
depend on the laboratory analyses of samples obtained on
this expedition.
Ahmadjan Abduriyim (ahmadjan@gaaj-zenhokyo.co.jp)
Gemmological Association of
All Japan Zenhokyo, Tokyo
Aquamarine and heliodor from Indochina. In June 2010,

Jack Lowell (Colorado Gem & Mineral Co., Tempe,
Arizona) informed GIA about some attractive gem-quality
crystals of aquamarine and heliodor from Indochina (figures 7 and 8). According to his supplier (Tan Pham,
Vietrocks.com, Philadelphia), good-quality aquamarine
was mined in 2008 from northern Vietnam, from separate
areas in the neighboring provinces of Thanh Hoa and
Nghe An. The Thanh Hoa finds are located in Thuong
Xuan District, while the Nghe An deposits are in Que
Phong District. Aquamarine from Nghe An was also produced in 20032004; the more recent crystals range up to
Figure 5. At Yu Lin Gu, andesine was found on the
surface of this alluvial fan. Photo by B. M. Laurs.
Brendan M. Laurs
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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311
Figure 6. These andesines were recovered by the authors from the Zha Lin (left, 0.101.14 g) and
Yu Lin Gu (right, 0.251.55 g) localities in Tibet. Photos by Robert Weldon.
Figure 7. Fine aquamarine crystals such as these (up

to 8.9 cm long) have been produced from a relatively
new deposit in Thanh Hoa Province, Vietnam. Photo
by Jack Lowell.
20 cm long. Matrix specimens (associated with smoky

quartz) have been recovered only rarely (from Thanh Hoa)
due to the weathering of the pegmatite host rocks. Mr.
Lowell indicated that the Thanh Hoa deposit has yielded
substantially more production than Nghe An (specific data
were unavailable), and that crystals from the latter deposit
are a darker blue. Clean gemstones up to ~35 ct have been
faceted from the Vietnamese aquamarine.
Well-formed crystals of heliodor (e.g., figure 8) were
recently produced from another area in Southeast Asia,
which Mr. Pham suspects is Cambodia. The crystals were
first noted on the Vietnamese market with a third-party
source in 2007; those seen by Mr. Pham ranged up to 7.5
cm long. This heliodor, as well as the aquamarine
described above, has been popular with Chinese buyers.
Brendan M. Laurs
Dark blue aquamarine from Tsaramanga, Madagascar. In
July 2009, 300 kg of dark blue aquamarine were recovered
from a pegmatite at Tsaramanga, in central Madagascar.
Figure 8. These gem heliodor crystals (up to 7.5 cm
long) are from Southeast Asia. Photo by Jack Lowell.
312
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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Figure 9. The
Tsaramanga pegmatite mine in central Madagascar has
produced notable
finds of dark blue
aquamarine in
recent years. Photo
by De Rosnay.
The mine (figure 9) is located 5 km from the village of

Mahaiza, in the Betafo district. Tsaramanga was first
mined by the Germans in the 1920s for tourmaline (black,
yellow, and green), pink beryl, and other gem minerals.
Today the main production is rose quartz from the pegmatites core zone (figure 10, left), but occasional concentrations of large (up to 1.5 m long and 40 cm in diameter)
dark blue aquamarine crystals are uncovered (e.g., figure
10, right). Some beryls showing multiple colors have also
been discovered, though not of gem quality.
The geology of the area consists of gabbros that are
intruded by feldspar-rich pegmatites and some large veins
of quartz. There are two types of pegmatites, defined by
their mica content: muscovite bearing (with aquamarine)
and biotite-phlogopite bearing. The main open pit at
Tsaramanga measures ~70 20 m, and is worked by a
team of 1012 miners using pneumatic drills and hand
tools such as hammers and steel bars.
About 10% of this recent aquamarine production was
facetable, while 60% was cabochon and carving grade, and

the remaining material was fractured and opaque. The
unusually dark color of the aquamarine makes this mine
noteworthy. Although the kilogram-size beryl crystals
(e.g., figure 11) are highly fractured due to their formation
within quartz and feldspar rather than open pockets, they
typically contain substantial gemmy areas (figure 11, inset)
that can yield attractive faceted stones up to ~67 ct.
Flavie Isatelle (flavie.isatelle@gmail.com)
Avignon, France
Diopside from Pakistan. In 2007, gem dealer Farooq
Hashmi (Intimate Gems, Jamaica, New York) obtained a
parcel of pale yellowish green rough in Peshawar,
Pakistan. The seller indicated that it was from a new find
in the Northern Areas of Pakistan (now called GilgitBaltistan), but he did not know the identity of the material. The 200 g parcel contained pieces weighing ~15 g. Mr.
Figure 10. The main pit

at Tsaramanga (left) is
mined primarily for rose
quartz, but occasional
concentrations of large
dark blue aquamarine
crystals (right) have
been discovered. Photos
by F. Isatelle
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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313
Figure 11. This specimen of aquamarine in rose

quartz matrix shows the unusually dark color of the
material from Tsaramanga. Such crystals typically
contain abundant fractures with small gem-quality
areas (see inset). Photos by De Rosnay.
Hashmi saw another parcel of this material with the same

dealer during a subsequent trip in mid-2008, but it was of
inferior quality.
Mr. Hashmi loaned GIA two well-formed crystals and
a 1.97 ct round brilliant, faceted by Robert Buchannan
(Hendersonville, Tennessee; see the G&G Data
Depository at gia.edu/gandg for faceting notes), which are
shown in figure 12. Standard gemological testing gave the
following properties: colorlight yellowish green to yel-
Figure 12. These three samples (the round brilliant

weighs 1.97 ct), reportedly from northern Pakistan,
proved to be diopside. Photo by Robert Weldon.
314
lowish green; pleochroismnone; RIn =

1.6701.675 and n = 1.6951.698; birefringence0.0250.028; hydrostatic SG3.27;
Chelsea filter reactionnone; fluorescenceinert to long- and short-wave UV
radiation; and a fine absorption line at 505
nm visible with the desk-model spectroscope. These properties are consistent with diopside (R. Webster, Gems, 5th
ed., rev. by P. G. Read, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford,
UK, 1994, pp. 330 331). Microscopic examination
revealed strong doubling in the faceted stone (and no
inclusions), while the two crystals contained fingerprints and iron-stained fractures.
EDXRF spectroscopy of the three samples showed the
presence of Si, Mg, Ca, Fe, Al, and Cr. Laser ablationinductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS)
analysis indicated a similar composition and revealed
traces of V. Previous research on pyroxenes by E. Huang et
al. (Raman spectroscopic characteristics of Mg-Fe-Ca
pyroxenes, American Mineralogist, Vol. 85, 2000, pp.
473479) confirmed that Raman spectroscopy can differentiate diopside from other minerals in the (Mg,Fe,Ca)-pyroxene group, such as enstatite, ferrosilite, hedenbergite, and
wollastonite. The Raman spectra of these three samples
showed diopside vibration modes similar to those published in Huang et al. (spectra are available in the G&G
Data Depository). We therefore identified the material as
diopside.
Pamela Cevallos (pcevallo@gia.edu)
GIA Laboratory, New York
Record-breaking emerald discovered in Hiddenite, North
Carolina. Although the area around Hiddenite, North
Carolina, has historically produced some exquisite mineral
specimens, gem-quality emeralds from this localitiy are
exceedingly rare and highly sought-after by collectors.
Until recently, the largest known faceted example was an
18.88 ct pear shape, named the Carolina Queen. The ~14 g
rough from which it was cut was found in the fall of 1998
at the Rist mine, now called the North American Emerald
mine. This same crystal also produced a 7.85 ct oval named
the Carolina Prince, which sold for $500,000 to a collector
with family ties to the town of Hiddenite.
In August 2009, a 62.01 g gem-quality emerald crystal
was discovered in decomposed soil at the Adams Farm (figure 13), previously known primarily as a source of hiddenite (green Cr-bearing spodumene). Miner Terry Ledford and
landowner Renn Adams unearthed the emerald from a
depth of 4.3 m while pursuing the seams that occasionally
lead to pockets containing hiddenite. The discovery
occurred in an open field near an overgrown exploration
site originally developed by Dr. William Hidden, who was
reportedly dispatched to the area by Thomas Edison to
procure platinum for his light bulb filaments. Together Dr.
Hidden and Dr. George Frederick Kunzthe well-known
late 19th/early 20th century gemologist-authoridentified
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 13. Miner Terry

Ledford displays the
large emerald crystal
next to the pocket
where it was found in
August 2009 in
Hiddenite, North
Carolina. The crystal
(inset) was well formed
and weighed 62.01 g.
Photos courtesy of
Terry Ledford.
63 different gems and minerals in the Hiddenite area.

The rough emerald exhibited rutile crystals on some
faces, a classic signature of North Carolina emerald. After
several weeks of study, the owners decided to cut the
largest gem possible and enlisted the services of Jerry Call,
an experienced cutter who had also faceted the 13.14 ct
pear-shaped Carolina Emerald acquired by Tiffany & Co. in
the 1970s. The result was a free-form step cut that weighed
an impressive 74.66 ct, a new North American record.
Figure 14. The recut emerald, named the Carolina
Emperor, is shown with an enlarged image of the
60+ ct Catherine the Great Emerald brooch on the
cover of this Christies catalog dated April 22, 2010.
Photo by C. R. Beesley.
Soon after, Christies announced the sale of a 60+ ct

Colombian emerald brooch that belonged to Russias
Catherine the Great in the 18th century. Because of the
size and quality similarities between the two emeralds,
Adams and Ledford agreed with the suggestion to recut
their stone into a hexagonal mixed cut emulating the
Catherine the Great Emerald (figures 14 and 15). After
three days of meticulous recutting by Ken Blount of Nassi
& Sons, in New York City, the recut gem weighed 64.83
ct and showed a significant improvement in appearance.
Dubbed the Carolina Emperor, it is the largest cut emerald
from North America and has set a new benchmark for size
and quality of North Carolina emeralds.
C. R. Cap Beesley (capbeesley@yahoo.com)
Gemstone Standards Commission, New York City
Figure 15. At 64.83 ct, the Carolina Emperor is the

largest cut emerald from North America. Photo by
C. R. Beesley.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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315
Figure 16. Attractive cabochons of emerald-inmatrix (here, 15.27 and 34.37 ct) have recently been
produced from material mined in Bahia, Brazil.
Emerald-in-matrix from Bahia, Brazil. At the 2009 Tucson

gem shows, Joseph Rott (Tropical Imports, Belo Horizonte,
Brazil) informed GIA about polished samples of emeraldin-matrix that were sourced from a long-known emerald
deposit in Bahia, Brazil. This material consists of euhedral
translucent emerald crystals embedded in white (or rarely
pale pink) feldspar. Similar material has been reported
from the Big Crabtree mine in Mitchell County, North
Carolina (Summer 1993 Gem News, p. 132), and from the
Nova Era area of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Summer 2002 GNI,
pp. 176177).
Mr. Rott donated two square cabochons of the Bahia
material to GIA (figure 16), and they were studied for this
report. The white matrix was confirmed to be feldspar and
quartz by Raman analysis. EDXRF spectroscopy indicated
that chromium (rather than vanadium) was the chromophore in the emerald. The cause of color in the pale
pink feldspar was explored with EDXRF but could not be
determined conclusively. Examination of the samples
with magnification revealed inclusions of feldspar and
dark brown mica (identified by Raman analysis as biotite);
the emeralds also showed fracturing throughout. As with
many emeralds, these samples were clarity enhanced by
oiling. The oil was easily visible when tested with a hot
point, as the fractures began to sweat slightly. The fractures in the samples fluoresced moderate blue to long- and
short-wave UV radiation, which also provides evidence of
clarity enhancement.
Mr. Rott indicated that ~100 kg of this material has
been mined and over 2,000 carats of cabochons have been
cut in sizes ranging from 8 10 mm to 20 25 mm. This
emerald-in-matrix offers another option for designers, collectors, or anyone else who appreciates new and unusual
gem materials.
Nathan Renfro (nrenfro@gia.edu)
GIA Laboratory, Carlsbad
316
5th century garnet jewelry from Romania. In 2007, nine

gold pendants were discovered in an ancient tomb excavated at a shopping center 5 km west of Cluj-Napoca,
Romania. Archeologists determined that the pieces
belonged to a princess of the 5th century Gepids, a Gothic
tribe (contemporaneous with the Merovingians) who lived
in the Transylvania region of central Romania. Each pendant measured ~3.85 cm long and contained five tablet-cut
red stones (about 1.5 mm thick) in a closed-back setting (figure 17). Their initial appearance suggested they were rubies.
The jewels were studied on a single day using nondestructive techniques, and the results were initially presented at
the XIX Congress of the Carpathian-Balkan Geological
Association in Thessaloniki, Greece, in September 2010.
The stones were isotropic, with a refractive index of
~1.78 (using the spot method on the edge of one slab that
protruded from the mounting), and had an almandine-like
spectrum. Each plate contained crystallographically oriented rutile needles, and some of the plates contained pinpoints, negative crystals, and small crystals with the
appearance of apatite. Most prominent were black, sometimes hexagonal, platy crystals (figure 18) that were nearly
identical to ilmenite inclusions seen previously in almandine (see, e.g., E. J. Gbelin and J. I. Koivula, Photoatlas of
Inclusions in Gemstones, 3rd ed., ABC Edition, Zurich,
1997, p. 289). Raman spectroscopy confirmed the stones
were garnet with a high almandine content, with main
bands at ~915, 550, 500, and 350 cm1.
EDXRF spectroscopy showed the metal was nearly
pure gold, with only traces of Ag and Cu. A crisscross waffle-like pattern was stamped into gold foil mounted in the
gold setting behind the garnet slices (see figure 19). This
texture was visible through the transparent stones, producing an effect reminiscent of modern guilloch enamel, in
which a pattern is engraved in the metal before the enamel
is applied. A similarly stamped foil configuration has been
observed in garnet, silver, and gold jewelry from nearby
Potaissa, also a Gepid site (C. Ionescu and V. Hoeck,
Zusammensetzung und Herkunft der Granate der
Ohrringe und einer Grtelschnalle aus dem Grab der
Franziska aus Potaissa [Turda, Rumnien] [About the composition and origin of garnets mounted in the earrings and
buckle from the tomb of Franziska in Potaissa (Turda,
Romania)], in M. Barbulescu, Ed., Das Germanische Furstengrab von Turda [The Germanic Princess Tomb from
Turda], Tribuna, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, 2008, pp.
295310).
The almandine-rich composition of this garnet would
be expected to have an overdark appearance if such material was faceted into stones of typical size for jewelry. Its use
in these pendants was possible only because the plates are
so thin. Generally, red gem garnets are a mixture of pyrope
and almandine, with typically >40% pyrope (see figure 7 of
D. V. Manson and C. M. Stockton, Gem garnets in the
red-to-violet color range, Winter 1981 G&G, pp.
191204). The flat morphology of the garnet plates may
have resembled the shape of the original rough if the crys-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 17. These 5th century gold and garnet pendants (~3.85 cm long)
were discovered near ClujNapoca, Romania. Photo
by C. Ionescu.
tals had developed fracture cleavage, as described by J.

Ganguily et al. (Reaction texture and Fe-Mg zoning in
granulite garnet from Sstrene Island, Antarctica:
Modeling and constraint on the time-scale of metamorphism during the Pan-African collisional event,
Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences, Earth
Figure 18. Several inclusions were visible in the garnet slices, including black platy crystals of what
appeared to be ilmenite. Photomicrograph by C.
Ionescu; field of view ~2.7 mm.
and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 110, No. 4, 2001, pp.

305312). Although our research is ongoing, we believe
the garnet originated from European deposits that were
known at the time, possibly the Austrian localities of
Figure 19. Each flat almandine slice is set above a

crisscross-stamped piece of gold foil. The appearance
is reminiscent of guilloch enamel. The foil contains
a few square holes that were probably produced during the stamping process. Photomicrograph by C.
Ionescu; field of view ~2.7 mm.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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317
Figure 20. Shown here are some of the Pinctada radiata and pen shells collected during a recent dive off
the coast of Bahrain. The largest shell is ~50 cm
long. Photo by A. Al-Attawi.
Dunkelsteinerwald or Zillertal.
Acknowledgment: This study was funded by the
Romanian Ministry of Education and Research, ID2241/2008.
Emmanuel Fritsch
Corina Ionescu (corina.ionescu@ubbcluj.ro),
Viorica Simon, Szabolcs Nagy,
Katalin Nagy-Pra, and Mihai Rotea
Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Figure 21. A near-golden off-round pearl (5.05.5

mm) was found in this P. radiata oyster. Photo by
A. Al-Attawi.
318
Natural pearl diving off the coast of Bahrain. In June 2010

while visiting Manama, Bahrain, these contributors had
an opportunity to experience pearl diving in a manner
similar to that used in the past. Although our methods
were not completely authentic in a historic sensethat
is, no nose clip (Al Fetam), no stone weight (Al Kher) to
take us to the sea bed, no person on deck to pull the rope
attached to the net basket and accompanying diver to the
surface (Al Seib), no net bags (Al Deyeen) to contain the
shells collected on the sea bed, and no traditional fishing
vessel (e.g., dhow)we did search for mollusks without
using compressed air.
Our first stop was an area southeast of Manamas
Marina Club (~45 minutes by boat) that had been recommended by local contacts. The water was just over 2 m
deep, and the sea bed was liberally scattered with specimens of Pinctada radiata and some Pinnidae (pen shell)
bivalves (~510 shells/m2). We collected shells of both
mollusks before moving to a slightly shallower area nearby. Although that area contained <5 shells/m2, it did not
take long to collect ~200 shells total, mostly P. radiata but
also some pen shells (e.g., figure 20).
On the boat trip back to Manama, we opened the mollusks with knives and carefully examined their interiors
for pearls. Contributor AA-A discovered an ~2 mm
cream-colored seed pearl in the mantle region of a P. radiata, and contributor AA found a 5.05.5 mm near-golden pearl within the gonad region of a P. radiata (figure
21). Two small blister pearls were also found attached to
shells.
Only two whole pearls were found in the 200 or so
mollusks recovered. This 1:100 ratio provides some idea of
how many Arabian Gulf oysters must be opened to find a
pearl worthy of mention, a notion that was reinforced by
Figure 22. Quantities of fine natural pearls are still

being produced in the Arabian Gulf. The largest
shown here is ~10 mm. Courtesy of Al-Mahmood
Pearls; photo by N. Sturman.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
several dealers in Manama. Nevertheless, it is significant

that the Arabian Gulf still produces natural pearls (e.g., figure 22).
Nick Sturman (nsturman@gia.edu)
GIA Laboratory, Bangkok
Stefanos Karampelas
Gbelin Gem Lab, Lucerne, Switzerland
Ali Al-Attawi
Gem & Pearl Testing Laboratory of Bahrain, Manama
Ahmadjan Abduriyim
Update on ruby and sapphire mining in Pakistan and

Afghanistan. In JuneJuly 2010, this contributor visited
two corundum deposits in Pakistan and Afghanistan to
collect reference samples for GIA: Basil in Pakistan and
Jegdalek in Afghanistan.
In Pakistan, ruby and sapphire have been reported from
five deposits: Nangimali (in Pakistan-controlled Azad
Kashmir), Hunza (in northern Pakistan along the Karakorum Highway; see, e.g., Fall 2007 GNI, pp. 263265),
Bisil (in northern Pakistans Basha Valley; see Fall 2007
GNI, pp. 263265), Basil (in the Kaghan Valley of NorthWest Frontier Province), and Batakundi (also in the
Kaghan Valley, located 30 km from Basil). Regarding the
Bisil deposit, this author was unable to confirm its existence or learn any information about the activity there.
The Basil deposit was discovered in 1996. There were
three mining sites as of June 2010, operated by Kashmir
Gems Ltd. (e.g., figure 23). The first two produce pink, purple, and blue sapphires from graphite veins. At the third
site, pink sapphires are found associated with marbles.
Mining usually takes place from June to October by small
teams using explosives and jackhammers. The output (e.g.,
Figure 23. Pakistani miners are seen at the entrance of

a sapphire mine in Basil, Pakistan. The mine is located at an altitude of 4000 m. Photo by V. Pardieu.
figure 24, left) appears to be more significant than that of
Nangimali or Batakundi. From this authors field research
and conversations with miners/dealers who worked in
Batakundi for several months in 2003 and 2004, it turns
out that Basil is the source of the pink-to-purple sapphires
previously described as coming from Batakundi (see Winter
2004 GNI, pp. 343344; www.gia.edu/research-resources/
news-from-research/batakundi_sapphire.pdf). By contrast,
Batakundi is the source of distinctly different material
(e.g., figure 24, right) and is more difficult to access.
According to Guy Clutterbuck (pers. comm., 2006),
Batakundi began producing small dark red rubies from a
marble-type deposit in 2000, but several miners apparently
died as a result of falls or from altitude sickness. Mining at
Figure 24. Some rough and faceted (~0.7 ct) sapphires from Basil are shown on the left. On the right
are rubies reportedly from Batakundi, Pakistan; the smaller stones are 0.41 ct. Photos by V. Pardieu.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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319
Figure 25. The pieces of rough in this parcel of blue

sapphires from Badakhshan weigh up to 4 g. Photo
by V. Pardieu.
Batakundi is said to have stopped after the devastating
earthquake that hit Azad Kashmir in September 2005.
In Afghanistan, there are four ruby and sapphire
deposits. Jegdalek, located in the eastern part of Kabul
Province near Sorobi, is a well-known source of ruby from a
marble-type deposit (G. W. Bowersox et al., Ruby and sapphire from Jegdalek, Afghanistan, Summer 2000 G&G, pp.
110126). The mining area is about 10 km long by 2 km
wide and operates year-round. Approximately 200300 miners were working the area in July 2010, significantly more
than during this contributors visit in the summer of 2006
(when mining was illegal). Ruby-bearing marble is dug from
trenches extending over several hundred meters, and some
tunnels are reportedly more than 200 m deep. According to
the miners, output is limited by a lack of explosives, and
Figure 26. These sapphires were found in 2009 in the

Auvergne region of central France. Photo by B. Devouard.
water infiltration is a problem in some deep trenches.

Near Maidan Shar, in Vardak Province, a small blue
sapphire deposit was active at the beginning of the 2000s
(Winter 2004 GNI, pp. 343344), but mining reportedly
stopped because there was no market for the stones. The
material was too gray and included, and treatments were
not effective in improving it. The deposit reportedly closed
after 2006.
In Badakhshan Province, a small marble-hosted ruby
deposit is supposedly located near Khash (see Fall 2007
GNI, pp. 263265), a small village about two hours west of
the village of Bohorak. In July 2010 this author was not
allowed to come within 1 km of the reported deposit.
Fewer than 10 miners were said to be working in tunnels
dug on a hillside overlooking the valley. According to local
residents, besides rubies and some low-quality blue sapphires, the area around Bohorak and the village of Jorm
produces blue spinel, sphene, aquamarine, green and pink
tourmaline, and diopside.
Also in Badakhshan, blue sapphires were reportedly
discovered in 2008 near the famous lapis lazuli mines at
the village of Sar-e-Sang. The sapphires are associated
mainly with mica, and usually form hexagonal bipyramidal crystals that range up to 4 g (figure 25). Dealers in
Kabul reported that the main market for these sapphires is
Jaipur, India.
Chicken Street, the main gem trading area in Kabul,
was much more active in 2010 than in 2006. Rubies were
available from Jegdalek as well as Tajikistan, and some
parcels also contained synthetics and heated stones (probably of African origin). Lead glassfilled rubies were also
common in the Kabul market. Also seen were many
parcels of emeralds said to be from Panjshir and Laghman
(Afghanistan), Xinjiang (China), Swat (Pakistan), and
Zambia. Afghan tourmaline, kunzite, and aquamarine
(reportedly from Kunar and Nuristan), and pink spinel
from Tajikistan, were also available in a variety of quantities and qualities.
Vincent Pardieu (vpardieu@gia.edu)
GIA Laboratory, Bangkok
Figure 27. These faceted sapphires from the
Auvergne discovery range from 0.3 to 5.0 ct.
Photo by B. Devouard.
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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Figure 28. This sapphire washing area lies near the village of Ambalavy, about 50 km southwest of Ilakaka.
Photo by V. Pardieu.
Rediscovery of sapphires in central France. The Auvergne

region, in Frances Massif Central, was an important
source of gems from the Middle Ages to the end of the
19th century (F. H. Forestier, Histoire de lun des gisements de gemmes le plus anciennement connu dEurope
occidentale: Saphirs, grenats et hyacinthes du Puy-enVelay [History of one the oldest known gem deposits in
western Europe: Sapphires, garnets, and zircons from Puyen-Velay], Cahiers de la Haute Loire, 1993, pp. 81152).
This region has been affected by several episodes of
Cenozoic volcanism that resulted in abundant alkaline
basaltic flows. In 2009, a prospector panning a riverbed
found several thousand carats of rough sapphires. The
stones ranged from 2 to 15 mm and had irregular resorbed
shapes, with colors ranging from greenish yellow to greenish blue to saturated blue, as well as dark blue and black.
Their moderate-to-strong pleochroism was typical of magmatic sapphires from basaltic terrain.
Approximately 10% (~40 g) of the rough was of gem
quality (e.g., figure 26), and a dozen stones have been
faceted (e.g., figure 27) by lapidary Jacques Dreher in
Clermont-Ferrand, the regional capital. These gems
weighed 0.35.0 ct and were mostly clean to lightly
included. Gem-quality sapphires in such quantity and
quality have not been encountered in France, or arguably
all of Europe, since the workings at Mont Coupet (also in

Auvergne) during the late 19th century.
Bertrand Devouard (b.devouard@opgc.univbpclermont.fr) and Etienne Mdard
Laboratoire Magma et Volcans, Blaise Pascal University
CNRS (UMR 6524), Clermont-Ferrand, France
Benjamin Rondeau
Laboratoire de Plantologie et Godynamique
CNRS (Team 6112), University of Nantes, France
Emmanuel Fritsch
Update on sapphire mining in southern Madagascar. In
July-August 2010, this contributor visited the IlakakaSakaraha and Andranondambo mining areas in southern
Madagascar with several companions (see listing at the
end of this report). In addition to collecting reference samples for GIA, our goal was to assess the state of the sapphire industry in the region.
Discovered in 1998, the Ilakaka-Sakaraha deposit (figure 28) extends more than 80 km from the Isalo National
Park toward Toliara on the southwest coast. It quickly
became one of the worlds most important gem deposits,
producing an abundance of pink and blue sapphires.
Although more than 99% of the blue sapphires require
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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321
Figure 29. These blue sapphires are from Andranondambo. Photo by V. Pardieu.
heat treatment to be marketable, several exceptional

stones are found daily that do not require heating. The
deposit also yields yellow, purple, violet, and pinkish
orange padparadscha sapphires, as well as chrysoberyl
(including alexandrite), zircon, garnet, spinel, and other
gems. Mining takes place year-round, mostly by artisanal
methods. Many dealers from Thailand and Sri Lanka continue to have buying offices in the area. Most purchases
are exported to those two countries for heat treatment and
cutting before the gems make their way to the market.
Gem mining in Madagascar, particularly in Ilakaka,
has faced many difficulties in recent years. In particular,
from February 2008 to July 2009, the Malagasy government banned all gem exports. Compared to previous visits
in 2005 and 2008 by this author, the number of foreign
buyers has clearly dropped, and digging in the Ilakaka area
has waned. As a result, the mining community has suffered shortages of food and other necessities, and security
issues are plaguing the region.
In 2010, we found only three small operations (two
Thai, one Malagasy) still using machinery. Most of the
companies once involved in mechanized mining have
withdrawn because of the poor market, fuel costs, and a
lack of support from the Malagasy authorities. Because the
government tolerates illegal mining, it is very difficult for
companies that own mining rights to work legally and
responsibly.
At the time of our visit, the main mining area was
located near Antsoa, a village on the Taheza River southeast of Sakaraha, where about 1,500 miners were backed
by Sri Lankan and local buyers. Antsoa was reportedly producing the best blue sapphires, with fine rough stones up
to 10 g. At the more than 20 other sites we visited, we
found anywhere from 10 to 500 people working. We estimate that about 50,000 people are now earning a living
(directly or indirectly) from sapphire mining in IlakakaSakaraha, half the number reported in 2005.
In the Andranondambo area, blue sapphires are mined
from several primary deposits. Socit dInvestissement
Australien Madagascar, an Australian company, mined
the area for a few years but stopped in 2009. Today, small
322
groups of artisanal miners work sites near Andranondambo, Maromby, Tirimena, and Siva. The most active
mining area appeared to be Ankazoabo (north of Andranondambo), where Malaysian company Nantin Ltd. was
operating heavy machinery alongside some 200 artisanal
miners using hand tools.
While many gems are still produced, particularly fine
blue sapphires (e.g., figure 29), the shrinking margins have
led to fierce competition between buyers. Meanwhile, the
miners living and working conditions are very difficult.
Most mining companies have stopped their activities, and
many buyers are considering a switch to ruby dealing in
Mozambique.
The author thanks the following for helping with the
expedition and editing this report: Nirina Rakotosaona
(Socit Minire du Cap, Antananarivo, Madagascar), Marc
Noveraz (Switzerland), Richard W. Hughes (Bangkok),
Tracy Lindwall (San Francisco), Lou Pierre Bryl (Gasp,
Canada), Jazmin Amira Weissgrber Crespo (Mannheim,
Germany), and Philippe Ressigeac (Montauban, France).
Vincent Pardieu
A strongly thermoluminescent spodumene. Thermoluminescence is a property of some minerals whereby they
glow when heated to a certain temperature. Minerals
known to display this property include fluorite (referred to
as chlorophane), apatite, calcite, lepidolite, and spodumene
(see www.galleries.com/minerals/property/pleochro.htm
#thermo). The Gem Testing Laboratory of Jaipur, India,
recently examined a spodumene that showed a striking
example of thermoluminescence.
The pear-shaped green stone (figure 30) weighed 16.17
ct and measured 19.94 11.55 10.82 mm. Its color was
reminiscent of green beryl or emerald from Nigeria, but the
bright luster and liveliness ruled out the possibility of
beryl. The following gemological properties were recorded:
RI1.6601.675; birefringence0.15; hydrostatic SG
Figure 30. This 16.17 ct green spodumene was
notable for its strong thermoluminescence at low
temperature. Photo by G. Choudhary.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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Figure 31. The spodumene

in figure 30 fluoresced
strong orange when
exposed to long-wave UV
radiation (left) and strong
pink under short-wave
UV (right). Photos by
G. Choudhary.
3.17; fluorescencestrong orange to long-wave UV radiation and strong pink to short-wave UV (figure 31); and a
weak absorption band visible in the blue region at around
440 nm in the desk-model spectroscope (no chromium
lines were detected). These properties are consistent with
those reported for spodumene (R. Webster, Gems, 5th ed.,
rev. by P. G. Read, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK,
1994, pp. 186189). With magnification, a few liquid fingerprints were observed under the table and crown facets.
Cleavage planes, a common feature in spodumene, were
not evident.
Microscopic examination was conducted with the aid
of a fiber-optic lamp. Curiously, when the examination
was completed, the green spodumene appeared bright
orange (figure 32). Within a few minutes, however, the
original green color returned. The orange glow was caused
by the heat of the fiber-optic lamp exciting the spodumenes activator elements to produce thermoluminescence. The effect was similar to the stones fluorescence
reaction to long-wave UV radiation (again, see figure 31,
left). The stone was reheated with the fiber-optic lamp and
glowed orange again after three minutes of exposure,
before returning to its original color within two to three
minutes after removal of the lamp. These steps were
repeated several times with consistent results.
EDXRF analysis revealed the presence of Al, Si, and Fe.

Mn, a common constituent in spodumene that is also
responsible for its strong fluorescence (see M. Robbins,
Fluorescence: Gems and Minerals Under Ultraviolet
Light, Geoscience Press, Arizona, 1994, pp. 265266), was
not detected in this specimen. Therefore, the cause of the
fluorescence and thermoluminescence is unknown.
This is the first time this contributor has seen the heat
of a fiber-optic lamp cause thermoluminescence in a gemstone. Webster (1994, p. 187) mentioned this effect occurring in X-ray irradiated kunzite at temperatures around
200C. The present sample has probably not been laboratory irradiated, as the color was stable even after repeated
heating with the fiber-optic lamp. Its thermoluminescence
at such a low temperature makes it quite an unusual specimen.
Gagan Choudhary (gtl@gjepcindia.com)
Gem Testing Laboratory
Jaipur, India
Figure 32. The heat generated by a fiber-optic lamp

caused the spodumene to thermoluminesce bright
orange. The original green color returned within
three minutes after the stone was removed from the
lamp. Photo by G. Choudhary.
Figure 33. These four liddicoatite tourmalines

(1.291.45 ct) have colors similar to those of some
Paraba-type elbaite tourmaline. Photo by L. Klemm.
Neon blue-to-green Cu- and Mn-bearing liddicoatite

tourmaline. Four greenish blue faceted oval specimens,
1.291.45 ct, were recently submitted to the Gbelin Gem
Lab (figure 33). The stones were similar in hue, tone, and
saturation to Paraba-type tourmaline. Standard gemologi-
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323
UV-VIS-NIR ABSORPTION SPECTRA

2.0
ABSORBANCE
1.6
E || c
1.2
415
E c
0.8
0.4
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
WAVELENGTH (nm)
Figure 34. Polarized UV-Vis-NIR spectra of the stones in

figure 33 show Cu2+ absorptions in the red region (~700
nm), with increasing absorption in the near-IR region
(~900 nm). The small, sharp peak at ~415 nm is probably
due to Mn 2+, and the increasing absorption toward the
UV region is likely attributable to Mn 2+-Ti 4+ intervalence charge transfer.
cal examination gave the following properties: RIno =

1.6401.641 and n e = 1.6211.622; birefringence
0.0180.020; and SG3.063.08; all these are consistent
with tourmaline. Microscopic observation revealed parallel tubes, some hollow and others stained yellow to redbrown. Partially healed and unhealed fissures were also
seen, and portions of the fissures were either frosted or
reflective. Similar patterns have been observed in some
heat-treated Paraba-type tourmaline from Mozambique
(B. M. Laurs et al., Copper-bearing [Paraba-type] tourmaline from Mozambique, Spring 2008 G&G, pp. 430). All
four samples fluoresced moderate yellowish green to longwave UV radiation and faint yellowish green to short-wave
UV.
The samples UV-Vis-NIR spectra (figure 34) were also
similar to those of Paraba-type tourmaline (see P. B.
Merkel and C. M. Breeding, Spectral differentiation
between copper and iron colorants in gem tourmalines,
Summer 2009 G&G, pp. 112119, and references therein).
Surprisingly, however, LA-ICP-MS analysis showed that
though all of the samples were lithium tourmalines, they
contained more Ca than alkalis (Na+K). EDXRF analysis
also revealed significantly more Ca than typical of Parabatype tourmaline. All samples also contained minor
amounts of Mn and Cu.
Elbaite is an Na-rich lithium tourmaline; the other
lithium tourmalines are liddicoatite and rossmanite.
Identification of tourmaline species is complex, as to date
Figure 35. This ternary diagram of the

four samples average chemical composition (blue circles) shows that they fall in
the field for liddicoatite. The green circles in the elbaite field correspond to
analyses of typical Paraba-type tourmaline from Brazil, Nigeria, and Mozambique in the Gbelin Gem Labs reference collection; all of these data plot in
the elbaite field.
+K
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there are 13 known end members. When plotting the

chemical composition of these specimens on a ternary diagram for lithium-rich tourmaline, all four samples fell in
the liddicoatite field (figure 35). Based on calculations
using a recently developed tool (L. Klemm and P. Hardy,
Determination of tourmaline species by advanced chemical analysis, Proceedings of the 3rd European Gemmological Symposium, Berne, Switzerland, June 57,
2009, pp. 5859) and averaging the four chemical analyses
obtained on each stone by LA-ICP-MS, the samples contained a 5057% liddicoatite component; thus, all four
were liddicoatite tourmaline.
Some traders we spoke with believe that these stones
are from Mozambique, near the mine that produced
Paraba-type elbaite. We also have been told that liddicoatite rough has been found in this area that does not need
heat treatment to produce the desirable greenish blue coloration. This is the first report of Cu-Mn bearing liddicoatite tourmalines of such color.
Stefanos Karampelas (s.karampelas@gubelingemlab.ch)
and Leo Klemm
Gbelin Gem Lab, Lucerne, Switzerland
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Use your LCD screen as a gemological tool. Most LCD
(liquid crystal display) screens, such as those used for computer or mobile phone displays, are sources of plane-polarized light. We recently tested the possibility of using such
screens to observe the pleochroism of faceted gems. When
we placed a few gems table-down over the white portion of
a mobile phone display, the pleochroism was readily visible (figure 36). Further, by using a handheld polarizer, such
as a camera polarizing filter or even polarizing sunglasses,
one can create a makeshift polariscope (figure 37).
Given the widespread use of LCD screens in various
products, gemologists should keep them in mind as a convenient working tool when traditional instruments are not
available, particularly in the field. Note, however, that
some displays using new technology (e.g., OLEDorganic
light emitting diodes) are not a source of polarized light
and thus cannot be used as gemological tools. It is therefore advisable to first test a screen with a polarizing filter.
Bertrand Devouard and Rmi Bornet
Laboratoire Magma et Volcans, Blaise Pascal University
CNRS (UMR 6524), Clermont-Ferrand, France
Franck Notari, Benjamin Rondeau,
and Emmanuel Fritsch
Smartphone photomicrography. Smartphones such as the
Apple iPhone, Motorola Droid, and Nokia N8 have
become increasingly popular in recent years. Top-end
models typically feature good-quality digital cameras that
rival some point-and-shoot cameras, in addition to having basic photo-editing software.
The popularity of smartphones has also spawned the
development of numerous accessories that can expand
their functionality even further. One such accessory is a
low-power microscope that clips onto the phone over the
camera lens. This contributor was interested in seeing if
this device could have gemological applications.
The microscope accessory in figure 38 was ordered on
the Internet for less than US$20. Its sliding housing offers
varying levels of magnification, and illumination is provided by two white LEDs. The lighting assembly can be rotated about 45 to change the angle of illumination.
Although this device is clearly not optimized for gemological use, with some practice it was possible to produce
serviceable photomicrographs. The images in figure 39
were taken with an Apple iPhone 4 using the ProCamera
photography application, which allows manual adjustment of focus and white balance. As with any photogra-
Figure 36. When pleochroic

stones are placed tabledown on an LCD screen, as
on this cell phone, they
display pleochroism when
rotated 90 (from left to
right and top to bottom:
kornerupine, tourmaline,
chrome diopside, iolite,
and smoky quartz).
Photo by B. Devouard.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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325
Figure 37. A simple polariscope is created when a

polarizer is placed in front
of the plane-polarized LCD
screen. Here, a colorless
topaz has been rotated on
the cell phone screen
under a camera polarizing
filter. Photo B. Devouard.
phy, the biggest challenge was the lighting. The LEDs

proved too bright in most situations, and better results
were achieved by partially shielding them or turning them
off and relying on ambient light. Although the microFigure 38. This inexpensive microscope accessory
clips over a smartphone camera lens. Illumination
is provided by LEDs. Photo by Robert Weldon.
scopes packaging promised magnification up to 60, in

practice it was impossible to obtain good focus beyond
medium power (~20). The best results were produced
with a combination of the phones digital zoom, careful
adjustment of the autofocus, and a steady hand.
Although this device clearly will not replace a standard
gemological microscope or even a loupe, it appears to provide a useful field tool in the gemologists arsenal.
Thomas W. Overton (toverton@gia.edu)
GIA, Carlsbad
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Filled copal imitation of amber. Amber is one of the most
popular gem materials for traditional Islamic prayer beads
(Mesbah in Arabic). Specimens with inclusions of plants,
insects, or even animals are often used. However, we have
also seen amber imitations fashioned for this purpose.
We recently received a strand resembling amber that
consisted of 33 yellow round beads (~12 mm in diameter)
with two oval-shaped separators and a fancy-shaped link
(figure 40). The round beads contained dark brown plant
debris and a variety of insects: ants, mosquitoes, ladybugs,
and flies, all in good condition. They were inert to shortwave UV radiation, but their reaction to long-wave UV
was striking. They displayed a moderate chalky greenish
yellow fluorescence, which appeared to be confined to the
surface, together with distinctive chalky blue circular
areas (figure 41)most located near drill holesthat
strongly suggested assemblages.
We obtained spot RI readings of 1.52 on the circular
zones and 1.54 elsewhere. Observation between crossed
polarizers revealed strong anomalous double refraction with
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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Figure 39. Taken with

an Apple iPhone and
the clip-on microscope
in figure 38, these
images show flux inclusions in synthetic emerald (left), needle-like
inclusions in corundum,
and a lilypad inclusion in peridot. Photomicrographs by
T. W. Overton; fields
of view ~4.0 mm.
strain colors. With the clients permission, we conducted

hot-point and acetone tests on very small, inconspicuous
areas. The main portion of the beads had a resinous odor,
while the circular zones had an acrid odor. During acetone
tests, the main areas revealed slightly softened and etched
surfaces, while the circular portions showed even stronger
surface etching. The characteristics of the bulk of the beads
were consistent with copal, while those of the circular portions were consistent with plastic. This was the case for all
33 round beads, while the separators and link of the strand
only showed characteristics consistent with copal, with no
circular portions or insects.
Microscopic observation clearly revealed a separation
plane between the main part of the beads and the circular
blue-fluorescing areas, denoted by curved polish marks
beneath the surface (figure 42, left). Examination with

immersion (in water) indicated that all the round beads
were cored and filled with a colorless to light yellow plastic, along with insects (figure 42, right). Gas bubbles were
seen adjacent to insects within the plastic. In addition, a
separation plane was visible between the beads plastic
core (containing the insects) and a plastic outer layer that
formed the circular-fluorescing zones (which contained
plant debris). The plant debris resembled that which was
present in the copal, and apparently was added to the plastic to make it less noticeable.
On the basis of the evidence, we concluded that the
beads consisted of copal filled with plastic to imitate
insect-bearing amber. It appears that each round copal
bead was subjected to the following process: (1) drilling
Figure 40. The beads in

this rosary (~12 mm in
diameter) proved to be
copal filled and assembled with plastic to
imitate amber. Photo
by S. Singbamroong,
Dubai Central
Laboratory.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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327
those areas gave results consistent with plastic.

Sutas Singbamroong (sssutas@dm.gov.ae) and
Moza Rashed Al Falasi
Gemstone Unit, Dubai Central Laboratory
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Figure 41. When exposed to long-wave UV radiation,

the beads display a moderate chalky greenish yellow
fluorescence, as well as chalky blue circular patterns.
Photo by S. Singbamroong, Dubai Central
Laboratory.
and hollowing out the interior, (2) filling with plastic that
contained insects, and (3) masking the hole with plastic
containing plant debris. The inner filling material containing the insects was exposed on a small portion of the surface of a few beads, and acetone and hot-point testing of
Glass with crystalline aggregates. Glass is the most common gem simulant and can show a wide variety of colors,
transparencies, and optical effects. Most examples display
similar featuresnamely gas bubbles, swirl marks, and
devitrification effectsbut in the last few years this contributor has encountered some interesting and unusual
glass specimens (see, e.g., Summer 2007 GNI, pp. 174175;
Summer 2010 GNI, pp. 155156).
Recently, the Gem Testing Laboratory of Jaipur, India,
received a green 25.04 ct step cut measuring 20.04 14.86
6.36 mm (figure 43). It had the translucency of chalcedony and the color of emerald. None of emeralds distinct inclusions were observed microscopically, however,
and the heft was sufficiently high to rule out emerald or
chalcedony. Microscopic examination with fiber-optic
light revealed aggregates of colorless crystalline features
throughout the sample (figure 44). The crystals were easily
resolved at higher magnification and were much larger
than those found in cryptocrystalline materials such as
chalcedony. The presence of these crystals initially suggested a natural origin.
Standard gemological testing, however, revealed the
Figure 42. Microscopic observation clearly reveals a separation plane between the main part of the beads and
the blue-fluorescing round areas, denoted by circular polish marks beneath the surface (left). Immersion in
water revealed they were copal beads that had been cored and filled with a colorless to light yellow material
containing insects (right). Also visible are small bubbles next to the insect (white arrows) and a separation
plane between the insect-bearing plastic in the core and an outer plastic layer containing plant debris (red
arrows). Photomicrographs by S. Singbamroong, Dubai Central Laboratory; magnified 10.
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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Figure 43. This 25.04 ct translucent green specimen,

which proved to be glass, is unusual for its crystalline
features. Photo by G. Choudhary.
following properties: RI1.745; hydrostatic SG4.33;

aggregate reaction in the polariscope; UV fluorescence
chalky blue to short-wave, and inert to long-wave UV.
These properties indicated a glass, which was confirmed
by FTIR and EDXRF analysis. The IR spectrum displayed
twin humps between 3600 and 2600 cm1 and complete
absorption up to 2500 cm1, while qualitative EDXRF
revealed the presence of Si, Ca, and Pb, the last being
responsible for the high RI and SG values. During a subsequent microscopic examination of the sample, one gas
bubble was finally resolved.
Crystalline features have been reported previously as
inclusions in glass (see, e.g., H. A. Hnni et al., A glass
imitation of blue chalcedony, Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 27, No. 5, 2001, pp. 275285; Lab Notes: Spring 2008,
pp. 7071; Summer 2010, pp. 144); these are attributed to
partial devitrification. Hnni et al. (2001) identified the
transparent and colorless crystalline inclusions as wollastonite, but those in our sample could not be identified
with the techniques available.
Such specimens make very convincing gem simulants.
In the absence of proper gemological testing and
FTIR/EDXRF analysis, there is a strong possibility of
misidentification.
Gagan Choudhary
Synthetic ruby specimen sold as natural. G&G has reported on a number of synthetic rubies sold as natural crystals
(see Fall 1993 Lab Notes, p. 204; Fall 2001 GNI, pp.
243245). A recent case underscores the importance of taking precautions against such frauds.
Dubai is a relatively new market for rough and polished colored stones, and an intersection between African
sources and the Asian trade. It has also seen a variety of
imitations of natural gem crystals. In fact, within the past
Figure 44. The glass specimen in figure 43 displays

homogeneous colorless crystals throughout, giving it
an aggregate structure. Photomicrograph by G.
Choudhary; magnified 60.
two years, these contributors have reported on imitations

of diamond and emerald crystals (Fall 2009 GNI, pp.
230231; Winter 2009 GNI, pp. 305306).
Recently, the Dubai Central Laboratory received a
rough specimen for identification. The red crystal (figure
45) had a distorted hexagonal shape and was attached to
some matrix material. It was identified as ruby by its
absorption spectrum with a handheld spectroscope, a finding confirmed by UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy. Using a
microscope, we observed curved striae and filled cavities;
gas bubbles were visible in the filling material. We therefore identified this sample as synthetic ruby with filled
fractures. Raman spectroscopy identified the matrix as
quartz, which had been joined to the synthetic ruby by
some type of glue. Since quartz is geologically incompatible with corundum, the matrix provided another clue that
this specimen was a fake.
This case again illustrates the importance of gem laboratory reports and the necessity of thoroughly examining a
piece before purchase.
Nazar Ahmed (nanezar@dm.gov.ae)
and Hassan Al Marzooqi
Gemstone Unit, Dubai Central Laboratory
Dubai, United Arab Emirates
MISCELLANEOUS
Louis XVs Golden Fleecerecreated. In 1743, King Louis
XV of France became a knight of the Order of the Golden
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
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329
Figure 45. This synthetic

ruby crystal (2.7 cm
tall) was fashioned to
imitate natural ruby in
matrix. Photos by N.
Ahmed, Dubai
Gemstone Laboratory.
Fleece, the first French ruler to receive this distinction

since its founding in Burgundy three centuries earlier. In
1749, the kings jeweler, Jacqumin, created an emblem of
this order for the king. It was composed of three exceptional gems: the 69 ct French Blue diamond; a 32.62 ct light
blue diamond later named the Bazu; and the 107 ct Cte
de Bretagne, a spinel carved as a dragon. This masterpiece
of French rococo jewelry was stolen and disassembled in
1792 during the revolution; only the spinel carving
remained intact, and it now resides in the Louvre. Many
historians have since tried to reconstruct this emblem on
paper (e.g., B. Morel, The French Crown Jewels, Fonds
Mercator, Antwerp, 1988; H. Tillander, Diamond Cuts in
Historic Jewelry: 13811910, Art Books Intl. Ltd., London,
1995).
Recently, these contributors recreated the Golden
Fleece as accurately as possible, based on a 2008 painting
(see figure 15 in Farges et al., The French Blue and the
Hope: New data from the discovery of a historical lead
cast, Spring 2009 G&G, pp. 217) as well as a drawing of
the original piece that was discovered in the 1980s in
Switzerland. We tried to incorporate Jacqumins techniques and savoir faire by using 3D rendering for the
design and analyzing historical elements (such as diamond
setting) that were not available to, or not considered by,
previous investigators.
Replicas of the two blue diamonds were created from
cubic zirconia. The Cte de Bretagne dragon was carved
from lead glass using a wax replica based on 3D-scaled pictures of the original. Gold and manganese pigments in the
glass were used to simulate the color of the spinel. The
emblems 500+ remaining diamonds were fashioned
from cubic zirconia using a baroque cushion cut. The red
and yellow stones, which adorned the dragons flames and
the golden fleece, were made from colorless CZ and then
painted on their backs, following Jacqumins original
method.
Since the emblem was most likely made of silver-plated gold, as was the custom for French royal jewelry at the
time (the setting of diamonds in gold was considered taste-
330
less by royal French jewelers), we decided to create a setting constructed primarily of sterling silver. The metal
was carved to recreate the delicate distribution of the dragons wings and tail, as well as the palms over which the
dragon is suspended. Some parts of the silver setting were
gilded to recreate the elegant combination of gold and silver that likely prevailed in the original, and all the stones
were set using 18th century techniques.
After three years of work, the recreated Golden Fleece
(figure 46) was unveiled on June 30, 2010, at the site where
the original jewel was stolen in 1792: the former royal
storehouse, now the Htel de la Marine on Place de la
Concorde in Paris. The event was filmed for a documentary on the French Blue, and an English-language version
titled Secrets of the Hope Diamond will be broadcast in
the U.S. in 2011 on the National Geographic channel.
Herbert Horovitz
Geneva, Switzerland
Franois Farges (farges@mnhn.fr)
Musum National dHistoire Naturelle
Paris, France
CONFERENCE REPORTS
20th Annual Goldschmidt Conference. The geochemistryfocused Goldschmidt Conference was held June 1318,
2010, in Knoxville, Tennessee. The meeting featured a session titled Geochemistry and Trace Elements in Gem
Materials, chaired by Drs. Emmanuel Fritsch and
Benjamin Rondeau (both from the University of Nantes,
France), who opened with a brief discussion on the increasing importance of trace-element chemistry for investigating gemological problems. Their remarks were followed by
several interesting talks. Abstracts can be viewed at
www.goldschmidt2010.org/abstracts/view.
This contributor demonstrated the use of LA-ICP-MS
analysis in separating amethyst, citrine, and malachite
from their laboratory-grown equivalents. Dr. Adolf Peretti
(GRS Gemresearch Swisslab, Lucerne) presented data
showing small-scale chemical variations within single
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 46. This photo of

the reconstructed
Golden Fleece (~16 5
cm) shows a CZ replica
of the 69 ct French Blue
that is set above the
fleece composed of about
one hundred yellow
paintbacked cubic zirconias, and set below a
glass replica of the 107 ct
Cte de Bretagne spinel.
Photo by F. Farges.
crystals of Paraba-type tourmaline, and cautioned against

using color-specific geochemical criteria to identify geographic origin. Dr. Laurence Galoisy (University of Paris)
discussed the role of chromium and other transition elements in the color of garnets from Thailand and East
Africa. Kaifan Hu (Pennsylvania State University, Uni-
versity Park) showed how gem pietersite from Namibia

can be separated from similar Chinese material on the
basis of microstructures.
Both session leaders examined the chemical composition of opal. Dr. Fritsch described how differences in uranium content affect the occurrence of green and blue UV
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
331
luminescence. Dr. Rondeau presented geochemical data

for opals from Wollo, Ethiopia (see Summer 2010 G&G,
pp. 90105). Of particular note were elevated barium concentrations, which are atypical of opal from volcanic environments.
Two talks dealt with trace elements in diamond.
Yakov Weiss (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) categorized
the trace-element composition of fluids trapped in fibrous
diamonds into three groups that might prove useful in
determining geographic origin. Dr. Elose Gaillou (Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC) set forth a method for
calculating total boron concentration in type IIb blue diamonds and compared that with existing methods using
FTIR analysis.
Three posters also were displayed as part of the gem
session. W. Bieri (GRS Gemresearch Swisslab) showed
how the chemical composition of apatite inclusions in
corundum and spinel can help specify the geographic origin of the host gem. Dr. Andy H. Shen (GIA Laboratory,
Carlsbad) presented detailed data showing the possibility
of using LA-ICP-MS analysis to measure trace concentrations of silicon in sapphire; this element may have an
important effect on color centers in corundum. Finally,
Kristen Yetter (New Mexico State University, Las Cruces)
showed how LIBS analysis can provide a preliminary indication of geographic origin in some rubies and sapphires.
Christopher M. Breeding (mbreedin@gia.edu)
20th General Meeting of the International Mineralogical

Association (IMA). This meeting was held August 2127
at Etvs Lorand University in Budapest. Some 1,700 participants from 74 countries attended, making it the largest
IMA event to date. The conference featured several presentations of gemological interest, some of which are summarized here. Abstracts of all oral and poster presentations
can be found at www.ima2010.hu/img/doc/ima2010_
abstracts.pdf.
In an invited presentation, Thomas Hainschwang
(Gemlab Laboratory, Balzers, Liechtenstein) reviewed the
challenges of separating natural- and treated-color diamonds using visible, infrared, and photoluminescence
spectroscopy. These techniques allow researchers to characterize optical defects in diamonds, some of which can be
created, modified, or destroyed by laboratory treatment
processes. The behavior of optical defects during treatment
is a key to colored diamond identification. Dr. Thomas
Stachel (University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada)
showed that most gem diamonds originate from several
source rocks in portions of the lithospheric mantle
beneath cratons. Dr. Richard Taylor (University of Saint
Andrews, Scotland) discussed the chemical analysis of
trace elements in gem feldspars using two analytical techniques: X-ray absorption fine structure (XAFS) and X-ray
332
excited optical luminescence (XEOL). Dr. Alessandra

Costanzo (National University of Ireland, Galway)
described the results of a study of fluid inclusions in emeralds from the Piteiras mine in Minas Gerais, Brazil. Dr.
Bertrand Devouard (Blaise Pascal University, ClermontFerrand, France) presented detailed chemical composition
data on pezzottaite samples from Madagascar, Afghanistan,
and Myanmar. Some specimens from Myanmar displayed
hourglass-shaped color zoning, with significantly greater
cesium content in the more strongly colored sectors.
One of these contributors (SK) compared microradiography with X-ray computed microtomography for imaging the internal structure of pearls. Despite a data-collection time lasting several hours, computed microtomography offered improved resolution over conventional imaging techniques. A study of the internal features and
chemical composition of 170 alexandrite samples from
various sources was presented by Anna-Kathrin Malsy
(Gbelin Gem Lab, Lucerne, Switzerland). On the basis
of LA-ICP-MS analyses, most sources could be differentiated on a triangular plot of boron, tin, and magnesium
contents. The chemical composition data proved far
more valuable than microscopic examination, since there
were no diagnostic inclusions.
Dr. Pornsawat Wathanakul (Kasetsart University,
Bangkok) compared the properties of blue-green-yellow
sapphires from the Nam KhunNam Yuen region of
Thailand and Garba Tula in Kenya. Both groups of sapphires come from basaltic host rocks, but slight differences
in their visible absorption spectra appear to distinguish
them. Somruedee Satitkune, also of Kasetsart University,
examined mineral inclusions in diamonds from the
Koffiefontein and Finsch mines in South Africa. She
showed that inclusions with cubic symmetry (such as
pyrope and chromite) exhibit nearly the same angular orientation to the {111} crystal face of diamond, whereas
inclusions of minerals with lower symmetry (diopside and
olivine) display more variable angular orientations.
Dr. Gaston Giuliani (Institute of Research for
Development, and Center for Petrographic and Geochemical Research, Nancy, France) described how metamorphism of evaporates associated with sedimentary carbonate rocks provided the fluids partly responsible for
the formation of some important colored stone deposits.
Dr. Dorrit Jacob (Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz,
Germany) detailed the use of chemical composition data
obtained by LA-ICP-MS analysis to differentiate freshwater cultured pearls from various geographic sources using
the ratio of Ba/Sr versus B concentrations. Tashia
Dzikowski (University of British Columbia, Vancouver,
Canada) reported on the discovery of a ruby and sapphire
deposit hosted in marbles near Revelstoke, British
Columbia. She also provided details on the geologic conditions of corundum formation. Dr. Tobias Hger
(Johannes Gutenberg University) described an interesting
occurrence of ruby and sapphire, rimmed by spinel, from
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
the Luc YenYen Bai mining area in Vietnam. Microscopic evidence suggests the spinel formed by an alteration reaction between corundum and dolomite.
During the conference, a meeting of the IMA
Commission on Gem Materials (CGM) was held under
the direction of the chair of the commission, Dr. Lee
Groat (University of British Columbia, Vancouver).
Among the items discussed was the creation of a CGM
website, which may include an online atlas of gem
deposits and also links to gem museums throughout the
world.
James E. Shigley (jshigley@gia.edu)
GIA Research, Carlsbad
Stefanos Karampelas
Carpathian and Balkan Geological Association (CBGA)
meeting. The 19th meeting of the CBGA took place in
Thessaloniki, Greece, August 2326, 2010. About 700 participants from 15 countries attended the event, which for
the first time featured a session on gemology, with a particular focus on archeogemology as well as gems from the
Carpathian and Balkan regions.
In the keynote lecture, Dr. Emmanuel Fritsch
(University of Nantes, France) gave an update on the origin
of color in minerals and gems. This contributor presented a
nondestructive study of four late-16th and early-17th century religious artifacts from the Benedictine Abbey of
Einsiedeln, Switzerland. The results of this analysis were
compared with observations recorded at the end of the 17th
century (for more details, see the article on pp. 292296 of
this issue).
Elisabeth Strack (Gemmological Institute of Hamburg,
Germany) used classical gemology to investigate three
jewelry pieces uncovered from the ruins at Veliki Preslav,
Bulgaria, that date from the 9th century. These items contained a garnet, purple sapphires, emeralds with indications of Egyptian origin, and saltwater pearls. Dr. Corina
Ionescu (Babes-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania)
examined some unusual 5th century garnet-set jewelry
(see the GNI entry on pp. 316318 of this issue). A report
on Bulgarian gem carvings from the Neolithic and
Chalcolithic periods and their impact on the history of
gemology was presented by Dr. Ruslan I. Kostov (St. Ivan
Rilski University of Mining and Geology, Sofia). He indicated that these carvings represent the earliest record of
fashioned nephrite from Bulgaria (figure 47) and the earliest known turquoise from the eastern Rhodope
Mountains.
In the poster session, Zoran Miladinovic
(University of
Belgrade, Serbia) discussed some deposits of gem-quality
silica minerals (e.g., amethyst) found in a volcanic complex extending from southern Serbia to northern Greece
(the Lece-Chalkidiki metallogenic zone). Dr. Ludmila
Illa`s ov (Constantine the Philosopher University, Nitra,
Slovakia) reviewed opals and other gem-quality silica min-
Figure 47. This zoomorphic nephrite amulet from

Bulgaria measures 4.2 3.7 cm and is from the early
Neolithic period (i.e., end of the 7th millennium BC).
Courtesy of the Regional Historical Museum,
Kurdjali, Bulgaria (collection no. 4532); photo by
Vladimir Alexeev.
erals from various locations in Slovakia. Dr. Magdalena
Duman
ska-Slowik (University of Krakow, Poland) offered
preliminary results from a fluid inclusion study of topaz
crystals from Volodarsk-Volynski, Ukraine, that apparently formed at about 360385C. Preliminary results from
an FTIR and powder X-ray diffraction study of heated and
unheated freshwater cultured pearls were presented by
Eleni Theodosoglou (Aristotle University of Thessaloniki,
Greece). Color differences were observed after heating at
250C for one hour in air (5C/min heating rate). The samples XRD patterns did not change after heating, but some
infrared bands showed slight differences related to organic
matter and water.
The 20th CBGA meeting will take place in Albania in
2014.
Stefanos Karampelas
European Diamond Conference. More than 300 delegates

attended the 21st European Conference on Diamond,
Diamond-Like Materials, Carbon Nanotubes, and Nitrides,
held September 59, 2010, in Budapest. Highlights of gemological interest from the ~330 oral and poster presentations
are summarized here.
Several researchers, including Dr. Mikhail Lukin
(Harvard University) and Dr. Mark Newton (University of
Warwick, England) presented new research on nitrogen
vacancy (NV) centers that occuror have been created
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
333
after growthin synthetic diamond. NV centers are common in natural diamonds as well, and have proven important for the detection of HPHT treatment since the late
1990s.
Dr. Bert Willems (HRD, Antwerp) presented a study of
six CVD synthetic diamond samples grown at LIMHPCNRS (Villetaneuse, France). These high-quality plates
contained varying nitrogen contents (up to 200 ppm) and
were characterized by a 525 nm band in the UV-Vis
absorption spectra, along with strong NV centers and a silicon peak at 737 nm.
Dr. Riadh Issaoui (LIMHP-CNRS) provided the latest
results of growing free-standing type IIb CVD synthetic diamond plates. Good-quality plates (measuring 5 5 mm and
200 m thick) were grown at an intermediate microwave
power density of 80 W/cm3, a substrate surface temperature of 8001000C, a total feed-gas rate of 200 standard
cubic centimeters per minute, a boron-to-carbon ratio of
3000 ppm, and a 5% methane concentration.
Dr. Andrey Bolshakov (Russian Academy of Sciences,
Moscow) grew thin films of CVD synthetic diamond that
mimicked the structure of opal, resulting in novel threedimensional photonic crystals. Using porous synthetic
opal as a template, he and his colleagues grew CVD synthetic diamond either in the voids between the silica
spheres or in place of the etched silica. With the recent
interest in diamond-like coatings applied to gemstones,
the implications of this work may someday be seen in the
jewelry industry.
This contributor compared the phosphorescence spectra results of 357 natural type IIb diamonds with those of
HPHT-treated and HPHT-grown synthetic diamonds. The
only phosphorescence bands observed in the natural diamonds were centered at 500 and 660 nm. None of the
treated or synthetic diamonds showed the 660 nm band,
but all did display the 500 nm band, usually at higher
intensity than in the comparable natural diamonds.
Sally Eaton-Magaa (smagana@gia.edu)
5th International Workshop on Provenance and
Properties of Gems and Geo-materials. Since 1997, these
workshops have been held approximately every two years
in Hanoi. The most recent session took place October
1824, 2010, at the Vietnamese Academy of Science and
Technology, with more than 60 participants from 13
countries in attendance. The workshop started with a
one-day field trip to an akoya pearl farm at Ha Long Bay
(figure 48). Over the next three days, about 40 talks and
posters were presented.
Dr. Christoph Hauzenberger (University of Graz,
Austria) discussed the petrology and geochemical characteristics of spinel rims surrounding some ruby and sapphire samples from Truc Lau in northern Vietnam. Dr.
Chakkapan Sutthirat (Gem and Jewelry Institute of
334
Thailand and Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok) compared the spectroscopic, chemical, and microscopic characteristics of Vietnamese rubies from two different
regions, Luc Yen and Quy Chau. Dr. Visut PisuthaArnond, representing the same institutions as Dr.
Sutthirat, gave an update on the spectroscopic, chemical,
and microscopic characteristics of gem-quality purplish
red almandine from Houaphan Province in northeastern
Laos. Dr. Pornsawat Wathanakul (Gem and Jewelry
Institute of Thailand and Kasetsart University, Bangkok)
offered preliminary means of identifying the origin of
some alexandrites. Walter Balmer (Chulalongkorn University) delivered a portion of his Ph.D. research on the
possible genetic link between the marble-hosted ruby
deposits in Luc Yen and those near Yuan Jiang in the Ailao
Shan Mountains of China.
Dr. Boontawee Sriprasert (Department of Mineral
Resources, Bangkok) summarized heating experiments on
the coloration of tourmaline. Dr. Bhuwadol Wanthanachaisaeng (Burapha University, Chanthaburi, Thailand)
outlined the identification of heat-treated zircons by their
FTIR spectra. Dr. Kanphot Thongcham (Ramkhamhaeng
University, Bangkok) examined the effects of annealing on
the color of zircon. Dr. Vu Phi Tuyen (Vietnamese
Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi) presented the
results of photoluminescence and thermoluminescence
studies of zircon during annealing.
Dr. Tobias Hger (Johannes Gutenberg University,
Mainz, Germany) described gemological applications of
Cr 3+ luminescence. In some spinels, Dr. Hger reported,
the FWHM (full width at half maximum) of chromium
bands at ~700 nm increases after heat treatment. Dr. Lutz
Nasdala (University of Vienna, Austria) described defect
luminescence of ion-irradiated gem materials, focusing on
diamond and zircon.
One of these contributors (SK) described the structures
and pigments observed in natural pearls, focusing on nonnacreous types such as melo, scallop, and quahog. Dr.
Jayshree Panjikar (Institute of Gem & Jewellery, Pune,
India) reviewed the microscopic and crystallographic features of gem-quality beryl from India.
The last day of the presentations took place at the
headquarters of Doji Gold & Gems Group, where participants were briefed on the companys gem mining activities and their cutting factory. In addition, Dr. Dietmar
Schwarz (Gbelin Gem Laboratory, Lucerne, Switzerland) reviewed ruby, sapphire, and emerald mining and
marketing. The conference closed with a three-day field
trip, led by Doji vice chairman Duong Anh Tuan, to a
primary marble-hosted spinel mine and a secondary ruby
and spinel mine in the Yen Bai region.
Stefanos Karampelas
Le Thi-Thu Huong
Faculty of Geology, Vietnam National University
Hanoi
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Figure 48. This akoya cultured pearl farm is located at Ha Long Bay in northeastern Vietnam.
Photo by Christoph Hauzenberger.
ERRATA
1. The Summer 2008 GNI section (pp. 184185) erroneously reported the yellow vanadinite locality as the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Dr. Lavinskys
supplier has now admitted that the material was
actually found in Otjitheka, Kaokoland, northwest
Namibia.
2. The business retrospective article by R. Shor and R.
Weldon in the Fall 2010 issue (pp. 166187) incorrectly stated that the American Gem Society Laboratory
was the first grading lab to issue a cut grade on diamond grading reports. A number of smaller labs were
in fact issuing cut grades prior to AGS. We thank
David Atlas for bringing this to our attention.
3. There were two errors in table 1 of the gem localities
retrospective article by J. E. Shigley et al. in the Fall
2010 issue (pp. 188216). On page 203, the Hiddenite

emerald locality is located in Alexander County, not
Mitchell County. On page 214, Malawi should not
have been listed as a tourmaline locality; the Canary
deposit is actually located in Lundazi, Zambia.
4. The C. M. Breeding et al. technology retrospective
article in the Fall 2010 issue (pp. 241257) incorrectly
referred to the Holloway Cut Adviser as Holloway
Cut Analysis. In addition, The Lexus M-Box software
referred to in the article was developed by OctoNus
(Lexus is the distributor) and the image in figure 10
shows the Oxygen software user interface. The rough
diamond planning system also makes use of
DiamCalc, which OctoNus developed in the late
1990s and today is used widely to assist in the evaluation of diamond cutting. Our thanks to Sergey
Sivovolenko for providing this additional information.
For online access to all issues of GEMS & GEMOLOGY from 1981 to the present, visit:
store.gia.edu
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
335
EDITORS
Susan B. Johnson
Jana E. Miyahira-Smith
Thomas W. Overton
Blood on the Stone:

Greed, Corruption, and War in
the Global Diamond Trade
By Ian Smillie, 252 pp., publ. by
Anthem Press [www.anthempress.
com], London, 2010. US$29.95
Ian Smillie starts his new book by
saying that it will address how diamonds fueled some of the most brutal
wars in Africa. Blood on the Stone
achieves this goal comprehensively
and compellingly. More importantly,
it also explores the larger issue behind
this storythat of the extraction of
mineral resources from developing
countries and the struggle to force
corporate accountability for the abuses and imbalances that have resulted.
The prologue relates the history of
Smillies own involvement in the conflict diamond issue, beginning with a
meeting in the Ottawa offices of the
nongovernmental organization Partner ship Africa Canada, where he
worked in 1997, and leading into his
travels as a UN-appointed expert,
which took him from war-torn regions
of Africa to the White House.
Over a period of 10 years, Smillie
became renowned for his knowledge of
the conflict diamond issue and as an
advocate for change. He takes pains to
stress that diamonds did not cause the
rebel wars in Sierra Leone, Angola, and
the Democratic Republic of Congo.
But they did prolong these conflicts by
providing huge amounts of money to
finance them. There has been much
debate as to whether greed or
grievance was the causethe answer,
according to Smillie, was both.
During the 1990s, perhaps 25% of
the worlds trade in rough diamonds
BOOK REVIEWS
was infected by some sort of illicit

activity. The context for how this
activity came to be so commonplace
lies in the nature of the product and
the trade: the portability and accessibility of diamonds, the industrys
inherent secrecy and preference to
avoid paperwork, the lack of government controls, and the difficulty of
obtaining accurate data to track the
flow of goods. Diamonds have long
been linked to tax evasion and money
laundering. In the 1990s, though, they
were used to bankroll wars that
claimed millions of lives and caused
untold suffering.
Students of gemology will appreciate Smillies review of the history of
diamonds, with its concise and precise
descriptions of their geology and timelines of important discoveries. Unlike
many popular accounts of the diamond trade, this section is both scientifically accurate and well researched.
Background on De Beers and its control of much of the rough diamond
trade sets the scene for how combatants were able to use diamonds to
fund conflict.
But it is in the surprisingly evenhanded historical accounts of the diamond trade and politics in Angola,
Liberia, Sierra Leone, and the DRC that
Smillies measured analysis and historical knowledge comes into its own. In
these chapters, the reader is taken deep
into the sordid tales of African history
since independence. From the De
Beersfunded International Diamond
Security Organisation in West Africa
during the 1950s to the shadowy 1980s
terrorist training camps in Libya, the
training grounds for the perpetrators of
the madness that gripped Sierra Leone
and Liberia in the 1990s, Smillie paints

a grim picture of the damage wreaked
by the sale of diamonds.
Any consumer who has recently
purchased a diamond will learn that
there is a 60% chance it came from
Africa, and a 90% chance it traveled
to the cutting centers of both Antwerp
and India. They will also learn that
before the 2003 implementation of the
Kimberley Process Certification
Scheme (KPCS), one out of four diamonds were at some point likely
stolen, illegally mined, or used to
launder money or evade taxes.
The book ends with a discussion
of how the NGOs forced the diamond
industry to accept responsibility for
the problems occurring in Africa and
their search for a solution. The
drawn-out negotiations and politicking between governments, industry
representatives, and NGOs to establish the KPCS makes for compelling
reading. It took a dozen meetings
between May 2000 and November
2002 to set up an international certification system for rough diamonds,
which was launched in January 2003.
Yet Smillie is critical of the current state of the KPCS and argues that
it will fail unless it can deal decisively
and effectively with new problems as
they arise. What the author does not
discuss is the fact that he himself
resigned from involvement in the
scheme in May 2009. He is now active
with the Diamond Development
Initiative, which seeks to redress
some of the imbalances caused by the
global trade in diamonds.
Smillies skill is the ability to
write a scholarly record of the circumstances that created conflict diamonds
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
S1
while also providing an entertaining,

fast-paced read full of intrigue. It is
unfortunate, then, that the book
lacked the attention of an experienced
editor. Each of the 13 chapters feels
self-contained, and consequently there
is considerable overlap between them,
at times almost verbatim.
Blood on the Stone will be welcomed by anyone interested in Africa,
corporate social responsibility, and
geopolitics. Though a troubling book
for many in the jewelry trade, it provides an important lesson for those
keen to learn more about the topical
issue of accountability and traceability
of the product they sell. As the author
points out, the diamond trade is disjointed. It portrays the romance and
beauty of diamonds from gleaming
showcases in major cities. Yet the
product often starts its journey in an
alluvial river bend in West Africa,
where ownership is often fleeting and
dangerous, and never forever.
EDWARD JOHNSON
GIA London
Jewellery in the Age of

Queen Victoria:
A Mirror to the World
By Charlotte Gere and Judy Rudoe,
552 pp., illus., publ. by The British
Museum Press [www.britishmuseum
shoponline.org], London, 2010. 50.00
This book is a welcome addition to
the literature on 19th century jewelry.
The authors have done a remarkable
job of interpreting how jewelry was
designed and worn during this prosperous age. Rather than presenting the
subject in a strictly chronological
manner or by describing the work of
individual jewelers, their approach is
to identify the cultural and emotional
significance of jewelry in Victorian
society.
I must warn you that nothing
about this work is lightweight. It is a
heavy book, literally and figuratively.
There is no cozy reading in bed with
this tomeit requires a library table
to support its weight! Gere and Rudoe
have done exhaustive research on
S2
BOOK REVIEWS
every cultural aspect that might have

had any bearing on Victorian jewelry,
as is evident in the six-page bibliography and 33 pages of footnotes. Keep a
bookmark placed in the footnotes as
you read each chapter, as they contain
many tidbits of additional information you wont want to miss.
The book is also heavily illustrated
with images of jewelry, portraits (both
rendered and photographic), as well as
newspaper articles and jewelry advertisements. Be sure to read all the captions, as they provide valuable information to support the text. Happily,
the authors have a light touch, making the book enjoyable and absorbing.
Ten chapters focus on the various
cultural influences of the era. The
first chapter, by far the longest, is an
overview of Queen Victorias life
(18191901). It shows how jewelry
fashion and styles were influenced by
her coronation, her marriage to Prince
Albert, the birth of her children, the
tragedy of her husbands early death,
her 40-year widowhood, and her management of a burgeoning empire.
The next four chapters address
social factors of jewelry design. Gere
and Rudoe explore the role jewelry
played in public and private life as
dictated by etiquette (jewelry appropriate for wear during the stages of
mourning, for example), and how jewelry interacted with the prevailing
clothing fashions. The authors decipher the hidden messages jewelry carried during this sentimental age, as
well as the fascination with novelty
that pervaded the 19th century and
how this was manifested in jewelry.
Chapter 6, Britain and the World,
underscores the enormous impact of
the International Exhibitions. From the
first Great International Exhibition in
London in 1853 to the Paris Exposition
of 1900, these extraordinary events
introduced art and artifacts from India,
the Islamic world, China, and Japan to
Europe and the West. This cultural
integration had a profound effect on
jewelry design and manufacture.
The wide range of historical and
archeological revival styles are covered
next. The authors do a great service by
neatly categorizing the different influences, as they are often intermingled

in a single piece of jewelry. Gothic and
Renaissance revival styles are deciphered in chapter 7, followed by the
different motifs that emerged from
archeological discoveries in Egypt,
Italy, Greece, Ireland, and Scandinavia.
Cameosarguably the quintessential jewel of the Victorian eraare
examined in chapter 9. We learn why
these mini-sculptures in hardstone
and shell were so highly prized. The
final chapter is devoted to the various
types of souvenir jewelry brought back
from travels abroad. These include
painted enamels from Switzerland;
Italian pietra dura, micromosaics, and
carved coral; and delicate ivory carvings from Germany.
It is important to understand that
Jewellery in the Age of Queen Victoria deals with the jewelry worn by
royalty and the very wealthy. Jewelry
of the Arts & Crafts movement and
Art Nouveau style were not favored
by the Victorian elite, so readers
should not be surprised that these are
not mentioned. Gere and Rudoe have
masterfully interwoven the cultural
influences of the age into a marvelous
and colorful tapestry, providing a
clearer understanding of why fine jewelry took the forms that it did during
Queen Victorias reign.
ELISE B. MISIOROWSKI
Exhibit Curator
All That Glitters:
The Splendor and Science of
Gems and Minerals
San Diego Natural History Museum
Amethyst Uruguay
By Reinhard Balzer, 304 pp., illus.,
publ. by Christian Weise Verlag
[www.lapis.de], Munich, 2009. US$65
This is a well-written historical
account of how the gem cutting
industry in IdarOberstein, Germany,
fueled the mining and trading of
agates in South America during the
early 19th century. The promise of
land and new resources was the driving force that led German families in
the gem cutting business to settle in
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
South America.
The author supports the historical
information by reproducing original
letters between German miners in
South America and their families in
Idar-Oberstein, which offers a very
real connection with these early miners. Overall, the book is thorough in
both the information presented and
the period photography. The text reads
well, though the dual-language
German-English format makes the
book rather bulky. The highlight for
this reviewer lies in the photos of the
modern mining areas, as well as the
amethyst specimens, which are nothing short of spectacular. The quality of
the photography reveals tremendous
detail. The final chapter showcasing
these specimens leaves little room for
the imagination, painting a vivid picture of the treasures these early miners would likely have discovered.
While the history and lore of a
mining area contributes to the value of
many gems, amethyst is not typically
considered one of them. Nevertheless,
this book makes a noteworthy attempt
to give the reader a deeper understanding and appreciation for this material
and its rich history in Uruguay.
Overall, this book is recommended for anyone interested in gems and
their history, and it is an essential
read for those with particular interest
in amethyst.
NATHAN RENFRO
GIA Laboratory
Carlsbad, California
The Fancy Color Diamond

Book: Facts & Secrets of
Trading in Rarities
By Eden Rachminov, 231 pp., illus.,
publ. by Diamond Odyssey
[www.diamondodyssey.org],
Tel Aviv, 2009. US$215.00
This attractive book by third-generation gem dealer Eden Rachminov was
created for fancy-color diamond enthusiasts and trade professionals. Filled
with photos of rough and faceted colored diamonds, it offers a wealth of
information. Nine chapters cover diamond colors, cuts, and shapes; how to
BOOK REVIEWS
read a diamond grading report; diamond trade nicknames (e.g., traditional terms such as cape, canary, etc.);
treated diamonds; and diamond formation. The books structure closely follows the GIA diamond grading course
and applies it to colored diamonds.
One of the books merits is that it
impresses on the reader the rarity of
fancy-color diamonds. It also reinforces the basic principles that govern
diamond cut, shape, and grading. The
inclusion photomicrographs deserve
special mention for their quality. The
book clearly compares the color grading process for near-colorless diamonds to that for fancy-color diamonds (with the latter far more complex), and presents color reference
charts for yellows, pinks, and blues.
Through simple scientific explanations, it also presents a brief overview
of color origin in diamonds.
Unfortunately, because the colors
in the charts are represented in the
purest hues, the reader cannot appreciate the subtle nuances that give colored
diamonds their distinctiveness and are
critical to appreciating their rarity and
value. For instance, a very pale colored
diamond might be much more valuable
than one of greater intensity if its hue is
more desirable. Colored diamond hues,
saturations, and tone are very specific.
Rachminov does a superb job, however,
of covering the vast palette, including
the rarely featured chameleon, gray,
brown, and black varieties. While the
book includes an overview of treated
diamonds, the lack of scientific explanation or photos in this section makes
it difficult to grasp the complexities of
diamond enhancements.
One of the books greatest
strengths is that it addresses (from a
dealers perspective) one of the most
frequently asked questions: Which
colors are the rarest and most expensive? Another is the value scale comparison for each of the different colors
of colored diamonds, though it is disappointing that the prices are quoted
in broad generalities, despite publicly
available auction results. Additionally,
the book gives an interesting answer
to the important question of which
color intensity is most valuable: deep,
intense, or dark? The author emphasizes very clearly the importance of

cut and openly explains the factwell
known in the tradethat fancy shapes
help lengthen the light rays within the
stones and make colors look more
intense. Therefore, traditional shapes
are rarer and more valuable for colored
diamonds. The author further explains
that blue fluorescence has far less
impact on a colored diamond than on
a colorless one. The reader will learn
how to read a diamond report, which
information is the most important,
and which is a potential deal-breaker.
Fancy-color diamonds are not for
everyone, but for those who do their
homework and choose selectively,
they are prized possessions. With its
lavish illustrations on a variety of
subjects, the book delivers a complete
overview of colored diamonds, one
that will stimulate further interest in
this fascinating topic.
DELPHINE A. LEBLANC
Hoboken, New Jersey
OTHER BOOKS RECEIVED

Agates and Jaspers. By Ron Gibbs, 239
pp., illus., publ. by theimage.com
[www.theimagebooks.com], Wedington, NC, 2009, US$40.00. This comprehensive, meticulously photographed
work sets out to be a complete guide to
agates and succeeds admirably. Agate
formation, properties, structure, and
identification are reviewed in detail,
with more than 1,000 photos and diagrams describing the structural features
of agates and jaspers.
TWO
Minerals & Precious Stones of Brazil.
By Carlos Cornejo and Andrea Bartorelli, 704 pp., illus., publ. by Solaris
[www.solariseditora.com.br], So
Paulo, Brazil, 2010, R$148.00. This
massive volume presents a comprehensive historical and iconographic
review of Brazils minerals and precious stones. In addition to a detailed
history of Brazilian gems, it provides a
photographic record of the most
important specimens of beryl, tourmaline, garnet, topaz, amethyst, and diamond, among others.
TWO
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
S3
EDITORS
Brendan M. Laurs
Thomas W. Overton
GIA, Carlsbad
REVIEW BOARD
Edward R. Blomgren
Owls Head, New York
Annette Buckley
Austin, Texas
Jo Ellen Cole
Vista, California
R. A. Howie
Royal Holloway, University of London
Edward Johnson
GIA, London
Michele Kelley
Monmouth Beach, New Jersey
Guy Lalous
Academy for Mineralogy, Antwerp, Belgium
Kyaw Soe Moe
GIA Laboratory, New York
Keith A. Mychaluk
Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Joshua Sheby
New York, New York
James E. Shigley
GIA Research, Carlsbad
COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Appearance of new bead material in cultured pearls. H. A.
Hnni [info@gemexpert.ch], M. S. Krzemnicki, and L.
Cartier, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 32, No. 14, 2010,
pp. 3137.
Following a brief description of conventional shell beads and
unusual materials recently used for culturing pearls, the
authors describe the feasibility, characterization, and detection
of Chinese freshwater cultured pearls (CFCPs) used to nucleate
pearls in oysters. Some other unusual bead materials include
bironite and pressed barium sulfate. One new technique utilizes irregularly shaped shell beads to produce baroque South
Sea cultured pearls. Radiographs of the latter reveal the nature
of the shell core, making them easily identifiable.
As traditional bead materials become less viable due to cost
and scarcity, the abundance of nearly round CFCPs offers a possible alternative for pearl culturing. To study the methods
effectiveness and the identifying characteristics of the resulting
cultured pearls, the authors nucleated 200 Pinctada maxima
and 200 Pinctada margaritifera oysters with 6.5 mm CFCPs.
They found that the rejection rate was slightly lower than for
shell beads, and that CFCPs larger than 9 mm could be used in
a second nucleation. The cultured pearls were harvested after
13 months and compared with conventionally produced samples by slicing to reveal cross sections and also using microtomography and conventional radiography. Features typical of
CFCPssuch as a complex central cavity, undulating hairlines, and fine fissures between layerscan be used to readily
identify these cultured pearls. The advantages of CFCPs over
Russell Shor
GIA, Carlsbad
Elise A. Skalwold
Ithaca, New York
Jennifer Stone-Sundberg
Portland, Oregon
Rolf Tatje
Duisburg, Germany
Dennis A. Zwigart
State College, Pennsylvania
S4
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
This section is designed to provide as complete a record as

practical of the recent literature on gems and gemology. Articles
are selected for abstracting solely at the discretion of the section
editors and their abstractors, and space limitations may require
that we include only those articles that we feel will be of greatest
interest to our readership.
Requests for reprints of articles abstracted must be addressed to
the author or publisher of the original material.
The abstractor of each article is identified by his or her initials at
the end of each abstract. Guest abstractors are identified by their
full names. Opinions expressed in an abstract belong to the abstractor and in no way reflect the position of Gems & Gemology or GIA.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
shell beads include abundance and ease of drilling, but the

comparative costs will determine whether they become
the preferred bead material.
Much more difficult to identify are samples produced
using low-quality natural pearls as beads.
EAS
Boron and lithium isotopic compositions as provenance
indicators of Cu-bearing tourmalines. B. M. Shabaga,
M. Fayek [fayek@cc.umanitoba.ca], and F. C.
Hawthorne, Mineralogical Magazine, Vol. 74, No. 2,
2010, pp. 241245.
Eight samples of Cu-bearing tourmaline were analyzed for
this study: four from Paraba State, Brazil; two from
Nigeria; and two from Mozambique. Electron microprobe
analysis revealed that the samples had similar chemical
compositions and were classified as fluor-elbaite.
Secondary-ion mass spectrometry (SIMS) was used to measure the stable isotopes of B and Li to develop criteria to
distinguish their origin and identify the source of fluids
that precipitated these tourmalines.
The 11B values of the tourmaline from Paraba ranged
from 42.4 to 32.9, while the values of the samples
from Nigeria and Mozambique ranged from 30.5
to 22.7 and 20.8 to 19.1, respectively. The 11B values were relatively homogeneous and displayed no overlap. There was some overlap in the 7Li values in samples
from the three localities. Nevertheless, Cu-bearing tourmalines from each locality could be fingerprinted by their
combination of 11B and 7Li values.
The very low 11B values are among the lowest reported for magmatic systems, expanding the global range of B
isotopic composition for tourmaline by 12. The corresponding 7Li values +24.5+46.8 are among the highest
reported, though they are less diagnostic of the Li source.
The combination of high 7Li values and low 11B values
suggests a nonmarine evaporite or brine as the source for Li
and B, either as constituents of the magma source region or
through assimilation during magma ascent. The wide range
in 11B and 7Li values suggests that B and Li isotope fractionation occurred during magmatic degassing and latestage magmatic-hydrothermal evolution of the granitic
pegmatite systems that produced these tourmalines.
GL
The formation of agate structures: Models for silica transport, agate layer accretion, and for flow patterns and
flow regimes in infiltration channels. E. Walger, G.
Mattheb, V. V. Seckendorff [volker.von_seckendorff@
uni-wuerzburg.de], and F. Liebau, Neues Jahrbuch
fr Mineralogie, Abhandlungen, Vol. 186, No. 2,
2009, pp. 113152.
An agate may contain one or more of three different structures: common agate banding, horizontal layering, and/or
infiltration channel banding. Common agate banding is a
three-dimensional layered structure, with each layer mea-
suring a few microns thick. This structure can be formed

by either an externally controlled accumulation process or
an internally controlled differentiation process. Horizontal
layering features parallel layers that can be quite extensive. Infiltration channel banding develops in a cavity that
has been lined by layers of common agate banding. An
infiltration channel is formed by fluid (silica) jets, which
enter through one or more capillary fissures that penetrate
the first layer of silica gel lining the inner surface of the
cavity. Occasionally, the capillary fissure may be filled
with non-silica minerals such as barite and calcite.
The authors propose a new model for agate formation
that explains these three structures through water
molecule cluster size, Brownian motion and limiting
velocity, the penetration depth of the silica jet, and the
duration of the cavity-filling process. Syneresis or aging
(i.e., spontaneous dehydration, crystallization, and shrinking) occurs immediately after the formation of the first
layer of silica gel (composed of disorderly packed spheres)
in the cavity. This is followed by the supply of silica from
the host rock. A relaxation mechanism is essential to
achieving the typical agate texture of multiple silica (chalcedony) layers. This mechanism also controls the thickness of each layer. The agate structure can be formed
either with an infiltration channel (by injection) or without one (by a direct process).
The rate of silica transport can be measured by the
ratio of total surface area of the innermost active silica
layer and the cross-sectional area of the capillary fissure.
This ratio increases as the cavity becomes larger. Thus,
the time needed for silica gel to fill a large cavity or a
small one may be about the same. Silica gel starts to precipitate when it reaches the minimum level of supersaturation. Non-silica minerals as precursors of agate formation or as part of the agate structure suggest that the silica
supply also contains other mobile chemical species from
the host rock. Thin sections show that silica fibers in the
agate layers always form perpendicular to the growth surface, though they appear to be deformed. The calculated
duration of agate formation ranged from a few hundred to
more than 10,000 years.
KSM
Real hiddenite and real names. R. C. Tacker [christopher.tacker@ncdenr.gov], Rocks & Minerals, Vol.
85, No. 3, 2010, pp. 264268.
Named in honor of William Earl Hidden, who documented specimens in North Carolina during the late 1800s, the
Cr-bearing green spodumene known as hiddenite is also
found in the Tuva Republic of Siberia; Kabbur, India; and
Minas Gerais, Brazil. Some controversy surrounds the
varietal name, since J. A. D. Stephenson described green
spodumene from North Carolina prior to Hidden. While
the International Mineralogical Association does not differentiate the variety names hiddenite and kunzite from
spodumene, CIBJO recognizes hiddenite as green spodumene that owes its color to chromium.
EAS
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
S5
Spessartin: Von Sammlerstein zum Topseller [Spessartine

garnet: From collector stone to top seller]. C. C.
Milisenda [info@gemcertificate.com], T. Lind, and
U. Henn, Gemmologie: Zeitschrift der Deutschen
Gemmologische Gesellschaft, Vol. 59, No. 12,
2010, pp. 318 [in German].
Named after the Spessart Mountains of northwestern
Bavaria, spessartine (Mn3Al2SiO4) is an orange garnet that
is sometimes known as Mandarin garnet in the trade.
Production has always been erratic, and there are only a
handful of traditional sources: Amelia, Virginia; Ramona,
California; Minas Gerais, Brazil; Sri Lanka; and various
locations in Africa. Because of their scarcity, these garnets
were traditionally collectors stones.
In 1992, a new occurrence was discovered in Namibia,
followed a year later by a discovery in the Neelum Valley
of Azad Kashmir. Spessartines emerged from Nigeria in
1998 and from Tanzania in 2007. The stones from
Namibia and Tanzania are predominantly spessartinepyrope garnets, with Tanzanian stones having a higher
pyrope content. Samples from Azad Kashmir and Ramona
are spessartine-almandine. Nigerian samples commonly
have a high spessartine content, up to 95 mol.%, and
varying traces of pyrope and almandine. The supply has
dwindled in recent years, a trend that could return the
gem to collector status.
GL
DIAMONDS
Diamond formation in the deep mantle: The record of
mineral inclusions and their distribution in relation to mantle dehydration zones. B. Harte
[ben.harte@ed.ac.uk], Mineralogical Magazine, Vol.
74, No. 2, 2010, pp. 189215.
As natural diamonds are believed to crystallize in fluids/melts, the author proposes that diamonds and inclusions of particular compositions are restricted to two
depth intervals (the lower asthenosphere and upper transition zone, and the upper/lower mantle) because they
are controlled by locations of fluid/melt occurrence.
Explanations for the depth restrictions and compositional restrictions of diamond inclusions are explored. The
author gives a lengthy overview of past research related
to diamonds, their inclusions, and mantle xenoliths
formed in the diamond stability field in the earths mantle lithosphere. A comparison of the inclusions and associations found in diamonds with experimentally determined silicate assemblages to depths of ~800 km shows a
close correspondence between the data. The formation of
mafic and ultramafic deep-mantle rocks and their diamonds is associated with subduction zones, where dehydration reactions occurred in subducted material or at
the subduction interface.
EAS
S6
Diamonds through time. J. J. Gurney [john.gurney@minserv.

co.za], H. H. Helmstaedt, S. H. Richardson, and S. B.
Shirey, Economic Geology, Vol. 105, No. 3, 2010,
pp. 689712.
The vast majority of gem diamonds formed during episodic events in the lithospheric mantle beneath continental
cratons and were transported to the surface during a span
from at least the Archean to the Phanerozoic. Harzburgite
and eclogite are important diamond source rocks in the
mantle. Most diamonds formed 13 billion years ago, and
geologic evidence suggests that they spent long periods in
the mantle before being transported to the earths surface.
There is also evidence that during these periods, the crystals underwent partial resorption and recrystallization.
With improved methods of isotope analysis, diamond formation ages can now be correlated with processes in the
upper mantle such as craton accretion and craton edge
subduction.
JES
Lithoprobes impact on the Canadian diamond-exploration industry. D. B. Snyder [dsnyder@nrcan.gc.ca]
and H. S. Grtter, Canadian Journal of Earth
Sciences, Vol. 47, No. 5, 2010, pp. 783800.
Lithoprobe is a Canadian national research project established in 1984 to better understand the evolution of the
northern part of North America. Using geologic and geophysical methods, Lithoprobe has demonstrated the very
different geologic settings for the parageneses of peridotitic
and eclogitic diamonds found across Canada. On a regional
scale, seismic methods have delineated many of the oldest
cratonic mantle blocks, as well as associated Archean and
Proterozoic suture zones, where larger percentages of diamondiferous eclogites may occur. On a local scale, geophysical surveys have resulted in high-resolution (meterscale) mapping of diamond-bearing kimberlite pipes and
shallow-dipping dikes, allowing more precise volume estimation and more efficient mining.
JES
GEM LOCALITIES
The alluvial sapphire profiles of Mayo Kewol placer in the
Adamawa region (North-Cameroon): Granulometric
and mineralogical features. M. L. Boaka Koul
[boakami@yahoo.fr], R. Yongue-Fouateu, and P.-D.
Ndjigui, Journal of African Earth Sciences, Vol. 56,
No. 2/3, 2010, pp. 121126.
Blue sapphires, along with other gems and heavy minerals,
have been found in alluvial placers in several areas of
Cameroon. The Mayo Kewol (Kewol River) placer covers
an ~170 km2 area in the western portion of Adamawa
Province. Based on sediment samples and profiles, the gem
minerals were found to occur along several horizons within the alluvial sequence. The authors were able to recognize several populations of sapphires based on their crystal
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
shape and degree of abrasion (indicated by roundness).

Sapphires could not be found in any rocks exposed in the
study area, so their primary source is unknown.
JES
Andradite from Antetezambato, north Madagascar. F.
Pezzotta [fpezzotta@yahoo.com], Mineralogical
Record, Vol. 41, MayJune 2010, pp. 209229.
In 2006, spectacular demantoid and topazolite (andradite)
crystals on matrix were found in northern Madagascar.
The location of the andradite occurrencein a mangrove
swamp subject to tidal surgesmakes it difficult to
extract the gem material, but the quality is very high.
Initially identified as tourmaline, zircon, or sapphire, the
green crystals were properly identified by the University of
Nantes as demantoid.
JEC
Demantoid und Topazolith aus Antetezambato,
Nordmadagaskar [Demantoid and topazolite from
Antetezambato, northern Madagascar]. F. Pezzotta
[fpezzotta@yahoo.com], Lapis, Vol. 35, No. 10, 2010,
pp. 3139, 90 [in German]; Eine Reise zu den Demantoiden von Antetezambato [A travel to the demantoids of Antetezambato]. J. Hintze [jentschmineral@
aol.com], Lapis, Vol. 35, No. 10, 2010, pp. 4043 [in
German].
These two articles provide an update on the demantoid
deposit at Antetezambato. The mining rush of 2009 is
clearly over, and almost all the diggers have moved to a
new gold deposit. Consequently, the production and quality of the demantoid have dropped, while prices have
increased. Many specimens offered for sale are manufactured fakes.
RT
Conditions for Early Cretaceous emerald formation at
Dyakou, China: Fluid inclusion, Ar-Ar, and stable
isotope studies. G. Xue, D. Marshall [marshall@
sfu.ca], S. Zhang, T. D. Ullrich, T. Bishop, L. A.
Groat, D. J. Thorkelson, G. Giuliani, and A. E.
Fallick, Economic Geology, Vol. 105, No. 2, 2010,
pp. 339349.
In 1992, prospectors accidentally discovered emeralds near
the Chinese village of Dyakou, in southeastern Yunnan
Province near the border with Vietnam. The emeralds
occur in quartz and quartz-pegmatite veins that intrude
deformed metamorphic rocks (granofels and schists) of
Proterozoic age. Ar-Ar dating of micas in the veins indicates they are of Cretaceous age (124 1 million years).
Oxygen isotope data suggest that vein formation occurred
at temperatures of 365420C and pressures of 1.53.3
kbar. The Be- and Cr-rich fluids that produced the emeralds resulted from the intrusion of evolved granitic magmas into the metamorphic rocks.
JES
Le district minier tsavorite de Lemshuku, Tanzanie

[The tsavorite mining district of Lemshuku,
Tanzania]. J. Feneyrol, G. Giuliani, D. Ohnenstetter, M. Saul, E. Saul, and J. M. Saul, Revue de
Gemmologie, No. 172, 2010, pp. 1122 [in French].
Tsavorite [Ca2Al3(SiO4)] is a vanadium-bearing green
grossular garnet discovered in the late 1960s by Campbell
Bridges near Komolo in northeastern Tanzania. It has
since been found elsewhere in Tanzania and in Kenya,
Madagascar, Pakistan, and Antarctica. The three Tanzanian deposits lie in the Lelatema Fold Belt at Merelani,
Namalulu, and Lemshuku.
At Lemshuku, two types of mineralization have been
recognized: (1) primary deposits in graphitic gneiss, where
tsavorite occurs in quartz-bearing veins associated with
graphite and pyrite; and (2) a secondary deposit in an alluvial basin. Mechanized mining of the Lemshuku placer
produces 12 g per day, with stones ranging from 0.5 to 3
cm. The hues vary from yellow-green to dark green; the
intensity of the color corresponds to the vanadium and
chromium content. No treatment is needed to enhance
color or clarity.
GL
Estrazione di granato grossularia (var. essonite) a
Kamburupitiya, Sri-Lanka [Mining of grossularite
garnet (variety hessonite) at Kamburupitiya, Sri
Lanka]. F. Troilo and E. Costa, Rivista Gemmologica Italiana, Vol. 4, No. 3, 2009, pp. 165174 [in
Italian].
Sri Lanka is a leading producer of hessonite, almost all of it
coming from a mine at Kamburupitiya about 60 km north
of Matara. The authors visited a typical small-scale mine
in that area with a shaft extending 25 m down to the gembearing gravels. Because the deposit is eluvial, the hessonites occur mainly as fragments. Cuttable pieces generally weigh 25 g, but 50 g stones also have been recovered.
The material goes directly to the cutter, and very few
rough stones are available. The hessonites from Kamburupitiya are relatively pure grossular, with an andradite component of ~10%. Typical inclusions are apatite and possibly calcite.
RT
Gem-quality transparent
. diaspore (Zultanite) in bauxite
deposits of the Ilbir Mountains, Menderes Massif,
SW Turkey. M. Hatipog lu [murat.hatipoglu@
deu.edu.tr], N. Trk, S. C. Chamberlain, and A. M.
Akgn, Mineralium Deposita, Vol. 45, No. 2, 2010,
pp. 201205.
Yellowish green transparent diaspore crystals occur within
two metamorphosed
bauxite horizons in bedded marbles
.
of the Ilbir Mountains in southwest Turkey. The horizons
are several meters thick. The diaspore crystals typically
display a tabular habit and dovetail contact twinning,
and some show color-change behavior under different
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
S7
lighting. Their average length is 5 cm, but crystals up to 35

cm have been found. They occur (along with muscovite,
hematite, ilmenite, chloritoid, and calcite) in small open
spaces within fracture zones that crosscut the bauxite
horizons. Diaspore and the associated minerals formed by
hydrothermal remobilization of chemical components
from the bauxite horizons. The diaspore from this locality
is marketed as Zultanite.
JES
Petrography and chemistry of SiO2 filling phases in the
amethyst geodes from the Serra Geral Formation
deposit, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. A. ComminFischer, G. Berger [berger@lmtg.obs-mip.fr], M.
Polv, M. Dubois, P. Sardini, D. Beaufort, and M.
Formoso, Journal of South American Earth Sciences,
Vol. 29, No. 3, 2010, pp. 751760.
Important sources of amethyst in the form of crystal-filled
geodes and crystal-lined fractures are found in basalts of
Rio Grande do Sul State in Brazil and in areas of neighboring Uruguay. The amethyst typically occurs with chalcedony and colorless quartz. Textural relationships and
trace-element data suggest that these three phases formed
in a single growth event at temperatures below 100C.
The host basalt or an underlying sandstone formation are
considered possible sources of silica that was mobilized
into a mineralizing fluid by a regional hydrothermal event.
Silica precipitation occurred in open spaces in the basalt
upon cooling and oxidation of this percolating fluid, first
as chalcedony and then as colorless quartz. Over time, the
fluids silica content decreased, with amethyst forming
during the final oxidizing stage of geode mineralization.
JES
Spinels from Ywathit deposit, Kayah State, Myanmar. U
T. Hlaing, [p.tinhlaing@gmail.com], W. Atichat, and
C. Sutthirat, Australian Gemmologist, Vol. 24, No.
3, 2010, pp. 6163.
Pink, red, and orange spinel occurs in alluvial deposits
near Ywathit in eastern Myanmar. Most of the pieces
range from 1.0 to 2.5 cm; the larger stones (up to 6 g) are
waterworn and have pitted and etched faces. Eight electron microprobe analyses demonstrated that they are
almost pure spinel, with only minor amounts of Fe and
Zn. Their inclusions consist of partially healed fractures,
dark clouds, and some crystallites.
RAH
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

EDXRF quantitative analysis of chromophore chemical
elements in corundum samples. L. Bonizzoni, A.
Galli [anna.galli@mater.unimib.it], G. Spinolo, and
V. Palanza, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 395, 2009, pp. 20212027.
In recent decades, a considerable amount of research has
S8
dealt with the physicochemical causes of different colors

of corundum. Much of it focused on optical absorption
studies of corundum from various geographic origins, natural and synthetic, treated and untreated. The attribution
of some of the absorption bands is still a matter of debate.
This study examines the absorption bands in the NIR and
visible ranges that do not involve intervalence-chargetransfer transitions (Fe2+Fe3+ and Fe2+Ti4+), commonly
thought to be responsible for blue color in sapphire.
EDXRF analysis revealed the presence of Cr, Ti, Fe, V,
and Ga in the corundum samples, in percentages that
depend on the samples characteristics (color, provenance,
and origin). The data were compared to the results
obtained by techniques such as optical absorption photoluminescence, not only for the correct attribution of some
absorption bands, but also to match the luminescence and
absorption spectra and their relative intensities in a semiquantitative manner. This matched interpretation may be
performed by taking into account the ion concentrations
in the corundum structure, the spectral location and the
probability of the induced absorption, and spontaneous
emission processes in the samples.
ERB
Towards the differentiation of non-treated and treated
corundum minerals by ion-beam-induced luminescence and other complementary techniques. H.
Calvo del Castillo [hcalvo@ulg.ac.be], N. Deprez, T.
Dupuis, F. Mathis, A. Deneckere, P. Vandenabeele,
T. Caldern, and D. Strivay, Analytical and
Bioanalytical Chemistry, Vol. 394, 2009, pp.
10431058.
A set of 78 red, pink, and yellow rough and faceted corundums of known origin, both treated and untreated, were
examined by ion-beam-induced luminescence (IBIL, or
ionoluminescence), micro-Raman spectroscopy, protoninduced X-ray emission (PIXE), and proton-induced
gamma-ray emission (PIGE) to explore new methods for
separating treated and untreated corundum. PIXE elemental concentrations showed enriched calcium and lead,
which in some cases could be linked to treatment with
fluxes or lead oxide. This technique was useful in detecting lead glassfilling treatment. Based on the concentrations of chromium and iron, it was possible to distinguish
various origins for the different groups of samples. Raman
spectroscopy corroborated PIXE analysis in detecting lead
oxides.
IBIL could differentiate treated and untreated samples
of the same type by their luminescence features. MicroRaman and PIXE were complementary techniques that
worked well for the samples containing lead glass, though
neither conventional heating nor beryllium treatment
could be identified without IBIL. PIGE could not detect
beryllium due to the low cross section of the nuclear reaction chosen for Be identification.
ERB
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
X-ray fluorescence analyzers: Science fiction comes to life

in this handheld device. S. Voynick, Rock & Gem,
Vol. 40, No. 9, 2010, pp. 2028.
When X-rays bombard atoms, certain electrons become
energized; when the atoms return to their normal state,
these electrons release their excess energy as secondary or
fluorescent X-rays. Handheld X-ray fluorescence (XRF)
analyzers began appearing in the mid-1990s, and continued refinement has produced the remarkable instruments
in use today. Lightweight handheld models such as the
Thermo Scientific Niton XL3t analyzer have recently
become available. The nondestructive analysis requires
only a few seconds and provides both laboratory-grade
accuracy and a permanent data record. The instrument is
configured specifically for geochemical analysis and can
identify 29 elements selected for their importance in general mining and mineral exploration. It can analyze minerals, ores, and drill-hole samples; monitor ore grades in
working mines; and measure the elemental compositions
of mill tailings, mill concentrates, and smelter products.
One drawback is the cost: Because of the research and
development expenses and the low volume of instruments
produced, the Niton XL3t analyzer sells for $42,000.
GL
JEWELRY RETAILING
Female empowerment gathers pace as self-purchases continue to rise. New York Diamonds, Vol. 118, May
2010, pp. 2226.
As women command higher salaries and seek jewelry that
reflects their lifestyle and personality, female self-purchasing has become a trend. Analysts believe the trend started
last decade with the De Beers ad campaign for the righthand ring. Powerful female politicians and entertainers
have also influenced the self-purchase market. Because
women self-purchase for many reasons and through many
venues, it is difficult to assess the value of this market. But
given its annual growth of around 20%, the jewelry industry should develop more marketing programs aimed at
women.
MK
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

A different kind of composite. G. Choudhary [gtl@gjepindia.com], Gems & Jewellery, Vol. 19, No. 1, 2010,
pp. 1012.
Two unusual composite gems were submitted to the
Gem Testing Laboratory of India. Presumably fashioned
to simulate emerald, the specimens had a moderate to
highly saturated green color. Microscopic examination
revealed inclusions found in natural emeralds, as well as
flattened gas bubbles visible near the pavilion. Diffused
light and immersion in bromoform showed areas of vary-
ing saturation on the pavilion facets that followed the

profile of the stone, along with pale yellow junctions and
a nearly colorless central region. A chalky blue UV fluorescence reaction along the yellow junctions appeared to
indicate glue. Gemological properties confirmed beryl at
the center (table), surrounded by pieces of glass attached
to the pavilion. While careful observation revealed the
nature of these composites, they could be difficult to
detect in a mixed parcel.
EAS
New data for distinguishing between hydrothermal synthetic, flux synthetic and natural corundum. A. S.
Bidny [alexei.bidny@gmail.com], O. S. Dolgova, I. A.
Baksheev, and I. A. Ekimenkova, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 32, No. 14, 2010, pp. 713.
To provide more-reliable criteria for distinguishing natural
and synthetic (flux and hydrothermally grown) corundum,
excitation spectroscopy and oxygen-isotope analysis were
used to study 35 samples. The natural corundum was from
Russia, Madagascar, Tanzania, and Vietnam, and the synthetic samples were from various laboratories. Photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy revealed a 290 nm excitation band in synthetic rubies, but not in natural samples.
UV-Vis absorption spectroscopy showed a narrow band at
342 nm in flux-grown corundum but not in natural or
hydrothermally grown samples. FTIR spectra showing socalled water bands related to OH complexes were distinctly different in natural and hydrothermal samples and altogether absent from flux-grown material. EDXRF data
showed varying proportions of chromium, iron, and gallium impurities in samples from different laboratories and
geographic localities. Although isotopic analysis is
destructive, this technique could identify synthetic corundum and also help determine the type of deposit from
which natural material was obtained. The technique even
showed potential for determining geographic origin of
samples from various Russian localities representing
igneous, skarn, hydrothermal, and metamorphic deposits.
The oxygen-isotope values reflected the source compositions of the water involved in their crystallization; anomalous results for samples from Khitostrovskoye were
believed to be the result of contamination by meteoric
water, which was negligible in samples from the other
localities.
EAS
Recent advances in high-growth rate single-crystal CVD
diamond. Q. Liang [qliang@ciw.edu], C. Yan, Y.
Meng, J. Lai, S. Krasnicki, H. Mao, and R. J.
Hemley, Diamond and Related Materials, Vol. 18,
2009, pp. 698703.
The authors employed microwave plasma chemical
vapor deposition (MPCVD) with varying atmospheres to
grow thick films of high-quality synthetic diamond at
elevated rates of 40100 m/hr. Post-growth treatments
enhanced the crystals mechanical, optical, and electrical
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
S9
properties. The synthetic diamonds were characterized

using an array of techniques, including electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), photoluminescence, and ultraviolet, visible, infrared, and Raman spectroscopy. The
authors also used Vickers indentation to test the
mechanical properties and SIMS analysis to measure
nitrogen impurity contents.
Near-colorless and flawless single-crystal CVD synthetic diamonds up to 2 ct were grown; these were difficult to distinguish from natural type IIa diamond. To
enhance their mechanical properties, samples with higher
nitrogen content were grown and subsequently treated by
high-pressure, high-temperature annealing at 2000C and
57 GPa pressure for 10 minutes. These treated synthetics
were found to be harder and tougher than natural diamonds. Finally, low-pressure, high-temperature (LPHT)
treatments were performed to produce more transparent
and colorless crystals. Significantly, the samples that
were free of visible inclusions had a lower tendency to
form graphite under LPHT conditions than natural diamond. Their defect structures with respect to incorporated nitrogen, incorporated hydrogen, and vacancy clusters
differed significantly from those found in natural diamonds. These differences led to special properties in both
the as-grown and treated synthetic diamonds.
JS-S
TREATMENTS
APHT treatment of brown type Ia natural diamonds:
Dislocation movement or vacancy cluster destruction? V. G. Vins [vgvins@gmail.com], A. P. Yelisseyev, S. S. Lobanov, D. V. Afonin, A. Yu. Maksimov, and A. Ye. Blinkov, Diamond and Related
Materials, Vol. 19, No. 7/9, 2010, pp. 829832.
Using a specially designed apparatus, type Ia brown diamonds were subjected to high-temperature heating (up to
2100C) in an inert gas at atmospheric pressure (APHT).
The heating was performed in five or six successive thermal shocks, each lasting about two seconds. The total
exposure time was kept very brief to minimize graphitization of the diamond. Prior to heating, the diamonds were
dark brown and exhibited evidence of strong plastic deformation (e.g., uneven color distribution in the form of parallel bands of brown color). After treatment, they were light
brown or yellowish brown due to the destruction of lattice
defects responsible for the dark brown color. Details of the
changes in lattice defects were revealed by infrared and
photoluminescence spectroscopy.
The article also describes the results of preliminary
experiments on APHT color treatment of yellow, red, and
purple-red synthetic diamonds. Many of these color and
lattice-defect changes have been observed as a result of
traditional HPHT diamond treatment.
JES
S10
Detection of beryllium treatment of natural sapphires by

NRA. P. C. Gutirrez [carolina.gutierrez@uam.es],
M.-D. Ynsa, A. Climent-Font, and T. Calligaro,
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics
Research B, Vol. 268, 2010, pp. 20382041.
The possibility of using a nondestructive nuclear reaction
analysis (NRA) technique for detecting Be diffusion in
corundum was investigated. Be diffusion is usually detected with techniques such as laser ablationinductively coupled plasmamass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) or laserinduced breakdown spectrometry (LIBS), which are microdestructive (leaving 50100 m diameter craters on the
gems). NRA involves examining nuclear reaction products
such as protons, alpha particles, and gamma rays generated
by a helium ion beam. The radiation fingerprint identifies
individual light isotopes and quantifies them with ppm sensitivity. Tests were conducted to optimize beam energy and
dose to obtain the appropriate peak-to-background ratio for
detecting Be. With a 2.8 MeV external He beam and a beam
dose of 200 C, beryllium concentrations of 516 ppm were
measured in the samples, with a detection limit of 1 ppm.
GL
Determination of the potential for extrinsic color development in natural colorless quartz. E. H. Nunes, V.
Melo, F. Lameiras [fernando.lameiras@pq.cnpq.br], O.
Liz, A. Pinheiro, G. Machado, and W. Vasconcelos,
American Mineralogist, Vol. 94, 2009,
pp.
935941.
Colorless quartz can become colorized after exposure to ionizing radiation (e.g., gamma rays, X-rays, and high-energy
electron beams) and heat, due to trace elements such as aluminum, iron, hydrogen, lithium, and sodium. Infrared spectroscopy was used to identify the color potential of several
thousand samples from Brazil, Uruguay, Bolivia, and
Colombia. At room temperature, all the colorless samples
showed bands at 3063, 2935, 2771, 2677, 2600, and 2499
cm1. The samples that remained colorless after irradiation
also displayed bands at 3304 and 3202 cm1. The samples
that became grayish to black after irradiation contained
additional bands at 3483, 3433, and 3381 cm1; the 3483
cm1 band is related to greenish yellow, yellow (citrine), or
brown colors after irradiation and heating. The samples that
became grayish olive green after irradiation and olive
green after further heating showed an additional pair of
bands at 3510 and 3304 cm1. The samples that became violet (amethyst) or green (prasiolite) after irradiation, or sky
blue after irradiation plus heating, displayed a broad band at
~3341 cm1 and a band at 3585 cm1.
ERB
Identificazione di acquamarine trattate termicamente
[Identification of heat-treated aquamarines]. I.
Cascione, F. Caucia, I. Adamo, and V. Bordoni,
Rivista Gemmologica Italiana, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2010,
pp. 2331 [in Italian].
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
Ten aquamarine samples from Nigeria and Minas Gerais,

Brazil, were heated and their property changes documented.
The stones were heated in four stages from approximately
300 to 480C, which in each case led to distinct color
changes from green to blue. Weight, density, and refractive
index before and after heating were compared. Based on
qualitative and quantitative electron microprobe analyses as
well as UV-Vis-NIR and mid-infrared spectroscopy, the
color changes could generally be linked to an Fe3+-Fe2+ intervalence charge transfer. Aside from color, the most significant change was a higher RI. Despite the small sample size
tested, the increased refractive index might offer a clue in
identifying heat treatment. [Abstractors note: There
appears to be too much overlap in RI to reliably distinguish
between heated and unheated stones.]
RT
MISCELLANEOUS
Dangerous dust. D. Hamilton, Rock & Gem, Vol. 40, No.
8, 2010, pp. 2629.
Dust is the lapidarys forgotten hazard. Whether it is
inhaled or ingested or comes in contact with exposed skin,
lapidary dust can cause serious health problems. Some
dust is poisonous, and the worst contains copper oxide,
which can damage the endocrine and central nervous systems. Gems that pose this hazard include turquoise,
chrysocolla, malachite, and azurite. Silicates such as
quartz can cause silicosis, a respiratory disease. Asbestos

can be found in tigers-eye and soapstone. Some fossils are
radioactive, and care should be taken when collecting and
polishing them. A few simple precautions can minimize
the dangers and keep a workshop safe.
MK
Los minerales de coleccin como recurso econmico en
pases en vas de desarrollo [Minerals for collectors
as a source of income in developing countries]. J. C.
Melgarejo [joan.carlos.melgarejo.draper@ub.edu], M.
Campeny, J. Sanz, C. Curto, and J. Vials, Boltin
de la Sociedad Geolgica Mexicana, Vol. 62, No. 1,
2010, pp. 55100 [in Spanish].
The production of minerals for collectors offers a good
opportunity to create additional income in rural areas of
developing countries. Unfortunately, rural populations
usually have little knowledge about the mining and marketing of mineral specimens. This article provides the
basic knowledge and deals systematically with a wide
range of questions, such as: What types of collections are
there? What are the usual sizes of mineral specimens?
What do they look like? Which criteria determine the
value of a specimen? How are the specimens prepared for
sale and transport? Which marketing channels are there
for minerals? Each subject is illustrated by color photographs. Lists of mineralogical laboratories and useful
websites are provided.
RT
This is what youve been waiting for!

A Benefit for G&G Subscribers:
G&G eBrief
G&G eBrief is our monthly electronic newsletter providing
short practical updates on the newest developments in
gemology. Each issue contains the latest reports from the GIA
Laboratory, global news and trade alerts, quick tips for gem
identification, a conference and exhibit calendar, and more.
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
WINTER 2010
S11
SUBJECT INDEX
This index gives the first author (in parentheses), issue, and inclusive pages of the article in which the subject occurs for all feature
articles, Notes & New Techniques, and Rapid Communications that appeared in Volume 46 of Gems & Gemology. For the Gem
News International (GNI) and Lab Notes (LN) sections, inclusive pages are given for the item. The Book Reviews section is available
only as an online supplement, beginning with page S1. The Author Index (p. S18) provides the full title and coauthors (if any) of
the articles cited.
A
Afghanistan
ruby and sapphire from (GNI)W10:319320
tsavorite and other green garnets
reportedly from Kunar Province
(GNI)Su10:154-155
Africa
gem localities of the 2000s
(Shigley)F10:188-216
Alexandrite
localities of the 2000s (Shigley)F10:188216
Alexandrite, synthetic
developments in the 2000s
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Almandine
in 5th century jewelry from Romania
(GNI)W10:316-318
see also Garnet
Amber
enhancements in the 2000s
(McClure)F10:218-240
filled copal imitation of (GNI)W10:326328
with mineral inclusions (GNI)W10:309310
Ametrine [amethyst-citrine]
from the Yuruty mine, Bolivia
(GNI)Sp10:58-59
Andesine
from Tibet, additional field research on
(GNI)W10:310-312
Andradite
from China (GNI)Sp10:59-60
see also Garnet
Annealing, see Diamond treatment
Apatite, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Aquamarine
from Madagascar (GNI)W10:312-314
from Vietnam (GNI)W10:311-312
Arizona, see United States
S12
ANNuAL INdex
Asia
Assembled gem materials
serpentine doublets from Arizona
(GNI)Su10:157-158
synthetic spinel and synthetic ruby
doublet (LN)W10:307
Auctions
activity in the 2000s (Shor)F10:166-187
Australia
B
Backscattered electron imaging
of pietersite (Hu)W10:280-286
Bahrain
pearl diving near Manama
(GNI)W10:318-319
Barite
from Brazil (GNI)Sp10:60
Bastnsite-(Ce)
from Malawi (Guastoni)Sp10:42-47
Beneficiation
in Africa, added-value activities in the
2000s (Shor)F10:166-187
Beryl
see also Aquamarine, Emerald, Heliodor
Beryl, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Bleaching
Bolivia
ametrine from the Yuruty mine
(GNI)Sp10:58-59
Book reviews
Agates II (Zenz)F10:S4
Agates and Jaspers (Gibbs)W10:S3
Amber: The Natural Time Capsule
(Ross)F10:S4
American Luxury: Jewels from the

House of Tiffany (Falino and
Markowitz, Eds.)Su10:S1
Amethyst Uruguay (Balzer)W10:S2-S3
Archaeomineralogy, 2nd ed.
(Rapp)Sp10:S3
Between Eternity and History: Bulgari.
From 1884 to 2009, 125 Years of
Italian Jewels (Triossi)F10:S3
Blood on the Stone: Greed, Corruption,
and War in the Global Diamond
Trade (Smillie)W10:S1
Cartier: Innovation Through the 20th
Century (Chaille)Sp10:S2
Cartier and America (Chapman)F10:S2
Contributions of the 4th International
Symposium on Granitic Pegmatites
(Estudos Geolgicos)F10:S4
Diamonds: The Quest from Solid Rock
to the Magic of Diamonds
(Gordon)Su10:S2S3
Exotic Gems, Vol. 1 (Newman)F10:S4
The Fancy Color Diamond Book: Facts
& Secrets of Trading in Rarities
(Rachminov)W10:S3
Gem and Ornamental Materials of
Organic Origin (Campbell
Pedersen)F10:S4
Gems and Gemstones: Timeless
Natural Beauty of the Mineral World
(Grande and Augustyn)F10:S3
Gemstones (Hurrell and
Johnson)Su10:S1-S2
Genuine Diamonds Found in Arkansas,
3rd ed. (Worthington)Sp10:S2
High Jewelry by Cartier: Contemporary
Creations (Tise-Isor)F10:S2
Imperishable Beauty: Art Nouveau
Jewelry (Markowitz and
Karlin)Sp10:S3
Jewellery in the Age of Queen Victoria:
A Mirror to the World (Gere and
Rudoe)W10:S2
Jewelry & Gems: The Buying Guide,
7th ed. (Matlins and Bonanno)F10:S4
Minerals & Precious Stones of Brazil
(Cornejo and Bartorelli)W10:S3
Minraux Remarquables
(Boulliar)Su10:S3
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
Modern Jewellery Design: Past and

Present (Ludwig)Sp10:S1S2
The Most Fabulous Jewels in the
World: Graff (EtheringtonSmith)Sp10:S2S3
Pearl Buying Guide, 5th ed.
(Newman)F10:S4
Ruby, Sapphire, and Emerald Buying
Guide, 3rd ed. (Newman)Sp10:S3
Schiffer Earth Science Monographs
(Schiffer Publishing)Su10:S3
Tables of Gemstone Identification
(Gnther)Sp10:S3
Boxes [article sidebars]
online databases of gemological information in the 2000s
(Breeding)F10:241-257
Brazil
barite from Acre (GNI)Sp10:60
Churrasco quartz from Bahia
(GNI)Sp10:63
emerald-in-matrix from Bahia
(GNI)W10:316
rhodonite, cats-eye, from Minas Gerais
(GNI)Sp10:64
Burma, see Myanmar
C
Calcium niobium gallium
lab-grown garnet (GNI)Su10:155
California, see United States
Cats-eye, see Chatoyancy
Chalcedony
chrysocolla, from Peru (GNI)Su10:148149
Challenge, see Gems & Gemology
Charts
Chatoyancy
in rhodonite from Brazil (GNI)Sp10:64
Chemical analysis
Chemical composition
of bastnsite-(Ce) and parasite-(Ce)
of natural and synthetic emerald
(Huong)Sp10:36-41
of opal from Wollo, Ethiopia
(Rondeau)Su10:90-105
Chemical vapor deposition [CVD], see
Diamond, synthetic
China
andesine from Tibet, purported localities (GNI)W10:310-312
andradite from (GNI)Sp10:59-60
pietersite from Henan Province
(Hu)W10:280-286
Souffl freshwater cultured pearls
from (GNI)Sp10:61-63
Chrysoberyl
ANNuAL INdex
Chrysocolla, see Chalcedony

Clarity enhancement
Clark, Roy E. Chip
obituary (GNI)Su10:162
Coating
of diamond, pink (LN)W10:299-300
of tanzanite with a colored adhesive
(GNI)Su10:159-160
Color change
in synthetic apatite (McClure)F10:218240
Color zoning
in barite from Brazil (GNI)Sp10:60
Colored stones
production and markets, in the 2000s
(Shor)F10:166-187
treatments, developments in the 2000s
Composite materials
coral bangle (GNI)Su10:158-159
turquoise, green and purple
(LN)Sp10:56-57; and blue
(Choudhary)Su10:106-113,
(LN)W10:303-304
see also Ruby, lead glassfilled
Computed tomography, see X-ray computed microtomography
Computer modeling
of the Tavernier Blue and Hope diamonds (Sucher)Sp10:28-35
Conference reports
Carpathian and Balkan Geological
Association meeting (GNI)W10:333
European Diamond Conference
(GNI)W10:333-334
1st Italian Conference on Scientific
Gemology (GNI)Su10:160-161
5th International Workshop on
Provenance and Properties of Gems
and Geo-materials (GNI)W10:334
Sinkankas Symposium 2010Gem
Feldspars (GNI)Su10:161
20th Annual Goldschmidt Conference
(GNI)W10:330-332
20th General Meeting of the International Mineralogical Association
(GNI)W10:332-333
Copal
filled, to imitate amber (GNI)W10:326328
Coral
composite bangle (GNI)Su10:158-159
Corundum, see Ruby; Sapphire
Cultured pearl, see Pearl, cultured
Cuts and cutting
of hanksite from California
(GNI)Sp10:60-61
see also Diamond, cuts and cutting of

CVD [chemical vapor deposition]-grown
synthetic diamonds, see Diamond,
synthetic
D
Database
online sources of gemological information in the 2000s (Breeding)F10:241257
De Beers
(Shor)F10:166-187
Demantoid, see Andradite
Diamond
production in the 2000s(Shigley)
F10:188-216; and marketing
(Shor)F10:166-187
with strong green fluorescence
(LN)Sp10:49-50
with unusual display of H3 defect
(LN)Su10:142-143
see also Diamond, colored; Diamond,
cuts and cutting of; Diamond, inclusions in; Diamond, synthetic;
Diamond treatment; DiamondView
imaging
Diamond, colored
black, with solid CO2 micro-inclusions
and phosphorescent zones
(LN)Su10:140-142
blue type IIb HPHT-treated6.46 ct
(LN)Sp10:50-51; Fancy Vivid
(LN)Su10:141-142
brownish greenish yellowwith
cuboid cloud (LN)Sp10:64-65; type Ib,
with unusual growth structure
(LN)W10:298-299
greenish yellow, colored by IR-inactive
nitrogen (LN)Sp10:52
Hope diamondpossible sister stones
of (Sucher)Sp10:28-35; relationship to
the Wittelsbach-Graff diamond
(Gaillou)Su10:80-88
orangy red, coated and fracture-filled
(LN)Sp10:48-49
pinkcolor darkened by coating
(LN)W10:299-300; colored by multiple treatments (LN)Sp10:51-52
Wittelsbach-Graff, relationship to the
Hope diamond (Gaillou)Su10:80-88
Diamond, cuts and cutting of
facet arrangement produces scalloped
appearance (GNI)Su10:147-148
the Tavernier Blue recut to produce the
French Blue (Sucher)Sp10:28-35
Diamond, inclusions in
cuboid cloud, in brownish greenish yellow (LN)Sp10:64-65
of graphite, in large HPHT-treated
(LN)W10:298
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
S13
Diamond, synthetic
CVD-growncolor alterations in, with
heat and UV exposure (Khan)
Sp10:18-26; colorless, 1.05 ct, submitted for grading (LN)Su10:143-144;
red, with multiple treatments
(LN)Sp10:52-54; strongly colored
pink (Wang)Sp10:4-17; treated pink
melee (GNI)Sp10:68-69
HPHT-grownlarge (4+ ct) yelloworange (LN)W10:301; with Si-vacancy defect (LN)W10:302; treated purplish pink (LN)W10:300-301; yellow
melee (LN)W10:302-303
LifeGem, produced from cremated
remains (Renfro)W10:260-273
Diamond treatment
coatedand fracture-filled, orangy red
(LN)Sp10:48-49; pink (LN)W10:299300
HPHT3.81 ct Fancy Vivid blue
(LN)Su10:141-142; 6.46 ct blue
(LN)Sp10:50-51; influx of large type
IIa (LN)W10:298
irradiated, black (LN)Sp10:50
pink, treated by multiple processes
(LN)Sp10:51-52
see also Diamond, synthetic
DiamondView imaging
of black diamond with phosphorescent
zones (LN)Su10:140-142
of coated orangy red diamond
(LN)Sp10:48-49
of diamond with strong green fluorescence (LN)Sp10:49
of H3 defect in a colorless diamond
(LN)Su10:142-143
of necktie pattern in type Ib diamond
(LN)W10:298-299
of synthetic diamond, CVD-grown
colorless 1.05 ct (LN)Su10:143-144;
pink (Wang)Sp10:4-17; treated pink
(GNI)Sp10:68-69
of synthetic diamond, HPHT-grown
blue, with Si-vacancy (LN)W10:302;
HPHT-treated purplish pink
(LN)W10:300-301; yellow melee
(LN)W10:302-303
of type IIa greenish yellow diamond
(LN)Sp10:52
of the Wittelsbach-Graff and Hope diamonds (Gaillou)Su10:80-88
Diffusion treatment
of sapphire with Begreen
(LN)Su10:144-145; with interesting
zoning patterns (GNI)Sp10:70
Diopside
from Madagascar (GNI)Sp10:65-66
from Pakistan (GNI)W10:313-314
Doublets, see Assembled gem materials
Durability
of lead-glass filling in ruby, damaged dur-
S14
ANNuAL INdex
ing jewelry repair (LN)W10:305-306

Dyeing
of conch shell beads (GNI)Sp10:71-72
of turquoise, composite
(Choudhary)Su10:106-113; with
metallic veining (LN)W10:303-304
(GNI)W10:335
to faceted vanadinite (GNI)Su08:184185mine location (GNI)W10:335
to Gem localities of the 2000s
(Shigley)F10:188-216location of
Hiddenite emerald and Canary tourmaline mines (GNI)W10:335
Ethiopia
opal from Wegel Tena, Wollo Province
E
Editorials
The Dr. Edward J. Gbelin Most
Valuable Article Award Sp10:1-2
A Fond Farewell (Keller)W10:259
GIA Symposium 2011: Advances in
Gemological Research
(Keller)Su10:79
Retrospective of the First Decade of the
2000s: Looking Back as We Move
Ahead (Keller)F10:165
Electron-microprobe analysis
of yellow scapolite from Madagascar
(Superchi)W10:274-279
see also Chemical composition
Emerald
confocal Raman spectroscopy to separate natural from synthetic
(Huong)Sp10:36-41
glass imitation of (GNI)Su10:155-156
in matrix, from Brazil (GNI)W10:316
from North Carolina, 64.83 ct
(GNI)W10:314-315
Emerald, synthetic
confocal Raman spectroscopy to separate from natural (Huong)Sp10:36-41
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Enhancement
and its detection in the 2000s
see also Bleaching; Clarity enhancement; Coating; Diamond treatment;
Diffusion treatment; Dyeing; Filling,
fracture or cavity; Heat treatment;
Impregnation; Irradiation; Luster
enhancement; Treatment; specific
gem materials
Einsiedeln Abbey, Switzerland
gems in a ciborium from
(Karampelas)W10:292-296
Errata
to Developments in techniques and
instrumentation during the 2000s
(Breeding)F10:241-257correct name
of Holloway Cut Adviser and developer of M-Box software
(GNI)W10:335
to Diamond with flower-shaped
cloud (LN)W09:290cloud orientation {100} (LN)Su10:146
to Era of sweeping change in diamond
and colored stone production and
markets (Shor)F10:166-187first
lab to issue diamond cut grades
F
Faceting, see Diamond, cuts and cutting of
Fair trade practices
in the 2000s (Shor)F10:166-187
Fakes, see specific gem materials simulated
Feldspar, see Andesine
FIB, see Focused ion beam
Filling, fracture or cavity
of jadeite, transparent (LN)Sp10:54-55
of ruby with lead glassin antique pendant (GNI)Su10:159; damaged during
jewelry repair (LN)W10:305-306
Flash effect
in filled jadeite (LN)Sp10:54-55
Fluorescence, ultraviolet [UV]
of composite turquoise
(Choudhary)Su10:106-113
of filled copal beads (GNI)W10:326-328
of pink CVD-grown synthetic diamond
(Wang)Sp10:4-17
strong green, in diamond (LN)Sp10:49
see also DiamondView imaging
Focused ion beam [FIB]
France
sapphire from Auvergne (GNI)W10:320321
French Blue diamond
CZ replica in recreated Golden Fleece
(GNI)W10:329-331
relationship to the Tavernier Blue and
Hope diamonds (Sucher)Sp10:28-35
G
Garnet
see also Almandine, Andradite,
Grossular, Pyrope-almandine
Garnet, synthetic
calcium niobium gallium
(GNI)Su10:155
Gemological Institute of America
Symposium 2011 (Keller)Su10:79
Gems & Gemology
ChallengeSp10:74-74; winners and
answers F10:217
Edward J. Gbelin Most Valuable
Article Award Sp10:1-2
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
Glass
greenwith crystalline aggregates
(GNI)W10:328-329; with straight
zones, imitating emerald
(GNI)Su10:155-156; with synthetic
diopside inclusions (GNI)Su10:144
see also Glass-ceramic
Glass-ceramic
Nanogems (GNI)Su10:156-157
Golden Fleece
of Louis XV, recreated (GNI)W10:329331
Golden tridacna beads, see Shell
Grossular
tsavoriteand other green garnets
reportedly from Afghanistan
(GNI)Su10:154-155; from Tanzania
(GNI)Sp10:67-68
H
Hanksite
as a gem material (GNI)Sp10:60-61
Heat treatment
of spinel (LN)Su10:145-146
Heliodor
from Southeast Asia (GNI)W10:311-312
Hibonite
reportedly from Myanmar
(Hainschwang)Su10:135-138
High-pressure, high-temperature [HPHT]
synthesis, see Diamond, synthetic
High-pressure, high-temperature [HPHT]
treatment, see Diamond treatment
History
of 5th century jewelry from Romania
(GNI)W10:316-318
of gems in a ciborium from Einsiedeln
Abbey, Switzerland
of the Golden Fleece of Louis XV
(GNI)W10:329-331
Hope diamond
relationship to the Tavernier Blue and
French Blue diamonds
(Sucher)Sp10:28-35
relationship to the Wittelsbach-Graff
diamond (Gaillou)Su10:80-88
Hydrophane
opal from Wollo Province, Ethiopia
I
Imitations, see specific gem material imitated
Impregnation
Inclusions
in almandine in Romanian jewelry
(GNI)W10:316-318
in ametrine from the Yuruty mine,
Bolivia (GNI)Sp10:58-59
ANNuAL INdex
in andradite from China (GNI)Sp10:5960

in bastnsite-(Ce) and parasite-(Ce)
blockage-induced growth tubes in tourmaline (LN)Sp10:55-56
in brownish orange sapphire, Be-diffused (GNI)Sp10:70
of chamosite and tourmaline in
Churrasco quartz (GNI)Sp10:63
in diamondcuboid cloud
(LN)Sp10:64-65; graphite in large
HPHT-treated (LN)W10:298
of diaspore and hematite in sapphire
from Tanzania (LN)Su10:140-141
in glasscrystalline (GNI)W10:328329; with straight growth lines
(GNI)Su10:155-156; synthetic diopside (GNI)Su10:144
in hanksite, gaylussite (GNI)Sp10:60-61
of hematite in fire opal from
Madagascar (Simoni)Su10:114-121
in hibonite (Hainschwang)Su10:135-138
of insects and plant debris in filled
copal (GNI)W10:326-328
in Mexifire synthetic opal
(Bhandari)W10:287-290
of minerals in amber (GNI)W10:309-310
in Nanogem glass-ceramic
(GNI)Su10:156-157
in opal from Wollo Province, Ethiopia
in pietersite (Hu)W10:280-286
in pink CVD synthetic diamond
(Wang)Sp10:4-17
polyphase, in sapphire from Tanzania
(LN)Su10:140-141
of sapphire in sapphire (GNI)W10:306307
in scapolite, yellow, from Madagascar
of solid CO2 in black diamond
(LN)Su10:140-142
in spinel, heat-treated reddish orange
(LN)Su10:145-146
Indochina
aquamarine and heliodor from
(GNI)W10:311-312
Infrared spectroscopy, see Spectroscopy,
infrared
Instruments
LCD screen as source of polarized light
(GNI)W10:325-326
smartphone photomicrography
(GNI)W10:325-326
see also Backscattered electron imaging; DiamondView imaging;
Electron-microprobe analysis;
Focused ion beam; Lighting;
Photomicrography; Polariscope;
Scanning electron microscopy;
Spectrometry [various]; Spectroscopy
[various]; Transmission electron
microscopy; X-radiography; X-ray
computed microtomography; X-ray
diffraction
Irradiation
see also Diamond treatment
J
Jade
Jadeite
treated, exceptionally transparent
(LN)Sp10:54-55
Jadeite, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Jewelry
antique, with lead glassfilled ruby
(GNI)Su10:159
5th century garnet jewelry from
Romania (GNI)W10:316-318
gem tapestry (GNI)Sp10:72-73
K
Kimberley Process
to address conflict diamonds
(Shor)F10:166-187
Kunzite, see Spodumene
L
LA-ICP-MS, see Spectrometry, laser ablationinductively coupled plasmamass
Lapidary arts, see Cuts and cutting;
Diamond, cuts and cutting of
Lapis lazuli
imitation, with metallic veining
(LN)W10:303-304
Lepidolite
beads from Mozambique (GNI)Sp10:6162
Letters
diffraction gratings on diamond surfaces (Let)Sp10:73
more on the relationship of the
Wittelsbach-Graff and Hope diamonds (Let)F10:S1,S4
LIBS, see Spectroscopy, laser-induced
breakdown
Liddicoatite, see Tourmaline
LifeGem, see Diamond, synthetic
Lighting
Luminescence, see DiamondView imaging;
Fluorescence, ultraviolet [UV];
Phosphorescence
Luster enhancement
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
S15
M
Madagascar
aquamarine from Tsaramanga
(GNI)W10:312-314
diopside from Ihosy (GNI)Sp10:65-66
fire opal from Bemia (Simoni)Su10:114121
sapphire from Ilakaka and
Andranondambo (GNI)W10:321-322
scapolite from Ihosy
Malawi
bastnsite-(Ce) and parasite-(Ce) from
Mt. Malosa (Guastoni)Sp10:42-47
Marketing and distribution
of diamonds and colored stones in the
2000s (Shor)F10:166-187
Mexifire, see Opal, synthetic
Microprobe, see Chemical composition
Microtomography, X-ray computed
of pearls (Karampelas)Su10:122-127;
(Krzemnicki)Su10:128-134
Most valuable article, see Gems &
Gemology
Mozambique
lepidolite beads from Alto Ligonha
(GNI)Sp10:61-62
Paraba-type liddicoatite, possibly from
(GNI)W10:323-325
ruby from Cabo Delgado
(GNI)Su10:151-152
Myanmar
gems from, update (GNI)Su10:161-162
hibonite, reportedly from
(Hainschwang)Su10:135-138
spinel from Bawma (GNI)Su10:154
N
Namibia
pietersite from Kuraman (Hu)W10:280286
Nanogems
glass-ceramic material (GNI)Su10:156157
NanoSIMS, see Spectrometry, secondary
ion mass [SIMS]
Neptunian beads, see Shell
North America
North Carolina, see United States
O
Obituary
Roy E. Chip Clark (GNI)Su10:162
Opal
firecomparison to Mexifire
(Bhandari)W10:287-290; from
S16
ANNuAL INdex
Madagascar (Simoni)Su10:114-121
play-of-color, from Wollo Province,
Ethiopia (Rondeau)Su10:90-105
Opal, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Mexifire (Bhandari)W10:287-290
serpentine doublets sold as

(GNI)Su10:157-158
Play-of-color, see Opal
Polariscope
with LCD screen as light source
(GNI)W10:325-326
Pyrope-almandine
from the Solomon Islands
(GNI)Sp10:66-67
Pakistan
diopside from Gilgit-Baltistan
(GNI)W10:313-314
ruby and sapphire from (GNI)W10:319320
sphene from the Shigar Valley
(GNI)Su10:152-154
Paraba tourmaline, see Tourmaline
Parisite-(Ce)
PATRIOT Act
impact of, in the 2000s (Shor)F10:166187
Pearl
from Bahrain (GNI)W10:318-319
freshwater, large pair (LN)Sp10:55
green-gray (LN)W10:304-305
scallop (GNI)Su10:149-151
X-ray computed microtomography to
separate from cultured
(Karampelas)Su10:122-127;
Pearl, cultured
production and markets, in the 2000s
(Shor)F10:166-187
Souffl freshwater, from China
(GNI)Sp10:61-63
X-ray computed microtomography to
separate from natural
(Karampelas)Su10:122-127;
Peridot
Peru
chrysocolla chalcedony from Acari
(GNI)Su10:148-149
Phosphorescence
of zones in black diamond
(LN)Su10:140-142
Photomicrography
using a smartphone and clip-on microscope (GNI)W10:325-326
Pietersite
from Namibia and China (Hu)W10:280286
Quartz
Churrasco, with tourmaline and
chamosite inclusions, from Brazil
(GNI)Sp10:63
see also Ametrine [amethyst-citrine],
Pietersite
Quartz, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
R
Religious artifacts
gems in a ciborium from Einsiedeln
Abbey, Switzerland
Rhodonite
cats-eye, from Brazil (GNI)Sp10:64
Richterite
and sugilite, rock containing
(LN)W10:305-306
Rock
containing richterite and sugilite
(LN)W10:305-306
emerald-in-matrix, from Brazil
(GNI)W10:316
Romania
5th century jewelry from Cluj-Napoca
(GNI)W10:316-318
Ruby
lead glassfilledin antique jewelry
(GNI)Su10:159; damaged during jewelry repair (LN)W10:305-306
from Mozambique (GNI)Su10:151-152
from Pakistan and Afghanistan
(GNI)W10:319-320
polyphase inclusions in (LN)Su10:140141
set with colored adhesive
(GNI)Su10:159-160
from Vietnam (GNI)Su10:151-153
Ruby, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
doublet with synthetic spinel
(LN)W10:307
specimen sold as natural
(GNI)W10:329-330
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
S
Sapphire
diffusion-treated with Bebrownish
orange with zoning pattern
(GNI)Sp10:70; green 14.20 ct
(LN)Su10:144-145
from France (GNI)W10:320-321
from Madagascar (GNI)W10:321-322
from Pakistan and Afghanistan
(GNI)W10:319-320
polyphase inclusions in (LN)Su10:140141
with sapphire inclusion (GNI)W10:306307
Sapphire, synthetic
(Renfro)W10:260-273
Scanning electron microscopy [SEM]
environmental (ESEM), analysis of
pietersite (Hu)W10:280-286
of Souffl cultured pearls
(GNI)Sp10:61-63
Scapolite
yellow, from Madagascar
Serpentine
doublets sold as pietersite
(GNI)Su10:157-158
Shell
conch beads, dyed (Neptunian or
Golden tridacna) (GNI)Sp10:71-72
SIMS analysis, see Spectrometry, secondary ion mass
Simulants, see specific gem materials
simulated
Solomon Islands
garnet and zircon from Malaita
(GNI)Sp10:66-67
South America
Spectrometers, handheld and portable
Spectrometry, laser ablationinductively
coupled plasmamass [LA-ICP-MS]
of fire opal from Madagascar
(Simoni)Su10:114-121
to identify natural and synthetic emerald (Huong)Sp10:36-41
of liddicoatite, Paraba-type
(GNI)W10:323-325
see also Chemical composition
Spectrometry, secondary ion mass [SIMS]
Spectroscopy, confocal micro-Raman
to identify natural and synthetic emer-
ANNuAL INdex
alds (Huong)Sp10:36-41
Spectroscopy, energy-dispersive
of hibonite (Hainschwang)Su10:135-138
Spectroscopy, infrared
of composite turquoise
of diamondblack (LN)Su10:140-142; Hrich brownish greenish yellow
(LN)Sp10:64-65; Wittelsbach-Graff and
Hope diamonds (Gaillou)Su10:80-88
of diamond, CVD syntheticbefore
and after exposure to heat and UV
rays (Khan)Sp10:18-26; pink
(Wang)Sp10:4-17
of Mexifire synthetic opal
(Bhandari)W10:287-290
of scapolite from Madagascar
Spectroscopy, laser-induced breakdown
[LIBS]
Spectroscopy, phosphorescence
Spectroscopy, photoluminescence
of a colorless diamond with a strong H3
defect (LN)Su10:142-143
of spinel (LN)Su10:145-146
of synthetic diamondCVD-grown
pink (Wang)Sp10:4-17; HPHT-grown
blue, with Si-vacancy (LN)W10:302
Spectroscopy, Raman
of bastnsite-(Ce) and parasite-(Ce)
confocal, to separate from natural
emerald (Huong)Sp10:36-41
of opalfire, from Madagascar
(Simoni)Su10:114-121; play-of-color,
from Wollo Province, Ethiopia
of gems in a ciborium from Einsiedeln
Abbey (Karampelas)W10:292-296
Spectroscopy, UV-Vis-NIR
of coated diamondorangy red
(LN)Sp10:48-49; pink (LN)W10:299300
of CVD synthetic diamondbefore and
after exposure to heat and UV rays
(Khan)Sp10:18-26; pink
(Wang)Sp10:4-17; treated red
(LN)Sp10:52-54
of Paraba-type liddicoatite
(GNI)W10:323-325
Sphene [titanite]
from the Shigar Valley, Pakistan
(GNI)Su10:152-154
Spinel
heat-treated reddish orange
(LN)Su10:145-146
from Myanmar (GNI)Su10:154
red to pink, from Tanzania
(GNI)Sp10:58
Spinel, synthetic
doublet with synthetic ruby
(LN)W10:307
Spodumene
green, thermoluminescent
(GNI)W10:322-323
kunzite from California
(GNI)Su10:148-149
Stability
of opal from Wollo Province, Ethiopia
Strain
in treated pink CVD synthetic diamond
(GNI)Sp10:68-69
Sugilite
and richterite, rock containing
(LN)W10:305-306
Switzerland
Abbey (Karampelas)W10:292-296
Synthetics
of the 2000s (Renfro)W10: 260-273
see also specific gem materials
T
Tanzania
sapphire from Winza, with polyphase
inclusions (LN)Su10:140-141
tsavorite from Namalulu (GNI)Sp10:6768
Tanzanite
set with colored adhesive
(GNI)Su10:159-160
Tapestry
of gems (GNI)Sp10:72-73
Tavernier Blue diamond
relationship to the French Blue and
Hope diamonds (Sucher)Sp10:28-35
Thermoluminescence
of green spodumene (GNI)W10:322-323
Tigers-eye
as compared to pietersite (Hu)W10:280286
Titanite, see Sphene
Topaz
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
S17
Topaz, synthetic
(Renfro)W10: 260-273
Tourmaline
with blockage-induced growth tubes
(LN)Sp10:55-56
liddicoatite, Paraba-type
(GNI)W10:323-325
Transmission electron microscopy [TEM]
of opal from Wollo Province, Ethiopia
Treatment
lead-glass filling of ruby
(GNI)Su10:159; damaged during
repair (LN)W10:305-306
of turquoise with colored polymer
(LN)Sp10:56-57
see also Bleaching; Clarity enhancement; Coating; Diamond treatment;
Diffusion treatment; Dyeing;
Filling, fracture or cavity; Heat
treatment; Impregnation;
Irradiation; Luster enhancement;
specific gem materials
Tsavorite, see Grossular
Tucson gem and mineral shows
highlights of (GNI)Sp10:58-64
Turquoise
blue and purple composite, with metal-
lic veining (LN)W10:303-304

green and purple, treated
(LN)Sp10:56-57; and blue, composite
U
Ultraviolet fluorescence, see Fluorescence,
ultraviolet [UV]
United States
hanksite from California (GNI)Sp10:6061
kunzite from Pala, California
(GNI)Su10:148-149
serpentine doublets from Arizona
(GNI)Su10:157-158
64.83 ct emerald, from Hiddenite,
North Carolina (GNI)W10:314-315
V
Vietnam
aquamarine from Thanh Hoa and Nghe
An provinces (GNI)W10:311-312
ruby, sapphire, and spinel mining
update (GNI)Su10:151-153
X
X-radiography
of pearls (Karampelas)Su10:122-127,
X-ray computed microtomography
of pearls (Karampelas)Su10:122-127,
X-ray diffraction
Z
Zircon
from the Solomon Islands
(GNI)Sp10:66-67
Zoisite
see also Tanzanite
Zoning, see Color zoning; specific gem
materials
W
Wittelsbach-Graff diamond
relationship to the Hope diamond
(Gaillou)Su10:80-88
AUTHOR INDEX
This index lists, in alphabetical order, the authors of all feature articles, Notes & New Techniques, and Rapid Communications that
appeared in the four issues of Volume 46 of Gems & Gemology, together with the full title and inclusive page numbers of each article and the issue (in parentheses). Full citation is given under the first author only, with reference made from coauthors.
Adamo I., see Simoni M.

Armbruster T., see Hainschwang T.
Attaway N.L., see Sucher S.D.
Attaway S.W., see Sucher S.D.
B
Bekele E., see Rondeau B.
Bersani D., see Karampelas S.
Bhandari R., Choudhary G.: Update on Mexifire synthetic fire opal, 287-290 (Winter)
Breeding C.M., Shen A.H., Eaton-Magaa
S., Rossman G.R., Shigley J.E., Gilbertson A.: Developments in gemstone
analysis techniques and instrumentation during the 2000s, 241-257 (Fall)
Butler J.E., see Gaillou E.
S18
ANNuAL INdex
Cann B.L., see Khan R.U.A.

Castaman E., see Superchi M.
Caucia F., see Simoni M.
Cenki-Tok B., see Rondeau B.
Chalus P., see Krzemnicki M.S.
Choudhary G.: A new type of composite
turquoise, 106-113 (Summer)
Choudhary G., see also Bhandari R.
Collins A.T., see Gaillou E.
D
Dhillon H.K., see Khan R.U.A.
Dirlam D.M., see Shigley J.E.
Doering P., see Wang W.
E
Eaton-Magaa S., see Breeding C.M.,
Wang W.
Elen S., see Shigley J.E.
Emerson E., see Wang W.
Enzmann F., see Karampelas S.
F
Friess S.D., see Krzemnicki M.S.
Fritsch E., see Hainschwang T.,
Karampelas S., Rondeau B.
G
Gaillou E., Wang W., Post J.E., King J.M.,
Butler J.E., Collins A.T., Moses T.M.:
The Wittelsbach-Graff and Hope dia-
GemS & GemoLoGy
WINTeR 2010
monds: Not cut from the same rough,

80-88 (Summer)
Gaillou E., see also Rondeau B.
Galinetto P., see Simoni M.
Gambini E., see Superchi M.
Gauthier J.-P., see Rondeau B.
Gilbertson A., see Breeding C.M.
Guastoni A., Kondo D., Nestola F.:
Bastnsite-(Ce) and parisite-(Ce) from
Mt. Malosa, Malawi, 42-47 (Spring)
Gbelin S., see Karampelas S.
H
Hger T., see Huong L.T.-T.
Hainschwang T., Notari F., Massi L.,
Armbruster T., Rondeau B., Fritsch E.,
Nagashima M.: Hibonite: A new gem
mineral, 135-138 (Summer)
Hnni H.A., see Krzemnicki M.S.
Heaney P.J., see Hu K.
Hofmeister W., see Huong L.T.-T.
Hu K., Heaney P.J.: A microstructural
study of pietersite from Namibia And
China, 280-286 (Winter)
Hunger K., see Karampelas S.
Huong L.T.-T., Hger T., Hofmeister W.:
Confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy: A
powerful tool to identify natural and
synthetic emeralds, 36-41 (Spring)
J
Janse A.J.A., see Shigley J.E.
Johnson P., see Wang W.
K
Kane R.E., see McClure S.F.
Karampelas S., Michel J., Zheng-Cui M.,
Schwarz J.-O., Enzmann F., Fritsch E.,
Leu L., Krzemnicki M.S.: X-ray computed microtomography applied to pearls:
Methodology, advantages, and limitations, 122-127 (Summer)
Karampelas S., Wrle M., Hunger K., Lanz
H., Bersani D., Gbelin S.: A study of the
Abbey, 291-295 (Winter)
Karampelas S., see also Krzemnicki M.S.
Keller A.S.:
A fond farewell, 259 (Winter)
GIA Symposium 2011: Advances in
gemological research, 79 (Summer)
ANNuAL INdex
Retrospective of the first decade of the

2000s: Looking back as we move
ahead, 165 (Fall)
Khan R.U.A., Martineau P.M., Cann B.L.,
Newton M.E., Dhillon H.K., Twitchen
D.J.: Color alterations in CVD synthetic
diamond with heat and UV exposure:
Implications for color grading and identification, 18-26 (Spring)
King J.M., see Gaillou E.
Koivula J.I., see Renfro N.
Kondo D., see Guastoni A.
Krzemnicki M.S., Friess S.D., Chalus P.,
Hnni H.A., Karampelas S.: X-ray computed microtomography: Distinguishing
natural pearls from beaded and nonbeaded cultured pearls, 128-134
(Summer)
Krzemnicki M.S., see also Karampelas S.
L
Lanz H., see Karampelas S.
Laurs B.M., see Shigley J.E.
Leu L., see Karampelas S.
Lu R., see Wang W.
M
Martineau P.M., see Khan R.U.A.
Massi L., see Hainschwang T.
Mazzero F., see Rondeau B.
McClure S.F., Kane R.E., Sturman N.:
Gemstone enhancement and its detection in the 2000s, 218-240 (Fall)
Michel J., see Karampelas S.
Moses T.M., see Gaillou E., Wang W.
G.: Synthetic gem materials in the

2000s: A decade in review, 260-273
(Winter)
Rondeau B., Fritsch E., Mazzero F.,
Gauthier J.-P., Cenki-Tok B., Bekele E.,
Gaillou E.: Play-of-color opal from Wegel
Tena, Wollo Province, Ethiopia, 90-105
(Summer)
Rondeau B., see also Hainschwang T.
Roskin G., see Renfro N.
Rossman G.R., see Breeding C.M.
S
Schwarz J.-O., see Karampelas S.
Shen A.H., see Breeding C.M.
Shigley J.E., Laurs B.M., Janse A.J.A., Elen
S., Dirlam D.M.: Gem localities of the
2000s, 188-216 (Fall)
Shigley J.E., see also Breeding C.M.
Shor R., Weldon R.: An era of sweeping
change in diamond and colored stone
production and markets, 166-187 (Fall)
Simoni M., Caucia F., Adamo I.,
Galinetto P.: New occurrence of fire
opal from Bemia, Madagascar, 114-121
(Summer)
Sturman N., see McClure S.F.
Sucher S.D., Attaway S.W., Attaway N.L.,
Post J.E.: Possible sister stones of the
Hope diamond, 28-35 (Spring)
Superchi M., Pezzotta F., Gambini E.,
Castaman E.: Yellow scapolite from
Ihosy, Madagascar, 274-279 (Winter)
T
Tower J., see Wang W.
Twitchen D.J., see Khan R.U.A.
N
Nagashima M., see Hainschwang T.
Nestola F., see Guastoni A.
Newton M.E., see Khan R.U.A.
Notari F., see Hainschwang T.
P
Pezzotta F., see Superchi M.
Post J.E., see Gaillou E., Sucher S.D.
W
Wang W., Doering P., Tower J., Lu R.,
Eaton-Magaa S., Johnson P., Emerson
E., Moses T.M.: Strongly colored pink
CVD lab-grown diamonds, 4-17 (Spring)
Wang W., see also Gaillou E., Renfro N.
Weldon R., see Shor R.
Wrle M., see Karampelas S.
R
Renfro N., Koivula J.I., Wang W., Roskin
Zheng-Cui M., see Karampelas S.
GemS & GemoLoGy
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GGWI10
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
VOLUME XLVI
WINTER 2010
WINTER 2010
PAGES 259336
VOLUME 46 NO. 4
19922 GIA G&G Winter 10 Journal P BC
Synthetics Retrospective . . . Scapolite from Madagascar . . . Pietersite from China

and Namibia . . . New Mexifire Synthetic Opal . . . Identifying Historic Gems
THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF A MERICA
19922 GIA G&G Winter 10 Journal P FC

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GEMS & GEMOLOGY

19922 GIA G&G Winter 10 Journal P BC

Synthetics Retrospective . . . Scapolite from Madagascar . . . Pietersite from China

THE QUARTERLY JOURNAL OF THE GEMOLOGICAL INSTITUTE OF A MERICA

19922 GIA G&G Winter 10 Journal P FC

Because Public Education

A $97.00 value, shipping

ADVANCING THE SCIENCE

GIAs Retailer Support Kit has been developed to help

MAY 29 30, 2011

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Volume 46, No. 4

FEATURE ARTICLE __________________

Synthetic Gem Materials in the 2000s: A Decade in Review

NOTES & NEW TECHNIQUES ______________

Yellow Scapolite from Ihosy, Madagascar

A Microstructural Study of Pietersite from Namibia and China

RAPID COMMUNICATIONS _______________

Update on Mexifire Synthetic Fire Opal

A Study of the Gems in a Ciborium from Einsiedeln Abbey

REGULAR FEATURES _________________________

Gem News International

2010 Subject and Author Index

Editors, Lab Notes

I can take little credit, though, for what is one of G&Gs

Elizabeth was less than a

With this, my last issue, I extend to youthe readers of

In the early years of the new G&G, most of our articles

At this time, I turn the journal over to the capable hands of

Over the years, though, diamonds became more prominent

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS

See end of article for About the Authors and Acknowledgments.

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

throughout the past decade, although supplies of

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

color and treated to pink (Shigley et al., 2004). While

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

Figure 2. This near-colorless synthetic diamond

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 3. This 0.61 ct round brilliant from Apollo

and clarity to natural diamonds. These colors were

in natural pinks. More recently, Apollo Diamond

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

MID-IR ABSORPTION SPECTRUM

ABSORPTION COEFFICIENT (cm-1)

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

ever, well-equipped gemological laboratories can

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 10. Distinctive

tures were then filled with lead glass to reduce their

SYNTHETIC GEM MATERIALS IN THE 2000S

and distinctive roiled-to-angular growth structures

SYNTHETIC EMERALD AND OTHER BERYLS

GEMS & GEMOLOGY