WN81

VOLUME XVII
WINTER 1981
A quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America
WINTER 1981
Volume 17 Number 4
EDITORIAL
183 The New Gems & Gemology Is One Year Old

Richard T. Liddicoat, Jr.
FEATURE
ARTICLES
184 Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang, Badakhshan, Afghanistan

Jean Wyarl, Pierre Bariand, and Jean Filippi
(translated b y Carol Stockton)
191 Gem Garnets in the Red-to-Violet Color Range
D. Vincent Manson and Carol M. Stockton
205 San Carlos Peridot
John I. Koivula
NOTES
AND NEW
TECHNIQUES
215 Irradiated Topaz and Radioactivity

Robert Crowningshield
217 Nonfading Maxixe-Type Beryl?
K. Nassau and B. E. Prescott
220 The Cutting Properties of Kunzite
John L. Ramsey
REGULAR
FEATURES
226
231
232
242
244
Gem Trade Lab Notes

Editorial Forum
Gemological Abstracts
Book Reviews
Gem News
245 Index to Volume 17, Numbers 1-4
ABOUT THE COVER: The lapis-lazuli from which this oriental vase was fashioned is
representative of the fine material that has been produced i n Afghanistan for centuries, as
described b y Messrs. Wyart, Bariand, and Filippi in this issue. The piece, which measures
10 c m wide x 5.5 c m thick x 13.5 c m high (plus stand), is from the collection of Larry Taylor,
Los Angeles, CA. Photograph 1981 Harold and Erica Van Pelt-Photographers, Los Angeles, CA.
'f>
01982 Gemological Institute
of America.
All rights reserved.
ISSN 00 16-62X
EDITORIAL
STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Richard T. Liddicoat, Jr.
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MANUSCRIPT
SUBMISSIONS
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THE NEW GEMS & GEMOLOGY

IS ONE YEAR OLD
RICHARD T. LIDDICOAT, Jr. Editor-in-Chief
ith this issue Gems o) Gemology, now in its 48th year as the quarterly journal of the
Gemological Institute of America, completes its first year in the new size and format.
The response to the new look has been very exciting. Not only has the journal enjoyed an
almost 500% increase in subscribers, but the quality and quantity of the papers and other
items submitted have grown significantly as well. Much of the credit for the transformation
in appearance and quality of production goes to our managing editor, Alice Keller. The members of our Editorial Review Board also have proved invaluable in ensuring the accuracy and
usefulness of the articles published. In addition to those individuals listed on the masthead,
Brian Mason (of the National Museum of Natural History), Marty Prinz (of the American
Museum of Natural History), Ed Wilson (of the Los Angeles County Museum of Natural History), and Wendell Wilson (of the Mineralogical Record) were kind enough to provide outside
reviews on specific papers. The Gemological Abstracts, Gem Trade Lab Notes, and other regular features of the journal have benefited both from the strong editorial leadership of the
section editors and from the contributions of their editorial staffs, most of whom also carry
full-time responsibilities at GIA or in the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc.
Of singular importance to the success of any journal, however, are the authors of the articles
that form the core of the publication. We have been fortunate to receive the contributions of
established and new authors alike. We thank these authors for their support and continue to
welcome contributions from the international gemological community. As the journal of the
Gemological Institute of America, Gems &> Gemology invites articles in jewelry manufacturing, retailing, and other aspects of the field in addition to the science of gems.
Plans are already well underway for the next four issues, with items of special value to those
readers interested in jade, the latest developments in synthetic corundum, and the cultivation
of the new 314 cultured blister pearls, among many other topics. We feel confident in promising a second year that will be even more exciting, more informative, and more beautiful
than the first.
Editorial
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 198 1
183
LAPIS-LAZULI FROM SAR-E-SANG,

BADAKHSHAN, AFGHANISTAN
B y Jean W y a r t , Pierre Bariand, a n d Jean Filippi
Translated by Carol S t o c k t o n
T h e lapis-lazuli deposits at Sar-e-Sang i n

Badakhshan, Afghanistan, have provided
the raw material for objects fashioned of
this stone since the earliest civilizations,
The mine, which lies in the Hindu-Rush
mountains, is difficult t o reach and,
because of climatic conditions, is opened
only a few months during the summer.
The lapis is found i n veins i n which
calcite and dolomite are intimately
associated with silicates such as diopside,
scapolite, and forstsrite. Pyrite is always
present; the pure blue mineral is lazurite.
The color of the lapis-lazuli varies
according to the amount o f the various
impurities contained therein. Well-formed
crystals of lazurite with the dominant
{110] shape are rarely found. This article
examines the crystallographic properties
of lapis-lazuli, the site of Sar-e-Sang and
the lapis-lazuli deposits there, and offers
an explanation for the genesis of the
material.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Mr. Wyart and Mr. Bariand are associated with
the Laboratoire de Minyralogie-Cristallographie,
University de Paris VI, France; Mr. Filippi is
associated with the Laboratoire de Chimie, Creole
Centrale, Paris, France.
The authors are very grateful to M. Said Hachem
Mirzad and his collaborators for their help in
enabling the visits to Sar-e-Sang that formed the
basis of this article.
An earlier version of this article was published in
French in the Revue de G6ographie Physique el
de G6ologie Dynarnique,2. Serie, Vol. 14, No. 4,
7972, pp. 443448.
"198Gemological Institute of America
184
Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang
apis-lazuli is an ornamental stone (figure 1) that has

been found in the artifacts of some of the oldest
known civilizations. Necklaces of this material have been
discovered in the neolithic tombs of Mauretania and the
Caucasus. The appearance of lapis during archeological
excavations in Mesopotamia marks the evolution, economically and artistically, of societies that flourished
thousands of years ago in the region of Sumer.
In a well-documented work, Georgina Herrmann (1968)
speculated on the possible origins of the mineral and concluded that it came from the mines of Badalzhshan, in
what is now Afghanistan. Mesopotomia was the commercial center for this treasured material, transformed by
its artists into objects of luxury. Thus, more than 4,000
years ago, commercial relations were established between
ancient Iraq and Afghanistan, more than 2500 lzm to the
east. Importation of the blue stone was particularly important at the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty, which marked
the apogee of the civilization of Ur, because of the various
uses to which the material was put. In the royal cemetery
of Ur, excavations revealed fantastic objects fashioned
from lapis-lazuli-cylinder seals, necklaces, and statuettes of animals and persons-which testify to the high
degree of sophistication attained in sculpture and gem
engraving. The abundance of objects of lapis-lazuli in the
tombs suggests that this blue stone already possessed a
ritualistic value, much as is seen today throughout Iran
and the Orient. From Iraq, lapis-lazuli was exported to
Egypt during the predynastic period as well as all early
dynasties. In Egypt, however, objects formed from lapislazuli have been found only in the tombs of the wealthiest persons. Oriental people, the Hebrews, the Babylonians, and the Assyrians also used this azure stone for
ornamentation in the earliest days of their civilizations.
The word luzurium appeared in the sixth century. It
is borrowed from the Arab lazaward, which was taken in
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Figure 1. Three-centimeterlong talisman of lazurite

with gold writing that was
fashioned i n Afghanistan in
the 19th century. Property
of the Paris School of
Mines, Paris, France.
Photograph 981 Nelly
Bariand.
turn from the Persian lajevard and from which

came the word lazul, then azur. As early as the
fifth century, the mineral was introduced in Europe under the name ultramarinurn, which became ultramarine. Ultramarine served as the most
valuable blue pigment and was used by all the
great painters until the discovery by J. B. Guimet
in 1826 of a method of synthesis that allowed industry to prepare enormous quantities of blue pigment at a low price.
In fact, many lapis substitutes have appeared
through the years. These include glass, synthetic
spinel, dyed jasper, and the mixture of pyrite fragments with plastic rich in lapis powder. Most
recently, Gilson has produced imitation lapislazuli-with and without pyrite-that is quite
attractive.
THE LAPIS-LAZULI DEPOSITS
Apart from those in Badalzhshan, a few deposits
have been found and occasionally exploited in the
U.S.S.R. A deposit situated in the Lake Baikal region (Hogarth, 1970)produces a stone of mediocre
quality, but it is too far from Mesopotamia to
have been sent there. In 1930, one Russian
expedition discovered some lapis-lazuli in the
mountains of the Pamir, in a region of very difficult access (Webster, 1962). This deposit has
been mined primarily for phlogopite, although
medium-grade lapis-lazuli has been recovered as
well (Hogarth, 1970).
Little lapis has been found elsewhere in the

world. Deposits are known in Chile and Burma,
but the quality of these materials is at best mediocre. Lapis-lazuli is also found in San Bernardin0 County, California, but the original beds
were only a few millimeters wide (Rogers, 1938).
Thicker veins have been uncovered and the material has been marketed in the U.S. recently, but
the quality is such that it is of mineralogical
rather than gemological interest. The reader is referred to Sinkankas (1976)for descriptions of this
and other North American lapis-lazuli deposits.
The mines of Badalzhshan, therefore, are not
only among the oldest in the world, but they may
also be the most productive and they have historically produced most of the finest-quality material. In addition, because of their location, their
mode of exploitation has changed but little over
the centuries.
Lapis-lazuli is usually massive and more or
less impure. Rather than a single mineral, it is a
rock-a mixture of minerals-that varies greatly
in composition and color (figure 2). From the
physico-chemical point of view, the blue constituent is the mineral lazurite. This mineral has
been the object of much study, particularly with
regard to its color. To resolve the questions that
have arisen, one must use a sample as homogeneous as possible, such as well-formed crystals.
But such crystals are rare, because the miners
look only for blocks of the blue stone to be carved
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
185
Figure 2. Lazurite slab from

Sar-e-Sang, Badakhshan,
Afghanistan, 14 cm.
Photograph 01 981 Nelly
Bariand.
and polished for jewelry or as objets d'art. It was

in search of homogeneous crystals that we undertook expeditions to Badalzhshan in 1964, 1967,
and 1971. The results of our study of the material
found are discussed below, as are the site at Sare-Sang, the mining methods used, and the possible origin and current economic situation of the
Afghan stone.
nosilicate structure, common to all the minerals

of the group, consists of cuboctahedral frameworks ("cages") in which the large central cavities are occupied by the cations Na and Ca, and
by anions such as Cl, SO4, and S. This very open
atomic structure confers on these silicates the
properties of permutites (commonly called "zeolites," or compounds used as water softeners
because of their ability to remove "hard" ions
from water). They need only be placed in salt soTHE CRYSTAL CHEMISTRY AND
lutions of the cations K, Li, Rb, Cs, Ag, Tl, Mg,
PROPERTIES OF LAZURITE
Ca, Sr, Ba, Zn, or Hg at 100 for the sodium in
them to be replaced by the cations named, with
Lazurite belongs to the sodalite group, which are
resultant color modification. For example, calcubic tecto-silicates characterized by the same
cium or zinc replacements result in almost colthree-dimensional structure, with the anion AleSiG
OZ4as the framework motif. The unit cell is 9.0
orless material, while material containing lithium and thallium is very dark.
0.1 A. The sodalite group forms a solid-solution
Atoms of sodium and sulfur are found in the
series of which the principal end members are
sodalite (Na8AlGSi60aiiClz),
nosean (Na8AlGSi60a4 large openings in the frameworks, and it is asSo4), and haiiyne ([Na,Calg.4AleSiGOz4[S0,4,S]z.,).
sumed that the atoms of sulfur move into cavities
Lazurite is a hauyne rich in sulfur; its ideal
to form rather unstable radicals such as NaSz,
composition is NagA1GSi6024Sx,
with X ranging
NaS3, and NaS4.The dissociation of these radicals
from 1 to 4.
could then liberate the active S atoms that are
The atomic structure of this species was esresponsible for the coloration. Chemical analyses
tablished by Jaeger (1930), and then refined by
indicate that the greater the percentage of sulfur
Pauling ( 19301, Barth (19321, Machatschlzi ( 1933
in the mineral, the deeper the blue. If sulfur is
and 1934), and Saafeld (1961).The Si04 and A104
replaced by selenium, the color becomes blood
tetrahedra are linked at their four apexes to form
red. Thus the blue color, which usually increases
six rings of four tetrahedra parallel to the cube
the value of the material as it becomes darker,
faces and eight rings of six tetrahedra parallel to
depends above all on sulfur content as well as on
the faces of the regular octahedron. This alumithe amount of calcium present.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Charikarr; '-..
7
1
- - -
-...--
TRAIL
RIVER
Figure 3. Map of the routes from Kabul to the

lapis-lazuli deposits at Sar-e-Sang, Badakhshan,
Afghanistan.
THE SITE OF SAR-E-SANG

Sar-e-Sang is located in Badalzhshan, in the northeast of Afghanistan. It lies in the center of the
Hindu-Kush massif, along the right bank of the
Kokcha River, which cuts from north to south
an anticline with summits reaching 3500 m to
5500 m. The Kokcha results from the confluence
of the Anjuman and Munjan rivers, and empties
into the Amu Dar'ya (the Oxus River of the ancients), which demarcates the border with the
U.S.S.R. to the north.
This region in Badalzhshan was mentioned in
Chinese writings as early as the sixth century.
From the village of Jarm, situated about 150 kin
north of the mines, a commercial route following
the corridor of Wakhan leads to Tibet; it connects
China with the valley of the Amu Dar'ya and the
city of Bokhara. Thus, lapis-lazuli has been used
by the Chinese since antiquity.
Marco Polo visited this region of Afghanistan
in the 13th century and spoke of a "mountain
where the finest azure in the world is found," although he never saw it himself. More recently,
the English East India Company lieutenant John
Wood (1811- 1871) furnished a detailed and picturesque description of an expedition ( 1836- 1838)
to the source of the Oxus River in a book pub-
Fig~ire4. The small valley of Sar-e-Sang.Note

the white rocks at the base of this photograph,
which are the mine dumps.
lished in 1841. He was the first European to visit

the mines and recounted the difficulty of access,
the methods of exploitation, and the insecurity
for residents and visitors alike. In 1933, French
Archeologist J. Barthoux described the lapis-lazuli
and "balasJ' rubies of the Afghan cipolins,* and
in 1935 K. Brueckl published a study of the mines
in the valleys of the Panjchir and Kolzcha rivers.
In recent years, several members of the French
geologic mission in Afghanistan-A. F. de Lapparent, P. Bariand, and J. Blaise (1965)and P. Bordet and A. Boutikre (1968)-have furnished interesting information on the region. One Russian
mission of five geologists, in the course of two
expeditions during the summers of 1963 and 1964,
completed a detailed geologic and economic mineralogical study of the Sarie-Sang region.
Two routes connect Kabul to Sar-e-Sang (figure 3). The shorter route, from the point of view
of distance, is to travel by jeep from Charilzar,
up the valley of the Panjchir, to Dasht-i-Rawat
(around 160 km), and then to go the final 135 lzm
to the mine on foot or by horse via Anjuman Pass
(figure 4). Undoubtedly, a trail will eventually
permit crossing this route entirely by jeep. Currently, the fastest route, which still takes at least
four days, begins with a magnificent drive to Qonduz through Salang Pass. From this city, the traveler must follow a difficult road through Khanabad, Taloqan, Feyzabad, and Jarm that terminates
.A cipolin is a marble charged w i t h mica, usually of
the variety phlogopite and forming a transition
between marbles and micas-schists, t w o rocks that
are often associated (as defined b y K e m p i n C. M.
Rice, 1951, pp. 75-76).
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
187
Figure 5. The route through

the Kokcha valley, 25 miles
before Sar-e-Sang.
3 or 4 km beyond the village of Hazrat-Said, a distance of about 750 km from Kabul, A long journey, with horses or donkeys, is then required to
climb the 40 k m of narrow and rough trail that
follows the gorges of the Kokcha (figure 5).
These two routes are accessible only between
June and November. The climatic conditions are
such that the royal mine of Sar-e-Sangis exploited
at most only five months a year. The camp is located on the right bank of the Kokcha River, at
an altitude of 2500 m, near the junction of the
river with the stream of Sar-e-Sang. The mine
workings, situated between 2700 m and 3400 m,
are difficult to reach. The blocks of lapis-lazuli
are brought back to the camp on the backs of men
and then transported by donkey to Hazrat-Said.
which usually extend laterally for 20 to 100 m,

rarely more than 400 m. The exploitable zones
consist of calcite and dolomite associated with
forsterite, diopside, and scapolite, often accompanied by phlogopite, sometimes in well-formed
crystals up to 2 cm. The blue lazurite is almost
always associated with pyrite.
The steep footpath that leads to the main mine
(figure 6 ) ends at a small platform, about 2 m x
2 m, at the entrance of a vast cavern that still
shows traces of black smoke from ancient mining
operations and from which lead the exploited galFigure 6. Access to the mine at Sar-e-Sang.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DEPOSITS

The Sar-e-Sangcomplex consists of strongly metamorphosed rocks, with gneisses, cipolins, slzarns,
crystalline schists, amphibolites, veins of leucocratic granites, and dykes of pyroxenite and hornblendite which are found in enormous blocks in
the streambed.
The mountain, which is nearly vertical in
slope, is composed of cipolins up to 400 m thick
overlying gneiss. Standing out from the white
marbles of the cipolins is a gray band, about
40 m wide, consisting of skarns in which the lapislazuli occurs. The skarns form beds and lenses,
generally 1- to 2-m-and occasionally 4-m-thick,
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 198 1
Figure 7. A block of lazurite i n the m i n e dumps

at Sar-e-Sang.
leries. The rock is very hard; to break it up, early

miners used great wood fires to fracture the limestone. Now dynamite charges are used. The lenses
of lapis-lazuli detached from the rock are masses
of many kilograms, although they rarely exceed
100 kg. Those less than 10 kg are relatively homogeneous (figure 7). The zonal structure of the
most important lenses recalls their sedimentary
origins and the action of metamorphism, because
the centers of the larger grains consist of a composite of plagioclase, diopside, calcite, and lazurite, which is surrounded by zones of fine, dark
blue grains of lazurite, diopside, and scapolite,
with a marginal zone of calcite, diopside, forsterite, and pyrite.
The blocks of rock lacking color are thrown
from the platform to the dump 300 m below, in
the Sar-e-Sang streambed. It is in such pieces of
cipolin that one must look for well-crystallized
lazurite. Single crystals may reach 5 cm in diameter (figure 8)) with the dominant form being
the rhombic dodecahedron { l lo}, sometimes accompanied by faces of {loo} and { 1lo}. A specimen of the mineral afghanite, a species of the cancrinite group, was collected from the region by P.
Bariand during an earlier expedition (Bariand,
Cesbron, and Giraud, 1968).
baikal deposits in the U.S.S.R., which present

poor analogies to those of Afghanistan. The following notes are based primarily on our study of
the Sar-e-Sang deposits.
The presence of almandine garnet, sillimanite,
and kyanite in the schists and gneisses of Sar-eSang indicates a regional metamorphism involving high temperatures and pressures, a conclusion
that is shared by all the geologists who have visited the region. The well-formed single crystals
of lazurite, with isometric development of faces
of {110}, are formed during metamorphism in a
plastic environment in which fluids circulate
freely. The original pelitic sediments, and thus
the important bed of shale and limestone that
overlies them, contained a certain amount of salt
water, which with the rise in temperature and
pressure during metamorphism transformed the
shale into gneiss or granite (Wyart and Sabatier,
1959))and the limestone into cipolin.
Granitization liberates those solutions whose
circulation is facilitated by the tectonic disloFigure 8. A 5-cm lazurite crystal from Sar-eSang, Badakhshan, Afghanistan. Photograph
Î981 Nelly Bariand.
NOTES ON THE ORIGIN

OF, LAPIS-LAZULI
The regional petrology was described by Blaise
and Cesbron in 1966. However, they relied on a
detailed study made by Korzhinslzij in 1947 regarding the formation of lazurite from the Pre-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
189
cations. The kaolin of the shale possesses the

chemical composition AL,Si,,O,o(OH)gl
which approaches the proportions of silica and aluminum
in the minerals of the sodalite group. Solutions
containing sodium chloride, which are active at
relatively low temperatures (on the order of 400C
as shown by the hydrothermal synthesis of these
minerals in the laboratory, readily transform the
kaolin into feldspars. However, it is only at higher
temperatures that the more or less dolomitic
limestones are metamorphosed into cipolins intimately associated with silicates such as diopside and forsterite. These solutions are strongly
sulfurous, as is indicated by the consistent presence of pyrite and the presence, less frequently,
of sulfides such as galena and molybdenite. It is
the presence of sulfur that favors the crystallization of lazurite rather than sodalite, which is
found only rarely in these veins. Chlorine, present in the original sediments as sodium chloride,
is found in the apatite which always appears, associated with calcite.
THE COMMERCIAL EXPLOITATION OF
LAPIS-LAZULI FROM SAR-E-SANG
Transport of the material from the mine at Sar-eSang, via Jarm and Feyzabad, to Kabul requires at
least nine days. Prior to the occupation of Afghanistan by the Russians in late 1979, approximately one ton of lapis-lazuli was extracted annually. About 200 kg of this material was sold to
Afghan lapidaries, and the rest was exported. Sorting by the Ministry of Mines separated the material into five categories, with the highest category priced three times that of the lowest. The
first category, comprising about 2% of production, included massive blocks of deep blue color,
without inclusions or fissures; the second category, or 14% of production, included smaller
pieces, not more than 5 cm, with the same characteristics as the first group. These two categories
were destined for jewelry. The other categories,
which varied from dark blue to light blue, with
veins of calcite and with varying proportions of
pyrite, were used to make ornamental objects.
Reports from Afghanistan since the Russian
occupation indicate that at the time of publication this mountainous area had not been taken
over by the Russians and remained under the control of Afghan nationalists. However, it appears
that the mines have not been worked during this
190
period. Therefore, it is likely that current legal

exports are from old stock. It should be noted that
operations to smuggle the material across the border with Pakistan continue now as they have for
years past.
REFERENCES
Bariand P., Cesbron F., Giraud R. (1968)Une nouvelle espkce
minerale: l'afghanite de Sar-e-Sang, Badakhshan, Afghanistan. Comparaison avec les mineraux du groupe de la cancrinite. Bulletin de la Societe francaise de Mineralogie et
de Cristallographie, Vol. 91, pp. 34-42.
Barth T.F.W. (1932)The structures of the minerals of the sodalite family. Zeitschrift fur Kristallographie, Vol. 83, pp.
405-414.
Barthoux J. (1933) Lapis-lazuli et rubis balais des cipolins afghans. Comptes Rendus de 1'Academie des Sciences de
France, Vol. 196, pp. 1131- 1134.
Blaise J., Cesbron F. (1966) Donnees inineralogiques et
petrographiques sur Ie gisement de lapis-lazuli de Sar-eSang, Hindou-Kouch, Afghanistan. Bullletin cle la Socidtd
francaise de Minerdogie el de Cristallogropt~ie,Vol. 89,
pp. 333-348.
Bordet P., Boutiere A. (1968)Reconnaissance gkologique dans
1'Hindou-Kouch oriental (Badakhshan, Afghanistan). Bulletin de la Socidte gkologique de France, Vol. 7, pp. 486496.
Brueckl K. (1935) Ueber die Geologie von Badaldishan und
Katagan (Afghanistan). Neues /ahrbuch fur Minewlogie,
Vol. 74, pp. 360-401.
Herrmann G. (1968)Lapis-lazuli: the early phases of its trade.
IRAQ, Vol. 30, Part 1, pp. 21-57.
Hogarth P.D. (1970)Mineral occurrences in the western Lake
Baikal district, USSR. Mineralogical Record, Vol. 1, No. 2,
pp. 58-64.
Jaeger P.M. (1930) Sur les outremers naturels et artificiels.
Bulletin de la Societt?frunfaise de Minkralogie et de Cristallographie, Vol. 53, pp. 183-209.
Lapparent A.F. de, Bariand P., Blaise J. (1965) Une visite au
gisement de lapis-lazuli de Sar-e-Sang (Hindou-Kouch, Afghanistan). Comptes Renclus Sommaire et Bulletin de la
Socikte gkologique de France, p. 30.
Machatschlu F. (1933) Zur Hauynformel. Centralblatt fur
Mineralogie, p. 145.
Machatschlu F. (1934) Kristallstruktur von Hauyn und NoSean. Centralblatt fur Mineralogie, pp. 136-144.
Pauling L. (1930)The structure of sodalite and helvite. Zeitschrift fur Kristallographie, Vol. 115, pp. 213-225.
Rice C.M. (1951) Dictionary of Geological Terms. Edwards
Brothers, Ann Arbor, Ml.
Rogers A.F. (1938)Lapis-lazuli from San Bemardino County,
California. American Mineralogist, Vol. 23, pp. 111-1 13.
Saafeld H. (1961) Strukturbesonderheiten des Hauyngitters.
Zeitschrift fur Kristallographie, Vol. 115, pp. 132-140.
Sinkankas J. (1976)Gemstones of North America, Vol. 2, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, NY.
Webster R. (1962)Gems, Their Sources, Description and Edificaiion. Butterworth & Co., Hamden, CT.
Wood J. (1841) A Personal Narrative of a tourney to the Source
of the River Oxus. John Murray, London.
Wyart J., Sabatier G. (1959). Transformation des sediments
pelitiques a 80WC sous une pression d'eau de 1800 bars et
granitisation. Bulletin de la Soci6tefranfaise de Mineralogie
et de Cristallographie, Vol. 82, pp. 201-210.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
GEM GARNETS IN THE

RED-TO-VIOLET COLOR RANGE
B y D, Vincent Manson and Carol M.Stockton
The gemological classification of garnets

has been thrown into question with the
appearance on the market of n e w types of
garnets that do not fit into the traditional
system of description. The question of
what criteria should be used to classify
both old and n e w types of garnets is
approached i n this article through the
study of 96 red-to-violet gem garnets.
While the color of gem garnets is of
paramount importance, color being both
their most obvious feature as well as
their principal claim to beauty, this
article shows that the characteristic of
color appears to have little correlation
with variations in bulk (not trace)
composition or physical properties,
Analysis of the gemological properties,
chemical composition, and CIE color
coordinates of the stones studied led t o
the more specific definition of the widely
accepted terms pyrope, almandine, and
rhodolite for meaningful gemological
classification. This article represents the
first i n a series of studies aimed at
developing an effective terminology for
the characterization of gem garnets.
--
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Dr. Manson is director of research and Ms.

Stockton is research gemologist at the
Gemological Institute of America, Santa Monica,
CA.
'I7
982 Gemological Institute of America
Red-to-Violet Gem Garnets
he garnet group of minerals encompasses both complex variations in chemical composition and a wide
range of physical and optical properties among its members. As a result, the garnets have been subjected to
various classification schemes by mineralogists and gemologists over the years. While the mineralogist usually
has the instrumentation available to perform detailed
chemical analyses, the gemologist is limited, for practical purposes, to a few basic tests that measure optical
and physical properties of gemstones and that may or may
not accurately reflect the bulk chemical composition of
a complex material such as garnet. An effective gemological classification is one that enables the gemologist to
employ readily available tests to reflect the differences in
appearance and the chemical interrelationships that exist
in a group such as garnets. For this reason, we have undertaken a review of all the gem garnets, with special attention to the needs and restrictions of the gemologist,
in order to provide a viable gemological classification of
this group. As the first in a series, this article looks particularly at garnets in the general hue range of red to violet (excluding those stones that are obviously orangish
red), including for the most part those gem specimens
whose chemical compositions consist primarily of combinations of pyrope and almandine (see figure 1).We selected this fairly familiar area in order to show that even
the well-documented types of garnets still have problems
that need to be addressed. In addition, this gives us an
opportunity to introduce the methods of analysis that
will be used throughout our ongoing study of garnets.
A representative example of a mineralogical classification of garnets is the hierarchical terminology given in
Deer, Howie, and Zussman (19631, which includes group
(garnet),series (pyralspite and ugrandite), and species (pyrope, almandine, etc.). Many of these terms, such as
pyralspite, are still in use even though more recent de-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
191
'.;,:.-;
'iA
'I.'?,,.
..
Figure 1 . Examples of
garnets in the red-to-violet
color range used in this
study.
..
scriptions of the compositions of garnets (Meagher,

1980) have contradicted the premises on which
the terms were originally based (Winchell and
Winchell, 1933).In agreement with most of the
relevant literature, however, Deer, Howie, and
Zussman list six species as being of major importance: pyrope, almandine, spessartine, uvarovite,
grossular, and andradite. Another classification
refers to these same terms as subspecies of the
group garnet (Hurlbut and Switzer, 1979).To some
extent, this may be due to a difference in interpretation by mineralogists of the meaning of the
term species with regard to the members of a
mineral group. Some equate species with a chemically pure end member (discussed later in this
article), while for others it refers to a range of
chemical variations. Hurlbut and Switzer, in fact,
mention that the subspecies names are applied
more loosely and cite an example in which "for
convenience, gems near the end of the almandinepyrope solid solution series are called almandine," but nowhere could we find that such a
stone is specifically referred to as a member of the
species almandine. Because of the influence of
color on the appreciation of gemstones, an additional vital requirement of a complete gemological classification goes beyond the identification
of species or bulk chemical composition to the
definition of varieties. An excellent example is
the invaluable distinction of ruby from pink sapphire, let alone from other corundums; all are of
the same species and bulk chemical composition,
but the types and quantities of trace elements
present make a difference in color. Garnets do
have an assortment of varietal names such as
rhodolite, hessonite, and the like, but these are
not rigorously defined and so lead to further
confusion.
Garnets of the red-to-violet color range gen-
192
4,
erally associated with the pyrope-almandine

series reflect the problems associated with gem
garnets in general. The importance of color in
gems has led to the association by gemologists of
very particular colors with the various types of
garnets: any deep, pure red garnet is usually regarded as pyrope, any violetish-red garnet has
been automatically assumed to be rhodolite, and
so on. Such assumptions are not necessarily valid.
What is a pyrope, an almandine, a rhodolite? What
criteria enable us to delimit the ranges of their
properties? How well do the commonly employed
gemological tests (refractive index, specific gravity, and absorption spectrum) enable us to define
and identify species and varieties? To what extent
is the chemical composition of a garnet relevant
to the gemologist? Are there natural breaks in the
chemical continuum that we might use to advantage in defining these gem garnet species and varieties? What do we do with garnets that do not
fit the currently defined categories? To what extent do we need definable nomenclature and how
rigorous should the classifications be? How should
color enter into these definitions?
THE GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF
THE PYROPE-ALMANDINE SERIES
According to traditional gemological usage, this
series includes three loosely defined types of garnets: pyrope, almandine, and rhodolite. Pyrope
has been characterized as a dark to very dark pure
red magnesium-aluminum garnet with a refractive index of approximately 1.74, a specific gravity of about 3.78, and no characteristic spectrum;
almandine is described as a medium to very dark
brownish-red iron-aluminum garnet with a refractive index around 1.79, a specific gravity of
about 4.05, and a characteristic spectrum with
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
bands at 4360, 4700, 5050, 5270, 5760, and 6180

A. Rhodolite lies between pyrope and almandine
and has been less well characterized. The original
description by Hidden and Pratt (1898) of rhodolite from North Carolina states that "the predominant color is a pale rosy tint inclining to purple . . ." and that "the ratio of MgO to FeO is
almost exactly 2:l. . . ." The refractive index and
specific gravity are, respectively, about 1.76 and
3.84, but their upper and lower limits are in question. The spectrum is essentially the same as that
for almandine. It should be noted that there are
other pyrope-almandine garnets in the same range
of chemical, optical, and physical properties as
rhodolite, but they do not fit the color description
for this type of garnet.
THE CHEMISTRY OF GARNETS
A garnet can be composed of four or more chemical elements, represented by the formula
X3Y2Z30i2,where X, Y, and Z each signifies one
or more elements. X may include one or more of
the elements calcium (Ca),manganese (Mn),magnesium (Mg), or iron (Fe); Y may be aluminum
(Al), iron, titanium (Ti), vanadium (V), andlor
chromium (Cr); and Z may be silicon (Si), iron,
titanium, andlor aluminum. Those types of garnets that contain only the minimum four elements (i.e., one element for each of X, Y, and Z,
plus oxygen) are referred to as "end members."
Theoretically, then, there is a possible total of
60 end members, involving the above-mentioned
elements, for the garnet group. Some of these,
however, may not exist for chemical or geologic
reasons that we will not go into here. Others are
so rare as to be insignificant to the gemologist. In
this study, nine are examined, of which only five
are abundant among gem garnets (table 1). Individual garnets are composed of two or more of
these end members; stones that consist of one
end member only are exceedingly rare in nature,
although occasional specimens do exist in which
a single end member is responsible for more than
95% of the composition.
There are two essential reasons for using the
concept of end members to discuss the composition of individual garnets. First, it provides a practical procedure for correlating the relationships
between physical properties and chemical composition. Second, it enables us to relate results
obtained in this study with similar chemical analyses that have been published previously. Our
calculation of end members is based on the

method formulated by Rickwood (19681, but we
have changed the sequence of calculation slightly
to better account for the nature of gem garnets,
in particular by using as much of the Ti and the
Few as possible. The macroanalytical techniques
used for most of the analyses in Rickwood's article, principally wet chemical analysis, together
with the fact that the non-gem garnets generally
employed in prior studies were usually more included than the gem-quality garnets used here,
required allowance for the presence of rutile,
magnetite, and ilmenite as impurities. Such inclusions did not need to be considered in the
chemical analysis of the gem-quality, relatively
inclusion-free garnets used here, especially insofar as microprobe analysis permits selection of a
microscopic inclusion-free area for testing (Dunn,
1977). In addition, we have calculated uvarovite
before lznorringite, in accordance with more recent findings by Sobolev et al. (1973)with regard
to the existence of a pyrope-uvarovite series. In
some of the calculations, Si, Al, and Fez+are present in excess of the amounts needed to satisfy the
garnet formula. If there is any significance to the
presence of these residuals beyond that of simple
analytical error, it would not be surprising, since
the geological environment and the processes involved in the formation of garnets suggest that
these would be the most likely impurities present. Our scheme is further supported by the high
percentage of cations accounted for by end members in the 96 stones studied: always over 97%
and usually over 99% (see figure 2).
TABLE 1. Garnet end members
Chemical
formula
Name
Schorlomite
Andradite
(Yamatoitep
Uvarovite
Knorringite
Pyrope
Spessartine
Grossular
Almandine
Reference
Ito and Frondel,
1967
Deer el al., 1962
Fleischer, 1965
Deer et al., 1962
Nixon and Hornung,
1968
Deer et all, 1962
Deer et al., 1962
Deer et al., 1962
Deer el al., 1962
"The vanadium analog of spessartine.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
193
% of oxides accounted for by end members
Figure 2. Histogram illustrating the percentages

of oxides in the 96 garnets that are accounted
for by nine end members.
It is important to remember that the garnet

end member is merely a convenient theoretical
concept for discussing the chemical make-up of
this gem group. Garnets, even as end members,
do not consist of discrete molecular units; the
atoms of a garnet are combined in a continuous,
three-dimensional framework (figure 3 ) .
End members, then, were calculated for this
study in the sequence shown in table 1, beginning
with schorlomite. The calculation required two
basic steps. Because the microprobe cannot determine to what oxidation state or states an element belongs, and because certain elements can
occur in more than one oxidation state in garnet,
one must first calculate the distribution of A1 to
the Y and Z sites, Fe to the XIY, and Z sites, and
Ti to the Y and Z sites according to the requirements of garnet stoichiometry. Any Al, Ti, and Fe
allotted to the Z site are added to SiOa and treated
as such in the absence of evidence to support preference for them by any particular end members.
From the resulting oxide proportions, end members are then derived on the basis of stoichiometry. Inasmuch as Rickwood has discussed this
procedure in depth, we need not go into it any
further.
194
Figure 3. A portion of the garnet crystal

structure. The large open circles represent
oxygens, the smaller ones the Y cations, the
solid circles the Z cations, and the hatched
ones the X cations. (From Novak and Gibbs, 1971).
DATA COLLECTION
We selected specimen stones for the study on the
basis of color, the most obvious criterion and,
consciously or unconsciously, the test undoubtedly used most by gemologists in identifying
variety. Thus, all the stones in the study are predominantly red to violet, but they vary widely in
brightness and saturation of color.
The data collected for each stone are of three
types: physical and optical (specific gravity and
refractive index), spectral (11 absorption bands
and two color coordinates), and chemical (nine
end members), totalling 24 variables for 96 garnets.
The instruments used in data collection included a GEM Duplex I1 refractometer and, for
stones with refractive indices over 1.790, a prototype Duplex I1 with cubic zirconia hemisphere
(Hurlbut, 1981). Specific gravities were obtained
by means of the hydrostatic method with a selftaring balance. Spectra were obtained by two
methods: (1) visually using a hand spectroscope,
and (2) by the use of an automatic recording
spectrophotometer (Hofer and Manson, 1981),
which graphically displays the spectra and stores
them on a magnetic disc. Color measurement was
obtained using a GEM ColorMaster, and the readings were then converted to CIE (Commission
Internationale de llEclairage) coordinates via a
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
computer program developed by one of the authors. Garnet compositions were determined on
the MAC microprobe at the California Institute
of Technology using the Ultimate correction program (Chodos et al., 1973). In addition, unit-cell
measurements were obtained for selected specimens by the powder diffraction method with a
Philips Debye-Scherrer camera.
Unit-cell measurements were determined for

about half the garnets in the study. A brief examination of their relationships with the other
properties we measured revealed more complex
interrelationships than we felt could be dealt with
in this article alone, and so they will be discussed
separately in a later article that will also include
similar data for other types of garnets.
DISCUSSION OF DATA
Physical and Optical Data. A plot of the refractive
indices versus the specific gravities for these 96
stones (figure 4) shows a more or less continuous
linear relationship extending from the coordinates for the end member pyrope to those for the
end member almandine. Departures from this line
are probably due to the effects of end member
components other than pyrope and almandine in
the individual garnet specimens, as well as to a
certain amount of measurement error.
Spectral Data. The spectra obtained with the recording spectrophotometer showed 11 consistent
bands [figure 5), which we refer to as A through
I, I,, and Ig (centered approximately at wavelengths of 4270, 4380, 4610, 4730, 5035, 5230,
5710, 6090,6920 and, within the last broad band,
6750 and 6870 A). We devised a simplified approach to expressing the relative strengths of these
bands in which we rated each band according to
the spectrophotometer graphs on a scale of zero
[not visible) to five (very strong).There appears to
be a relationship between the darkness of a stone
and the number of bands visible, as might be expected based on the ability to transmit light: the
darker the stone, the fewer bands visible, especially in the shorter wavelengths. With few exceptions, bands E through I were always visible
Figure 4. Refractive index plotted against

specific gravity for the 96 garnets studied.
Points for the ideal end members pyrope and
almandine are also shown.
Almandine
Figure 5. Representative spectral curves

showing the absorption bands as observed i n
the 96 garnets with the spectrophotometer.
Approximate wavelength equivalents are:
A = 4270, B = 4380, C = 4610, D = 4730,
E = 5035, F = 5230, G = 5710, H = 6090,
I = 6920 and, within the last broad band,
I , = 6750 and I, = 6870 A.
. Pyrope
0
360
370
380
390
400
410
420
430
440
specific gravity
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
195
Figure 6. Points for t h e 96

garnets plotted on the
pyrope versus almandine
versus spessartine ternary
diagram.
Pyrope
with the spectrophotometer; bands E through G

could always be seen with the hand spectroscope
as well. Bands B and D always appeared to be very
weak, even with the more sensitive spectrophotometer. The former never appeared in the hand
spectroscope, and the latter was seen only rarely,
even though the spectrophotometer indicated that
one or both bands were present.
A distinctly different curve was visible with
both the spectrophotometer and the spectroscope
for four very dark red stones. All four clearly
showed the I, and I, bands, in three cases to the
exclusion of all other absorption bands while the
fourth did exhibit a very faint E band.
Chemical Composition. The interrelationships
among end members can be portrayed, three end
members at a time, by means of ternary diagrams.
(An explanation of ternary diagrams is provided
in the Appendix.) We plotted diagrams for various
combinations of the five major end members and
selected two that best exhibited the general patterns that appeared (the first illustrated in figures
6 and 7, the second in figure 8). The first ternary
involves pyrope, almandine, and spessartine, as
these three end members together comprise the
largest portion of the composition of most of the
garnets in the study. The second ternary was selected from a number of other diagrams illustrating various combinations of end members because
it showed the most distinctive pattern. The end
196
Red-to-Violet G e m Garnets
Alrnandine
members included are' pyrope (on an average, the

single most abundant end member), spessartine,
and the sum of grossular and andradite.
Figure 6 [pyrope, almandine, and spessartine)
displays a distinct trend among those garnets that
contain 34% to 72% pyrope, 28% to 66% almandine, and 0% to 4% spessartine. The trend
illustrates a tendency for spessartine to increase
slightly as the amount of almandine increases,
probably because Mn easily substitutes for Fez+
due to their similarity in atomic size and structure. It is this group that contains the greatest
number of garnets in the study. Two garnets, both
containing approximately 78% almandine and
22% pyrope, also may belong to this group, but
they are notably higher in almandine content
than the main group. Also in line with the principal trend are four garnets that are considerably
higher in pyrope (around 80%) but that, in terms
of oxide percentages, exhibit 1.7% to 2.0% Cr-jOy
which translates to about 6.0% uvarovite. These
are the same garnets previously noted as showing
only the I, and I, absorption bands; this apparently reflects the large quantities of chromium
they contain, since these stones are also the only
"These values as well as the other percentages in this

paragraph refer to the amounts recalculated for
plotting of the end members on the ternary diagram
in figure 6.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Figure 7. Pyrope versus almandine versus spessartine ternary diagram with garnets placed
on their respective coordinates. It is obvious that color is not a function of chemistry
with regard to these three end members.
garnets in the study that contain more than 1.0%

of this oxide.
Another group of 11 garnets may be distinguished by the greater amounts of spessartine
present, from 4% to 10%.Two other stones continue this trend toward even higher spessartine
content. They are composed of (respectively):pyrope, 62% and 55.5%; almandine, 25% and 32% ;
and spessartine, 13% and 12.5%. In addition,
seven garnets' that each contain more than 17%
spessartine do not belong to any group identifiable in this study. However, the colors of these
stones and, in most cases, their readily observable
physical and optical properties might otherwise
place them among the group of gemstones traditionally recognized by gemologists as the pyropealmandine garnets. Figure 7 displays 63 of the 96
stones in the study, a representative sample of the

colors of these garnets, placed table down on the
pyxope-almandine-spessartineternary i n their respective positions and photographed to illustrate
the distribution of color. This dramatically shows
the apparently random variation in hue associated with these major chemical components of
the red-to-violet garnets.
The most obvious feature of the second ternary (figure 8: pyrope, spessartine, and grossular
+ andradite) is that the stones that fall along the
line between pyrope and grossular + andradite
clearly fall into two groups: (1)2% to 12% * gros-
Values expressed in this paragraph refer to

amounts recalculated for plotting i n figure 8.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
197
Grossular
Figure 8. The 96 garnets

plotted on the pyrope
versus spessartine versus
grossular + andradite
ternary diagram,
+ Andradite
pYrOPe
sular + andradite, and 86% to 98% pyrope; and

(2) 17% to 25% grossular + andradite, and 74%
to 82% pyrope. Stones in both groups have roughly
less than 4% spessartine. One stone that has 15%
grossular + andradite lies between the two groups
and suggests that the gap may simply be due to
sampling bias. On this diagram, the higher-spessartine-content stones appear to have about 4.5%
to 25% spessartine. Two of these contain more
than 15% grossular + andradite, as in the second
group mentioned above, while the rest have less
than 12% grossular + andradite, as in the first
group above. However, there are not enough stones
in this region to draw any conclusions about the
significance of such a split among the higherspessartine-content stones. There are two stones
with a still higher spessartine content of about
49.5% and 5 1% and with, respectively, 35% and
39.5% pyrope and 15.5% and 9.5% grossular +
andradite. The two stones containing no pyrope
appear here as containing 98% and 99% spessartine since almandine has been excluded.
Spessartine
(Manson, in preparation), a brief explanation of

the chromaticity diagram integral to this system
is warranted here. A set of coordinates was developed to express the relationship among all
colors from the most saturated hues to white
light (or neutral gray) on the basis of a "standard
observer's" response to various color stimuli (the
average of observations of a large number of people). The chromatic portions of these measurements were plotted on an x-y coordinate graph to
produce the chromaticity diagram (figure 9), standardized in 1931. This diagram consists of a
Figure 9. The C1E chromaticity diagram, with
points for white light (X)and selected
wavelengths. The shaded area indicates the
portion of the diagram reproduced in figure 10.
Color. The color of each garnet in the study was

described in terms of GEM ColorMaster notations that were then converted to the CIE system
of color measurement, so called after the Commission Internationale de IJEclairage, an international committee devoted to the study of the
behavior of light and color. CIE is supported by
many organizations and is the most widely recognized authority in the field, attempting to consolidate the immense quantity of research done
in the area of light and color into standardized and
internationally acceptable systems of description.
While the CIE system is described fully elsewhere (Wright, 1969)) as well as with particular
reference to gemology and the GEM ColorMaster
198
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Figure 10. The red-to-violet region of the CIE chromaticity diagram with the 96 garnets
positioned according to their x-y coordinates. Hues range from violet at the lower left,
through red at the lower right, into orangish red at the upper right. Pale colors appear in
the upper left, near the coordinates for white light.
skewed parabolic curve along which lie the saturated hues and in the approximate center of
which is the location of the white light
coordinates.
Thus, any hue and saturation can be represented by a set of x-y coordinates and plotted as
a point along or within the chromaticity curvegoing from violet and blue at the extreme lower
left, through green at the top of the curve, to red
at the extreme lower right. In the region defined
by the straight line that connects the two ends of
the curve lie the nonspectral hues, from violet
through purple to red. Spectrophotometric measurements have enabled us to correlate the coordinates of the saturated hues with their respective
dominant wavelengths, as shown in the diagram
in figure 9. Along any radial line drawn between
white light and a saturated hue lie colors of increasing saturation as one approaches the curve,
but that are of the same hue and dominant wavelength. For example, on such a line between white
light and the coordinate point for red at 7000 A,
the color near white light would be pale pink, increasing to deep red as the line approached the
chromaticity curve, but any point along the line
would have the dominant wavelength 7000 A.
Color notations for the garnet specimens were
obtained with a GEM ColorMaster and were then
converted mathematically to x and y CIE coordinates. The color notations used represent averages of readings obtained on the ColorMaster by
three trained observers. The ColorMaster proved
to be extremely useful as a simple and efficient
means of obtaining measurements that could be
converted to CIE coordinates, of which there is
only one set for any given color. Once converted,
the CIE coordinates were plotted on a chromaticity diagram (figure lo), as well as employed in
the factor analysis described later in this article.
DISCUSSION OF ERROR
While we feel confident that the results obtained
in this study are significant, we must also point
out that no scientific research is without uncer-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
199
tainties. Sources of error do exist in the operation,

function, and mathematics of microprobe analysis; in the possible chemical inhomogeneity of
some of the stones tested; in the coating and
mounting of gem specimens for chemical analysis; and in simple human error in measuring the
physical and optical properties. However, we feel
that the error factors in this study are minor and
do not significantly affect our conclusions.
As a measure of the error associated with the
microprobe, we examined the extent to which
sample compositions expressed by microprobe
chemical analyses deviate from the actual composition of a given stone, This variability is caused
by slight irregularities in operating conditions
such as the preparation of the specimen, the position of the specimen relative to the electron
beam, electronic fluctuations in the microprobe,
mathematical and statistical error in the interpretation of microprobe data, and the like.
A sample of the McGetchin standard garnet
(McGetchin, 1968) at the California Institute of
Technology was analyzed at intervals over the
same span of time that the 96 garnet specimen
analyses were performed for this study, and 27
control analyses with total weight percentages
between 99% and 101% were obtained. To provide an idea of the amount of error that could exist in our microprobe analyses, we compared the
various results for the control garnet, which produced the averages and standard deviations from
the original weight percentages shown in table 2.
Deviation from the average varies from case
to case depending on the amount of any given
oxide present in a specimen; the greater the
amount of an oxide present, the smaller the relative variability due to the greater sensitivity of
TABLE 2. Measurement of error
200
Average
weight %
Range
41.93
0.16
22.4 1
0.03
1.37
20.00
4.58
0.37
9.18
40.73-42.80
0.10- 0,20
21.67-22.92
0- 0.09
1.28- 1,45
19.49-20.39
4.42- 4.77
0.27- 0.44
8.56-1 0.23
Standard
deviation
0.54
0.03
0.34
0.03
0.04
0.26
0.18
0.05
0.32
the microprobe as the amount o f any element

present increases.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
The final analytical method used was a mathematical procedure known as factor analysis (explained in Manson, 1967).This is a sophisticated
method of data reduction designed to look simultaneously at the interrelationships among
large numbers of variables measured on many
samples. The nature of physical space limits us
graphically to three or, by means of models, four
dimensions in dealing with variables. Factor analysis, especially with the aid of a computer, enables us to handle as many dimensions at once as
we wish, in this case 24. However, routinely describing any given garnet by 24 properties would
be entirely too cumbersome and might involve
some variables that were completely or partly redundant. For example, if refractive index and specific gravity were so perfectly correlated that
knowing one would allow you to exactly predict
the other, then there would be no need to obtain
both of these properties in testing for the identity
of a stone. Essentially, the factor analysis checks
for such correlations, though the relationships are
usually more subtle than in the above example.
This procedure provides us with a set of new
variables, or "factors," that are composites of the
relevant original data variables. The factor analysis tells us how much of the variability among
the specimens can be accounted for by each factor
and rates the factors accordingly. Thus, the first
five factors might account for 85% of this variability, the first eight for 90%) the first 10 for 92%,
and so on. It is up to the investigator at this point
to decide what amount of variability adequately
describes the situation at hand, extract the minimum number of factors that provide this optimum amount of information about the samples,
and then interpret the factors in terms of the original variables.
In this case, the factor analysis provided us
with seven factors, as described below, which account for more than 90% of the overall variability
in the garnets examined. The original 24 variables
are represented by, or "load" onto, the factors as
shown in table 3, in which the factors are arranged from the most variability accounted for
(factor 1)to the least (factor 7). The factor analysis
also describes the percentage of variability in each
stone as accounted for by each individual factor.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Factors 1 and 2 generally describe the collection of 97 garnets as a whole, that is, by the end
members pyrope and almandine and, to a lesser
extent, by andradite and grossular. Factor 3 accounts for stones that are high in uvarovite content. The fourth factor represents garnets that
contain yamatoite, which correlates positively
with pyrope and negatively with almandine. (It
must be noted, however, that the quantities of
yamatoite on which this correlation is based are
very small, less than 0.85% .) Similarly, schorlomite forms the basis for factor 5, correlating with
grossular. Factor 6 represents spessartine, which
correlates negatively with andradite and pyrope;
the negative correlation with pyrope was already
evident in the trend seen in figure 6. The final factor correlates knorringite positively with andradite and negatively with grossular, but again it
TABLE 3. Factor loadings.

Factors
Variables
End Member
Almandine
Pyrope
Spessartine
Grossular
Andradite
Schorlomite
Uvarovite
Knorringite
Yamatoite
Physical
Properties
R.I.
S.G.
Color
Spectral
Bands
A
D
E
F
G
H
I
1.
I*
+++
+++ +
++
++ -
+++
++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+++
+ +++
+ +++
++ ++
++ +++
+++ +
-
+ + + strong positive correlation

+ + moderate positive correlation
+--- strong
weak positive correlation
negative correlation
--
moderate negative correlation

weak negative correlation
-
must be kept in mind that the knorringite only

occurs in small quantities.
Table 3 also illustrates how the physical, optical, and spectral properties relate to the various
end members. However, caution must be used in
interpreting these relationships, since differing
scales of measurement that were used have
varying effects on the mathematics of factor analysis. Generally, the patterns that emerged from
this statistical analysis confirm the ideas we had
formed along the course of the project, but subtle
interrelationships also appeared that might prove
more important as further detailed investigation
is conducted in the future.
Because of the strong relationship indicated by
the factor analysis between refractive index, specific gravity, and the pyrope and almandine constituents of the red-to-violet garnets, we reexamined the graph of refractive index versus
specific gravity (figure 4) and at the same time
distinguished between high pyrope content, high
almandine content, and approximately equal content of pyrope and almandine for each stone in
the study (figure 11). It can be seen that, for the
most part, a refractive index of less than 1.752 in
conjunction with a specific gravity of less than
3.86 represents garnets that contain more pyrope
than almandine. A refractive index of more ,than
1.779 with a specific gravity over 4.00 indicates
garnets that have more almandine than pyrope.
Approximately equal portions of pyrope and almandine (1-5:l to l : 1.5)yield a range of refractive
index over 1.751 and up to 1.774, with a range of
specific gravity of more than 3.8 1 and up to 3.99.
There is a continuation from the range of the high
pyrope properties to that of properties for the
stones having approximately a 1:1 ratio of pyrope
to almandine; in fact, a small area of overlap can
be seen in figure 11. Other exceptions to the
ranges described with respect to composition are
also visible in figure 11. Three high-pyrope stones
lie well within the range for those stones usually
having a 1:1 ratio of pyrope to almandine, and
another stone with a 1:1 ratio lies within the
range for high-pyrope garnets. Two of these stones
contain more spessartine than either pyrope or
almandine, which might explain this anomaly,
but the other two garnets are definitely members
of the pyrope-almandine series that contain more
pyrope than almandine. Thus far we have been
unable to determine what causes their properties
to be so high.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
201
Almandine
more Spessartine than either Pyrope or

Almandine
Pyrope
3.50
3.60
3.70
3.80
3.90
4.00
4.10
4.20
4.30
4.40
specific gravity
Figure 11. T h e graph o f refractive i n d e x versus specific gravity, color coded t o indicate t h e
ratio of pyrope t o almandine for each o f t h e 96 garnets. Red indicates a pyrope:almandine
ratio o f greater than 1.5:1, black indicates an approximately 1:1 ratio (1.5:1 t o 1:1.5), and
blue denotes a ratio of less t h a n 1:1.5.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
CONCLUSIONS
In practical terms, the gemologist is essentially
limited to the use of three tests in the identification of garnets: refractive index, specific gravity, and absorption spectrum. For the red-to-violet
garnets, this study shows that these three determinations do provide certain indications of the
composition of the stones studied. In one case,
that of chrome pyrope, we can use the spectroscope to observe obsorption bands that are characteristic of the high Cr203content of these garnets. In addition, refractive index and specific
gravity together give us a reasonably reliable indication of the ratio of pyrope to almandine for
any specific stone. Anomalies between the two
properties may indicate the presence of significant amounts of end members other than pyrope
and almandine, especially spessartine. More often,
though, stones that contain large amounts of other
end members have a relationship between refractive index and specific gravity that still falls within
the trend shown by the pyrope-almandine series,
as one can see in figure 11. Generally, however,
we can define ranges of refractive index and specific gravity that, taken together, indicate whether
pyrope or almandine predominates in any given
specimen.
To avoid proliferation of names, and for convenience, we support using the name of the end
member that predominates. In the less rigorous
application of these terms, we can label stones in
the red-to-violet color range as beingpyrope if the
refractive index and specific gravity indicate that
there is more pyrope than almandine present (R.I.
below 1.752 and S.G. less than 3.86), or as almandine if these properties indicate that this end
member predominates (R.I. above 1.799 and S.G.
more than 4.00).In the case of red-to-violet stones
having approximately a 1: 1 ratio of these two end
members (R.I. between 1.751 and 1.774 and S.G.
between 3.81 and 3.99), we recommend that the
termpyrope-almandine be applied. Rhodolite, according to the original definition of the variety,
falls within the region to which we would also
apply the term pyrope.
The spectral data support the existence of a
general absorption spectrum associated with garnets in this color range, but there is no clear association between a particular spectrum and any
individual end member, including almandine.
With the exception of the chrome bands I, and la,
the variations that can be observed are of ques-
Red-to-Violet G e m Garnets
tionable usefulness within this color range. Some

bands appear to be affected by various end members, as indicated by the factor analysis (see table
3), but combinations of such end members may
cancel out or enhance these effects in such a way
as to conceal any correlations. In addition, the
general absorption of light associated with stones
of deeper color masks many of the bands in the
shorter wavelengths.
The relationship between color and bulk
chemistry for the garnets in this color range seems
to be, as can be seen from figure 7, entirely random. This is not surprising, as garnet has long
been recognized as allochromatic. The presence
of trace elements or ions not readily measurable
by the microprobe is undoubtedly responsible for
some or all of these variations in color. The quantities in which these trace elements are present,
however, apparently are not sufficient to affect
refractive index or specific gravity (both of which
reflect bulk chemical composition). Thus, the
common gemological tendency to associate color
with a particular type of garnet such as pyrope or
almandine is likely to be misleading if one is interested in an indication of chemical composition
within the red-to-violet color range of garnets.
Because of the importance of color in the appreciation of gem garnets and based on the results of
this study, however, the color criterion must be
an important consideration in any gemological
classification of garnets. The precise role of color
in the classification of all gem garnets, as well as
the roles of the other properties examined in this
study, must remain unresolved until we have
completed the examination of garnets in the other
ranges of color and chemical composition.
Acknowledgments: The authors wish to thank all the personnel

of the GIA and the Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc., who assisted in
the gathering 01 data. Special thanks go to Chuck Fryer lor his
valuable contributions and expert assistance and to Shane
McClure lor the considerable time. and ellort he expended in
furthering the study. Thanks also go to Arthur A. Chodos and the
California Institute 01 Technology lor their assistance with equipment, instruction, and advice in microprobe chemical analysis.
Thanks also to Peter Johnston lor the line drawings in ligures 2,
4 , 5, 6, 7 , and 11; to Tino Hammid lor the photograph in figure
1 ; and to Mike Havstad lor the photographs in ligures 7 and 10.
The data gathered on the 96 garnets used lor this article will be
published at a later date, upon the completion of the entire GIA
garnet project. Until that time, the authors will provide these data
on specific request.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 198 1
203
APPENDIX: TERNARY DIAGRAMS

The graphic illustration of the relationship between
three components is complicated by the difficulty of
visualizing three dimensions on paper (which is twodimensional). A ternary diagram achieves this illustration by the use of an equilateral triangle scaled from
0% to 100% in each of its three directions (see diagram
at right). Each point of the triangle represents 100% of
its respective component (e.g., A, B, or C in this diagram), while the side opposite represents 0% of that
component (e.g., the line between points B and C represents 0% of A). In order for a specimen to be represented as a single point on this diagram, A + B + C
must total 100%. If a specimen is made up 80% of components A, B, and C, and 20% of other components, but
one only wishes to examine the relationships between
A, B, and C, this can be done by recalculating A, B, and
C to add up to 100%. For example, sample X contains
24% A, 40% B, and 16% C. Dividing A, B, and C each
by their total (80%) and multiplying by 100% yields
recalculated amounts for A, B, and C equalling, respectively, 30%) 50%) and 20%, which now total 100% and
can be plotted on a ternary diagram. So, to locate the
point for X, read the percentage scale for each component in the appropriate direction (bottom to top for A,
upper right side to lower left corner for B, and upper

left side to lower right corner for C). Likewise, the percentages of components represented by points Y and Z
can also be read: Y consists of 10% A, 20% B, and 70%
C ; while Z has 60% A, 10% B, and 30% C . ,
REFERENCES
Chodos A.A., Albee A.L., Garcarz A.J., Laird J. [1973) Optimization of computer-controlled quantitative analysis of
minerals. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference
of Electron Probe Microanalysis, New Orleans, Louisana,
1973.
Deer W.A., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1963)Rock Forming Minerals, Vol., 1, Ortho- and Ring Silicates. Longman Group,
London, pp. 77-1 12.
Dunn P.J. (1977) The use of the electron microprobe in gemmology. fournal of Gemmology, Vol. 15, pp. 248-258.
Fleischer M. (1965) New minerals-yamatoite. American
Mineralogist, Vol. 50, p. 810.
Hidden W.E., Pratt J.H. (1898) On rhodolite, a new variety of
garnet. American Journal of Science, Vol. 5, pp. 294-296.
Hofer S.C., Manson D.V. (1981) Cryogenics, an aid to gemstone testing. Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 143149.
Hurlbut C.S. Jr. (1981) A cubic zirconia refractometer. Gems
el Gemology, Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 93-95.
Hurlbut C.S. Jr., Switzer G.S. (1979) Gemology. John Wiley
& Sons, New York, pp. 156-159.
Ito J,,Frondel C. (1967)Synthetic zirconium and titanium garnets. American Mineralogist, Vol. 52, pp. 773-781.
Manson D.V. (1967)Factor analysis of petrochemical data. In
H.H.Hess and A. Poldervaart, Eds., Basalts: The Poldervaart Treatise on Rocks of Basaltic Composition, Vol. 1,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 251-269.
204
Manson D.V. [in. preparation) The description of color i n

gemstones.
McGetchin T.R. (1968) The Moses rock dyke: geology, petrology and mode of emplacement of a kimberlite-bearing
breccia dike, San Juan County, Utah. Ph.D. thesis, Cali'
fornia Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA.
Meagher E.P. (1980) Silicate garnets. In Paul H. Ribb, Ed., Reviews in Mineralogy, Vol. 5, Orthosilicates, Mineralogical
Society of America, New York, pp. 25-66.
Nixon P.H., Hornung G. (1968) A new chromium garnet end
member, knorringite, from kimberlite. American Mineralogist, Vol. 55, pp. 1833-1840.
Novak G.A., Gibbs G.V. (1971) The crystal chemistry of the
silicate garnets. American Mineralogist, Vol. 56, pp. 791825.
Rickwood P.C. (1968) On recasting analyses of garnet into
end-member molecules. Contributions to Mineralogy and
Petrology, ,Val. 18, pp. 175-198.
Sobolev N.V., Lavrent'ev Yu. G., Pokhilenko N.P., Usova L.V.
(1973) Chrome-rich garnets from the kimberlites of yakutia and their parageneses. Contributions to Mineralow
-. and
Petrology, ~ o l40,
. pp. 39-52,
Winchell A.M.. Winchell H. (19331Elements of Optical Mineralogy, 4th ed. John wiley &'sons, New ~ o r k pp.
, 483489.
Wright W.D. (1967)The Measurement of Colour, 4th ed. Van
Nostrand, New York.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
SAN CARLOS PERIDOT

By John I. Koivula
Each year basalt-topped Peridot Mesa, on

the San Carlos Apache Reservation, is a
major source for thousands of carats of
gem-quality peridot i n sizes suitable for
use i n modern jewelry. Marketed
throughout the world, San Carlos
material is often confused with, and sold
as, peridot from localities that are better
known and documented. Peridot Mesa
resulted from a single volcanic eruption
and basalt flow over an already existing
conglomerate base; i t is thought to be of
late Tertiary or Quartenary age. The
peridot is found i n irregularly shaped
nodules within the basalt. The
gemological properties and color range of
these Arizona gems suggest an olivine
that is rich in the magnesium forsterite
end member. Inclusions documented are
chromite, chromian spinel, negative
crystals, "lily pad" cleavages, glass blebs,
chrome diopside, biotite, and smoke-like
veiling.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Koivula is the senior staff gemologist in the
Gem Identification Department of the Gem Trade
Laboratory, Inc., Santa Monica, CA.
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank
Mr. Udell T. Brown, planning director for the San
Carlos Apache Tribe; Ms. Caroline Bread,
community planner and community development
specialist; and Ms. Ramona Noline, executive
secretary of the planning commission, for
allowing a study of the Peridot Mesa to be made.
Thanks also go to Tino Hammid of GIA's Gem
Media Department for the photographs in figures
9 and 10, and to Susan Kingsbury, also of Gem
Media, for preparing the maps.
^1982 Gemological Institute of America
San Carlos Peridot
or over a century, the San Carlos Apache Reservation

in Gila County, Arizona, has been a major source of
gem-quality olivine (peridot)in sizes that are very suitable for jewelry (figure 1). Yet very little has been published about the principal gem locality on the reservation,
Peridot Mesa, or the peridot that is mined there by the
Apache Indians, who have exclusive rights to the deposit.
Through the kind permission of the Apache Nation Tribal
council, however, the author was permitted to examine
the deposit and collect the specimens that served as the
basis for this report. The observations about the area and
the results of gemological tests reported in this article
were derived from a series of experiments performed by
the author on gem-quality olivine collected at Peridot
Mesa.
HISTORY OF THE DEPOSIT
Many years before the Peridot Mesa deposit was recognized by the international trade as a gem source (Kunz,
1904), the area was mined by the Apache Indians and the
stones were used exclusively among tribal members
[Kunz, 1882, 1892). From 1904 to 1909, however, mining
was carried out at an almost feverish pace, and soon the
market was choked with an excess of available gems.
This tended to reduce prices and hold them down, while
decreasing buyer interest in the stone [Sterrett, 1909).
Consequently, mining activity declined rapidly and
for many years was almost nonexistent. Gems continued
to trickle from the reservation to a worldwide market, but
much of this material had been extracted some years previously. In spite of its tremendous potential, the deposit
has been worked only sporadically by the Indian residents
during the last 72 years. Even today, mining of the peridot
is done only intermittently by any of a number of Apache
families who claim sections of the mesa as their own,
although by Indian law all members of the tribe are al-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
205
Figure 1. This 34.65-ct. peridot is

one of the largest fine Arizona
stones in existence. It is
complimented b y t w o 3.74-ct.
peridots that are more typical i n
size of the stones found on the San
Carlos Apache Reservation. This
necklace, which was designed b y
Aldo Cipullo, is part of the
American Gemstone Jewelry
Collection of the American G e m
Society. Photograph ^ 1978 Harold
and Erica Van Pelt Photographers, Los Angeles, CA.
lowed to mine. Only when the weather is suitable

and the single access road to and from the mesa
is passable will one or more of these families be
found working their mines.
No records of any kind are kept concerning the
amount of peridot mined each year from Peridot
Mesa. The majority of the material is sold through
the Apache Nations Peridot Enterprise, the Peridot Trading Post on the reservation, and another
trading post just off the reservation between Globe
and San Carlos. The material is sold directly to
private individuals, wholesalers, and retailers
alike. Little is known about any other peridot deposits in the area, and Peridot Mesa is the only
one that is worked.
THE LOCATION
The San Carlos Apache Reservation is located in
east central Arizona (see figure 2; Bromfield and
206
San Carlos Peridot
Shride, 1956). Globe, the nearest, major, city off

the reservation, lies approximately 18 miles (28.8
lzm) due west of Peridot Mesa. San Carlos, the
main reservation town and local Bureau of Indian
Affairs headquarters, lies 2.5 miles (4 lzm) northeast of the mesa.
Peridot Mesa and its surroundings are in a desert environment that supports various cacti and
low-growing bushes and shrubs. h he mesa rises
above the lower desert by as much as 90 m and,
like other mesas on the reservation,, is easily visible, breaking the horizon of the otherwise flat
terrain.
The two-lane road from San Carlos to the base
of the mesa is paved blacktop. From the base, a
bulldozed dirt road snakes up the side of the
mesa. There is only one main dirt road across the
surface of the mesa, with many forks branching
from it to the various mining sites.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
MINING METHODS
Peridot Mesa is dotted with numerous small open
pit mines that brealz the uniformity of the essentially level mesa surface like so many small craters. Although the basalt is tough and does' not
yield readily to hand tools, blasting is done sparingly and only when absolutely necessary because
explosive shocks can easily shatter the rocks and
scatter the friable peridot in the nodules. A light
bulldozer is sometimes used to work freshly
blasted areas, remove top soil, and maintain or
build roads; otherwise, no heavy equipment is
employed and the vast majority of the mining is
done almost entirely by hand. The most commonly used hand tools are large, long, heavy-stock
picks and pry bars, smaller splitting chisels and
wedges, various heavy-weight hammers (like the
large-head Nevada-type long striking hammers),
long- and short-handled shovels, hand rakes, and
a variety of sizing sieves.
In working the basalt, the miners take advantage of any naturally occurring fractures or pits in
the roclz. Chisels and sledge hammers are used
first to widen any existing separations in the rock
or to create new ones (figure 3 ) . Once a fracture
or series of fractures is started in the basalt, wedges
Figure 2. San Carlos location map. (Adopted
from Basso, 1977.)
RESERVATION
San Carlos Peridot
Figure 3. A n Apache miner uses a chisel and

sledge hammer t o work a hand-dug peridot pit
i n the hard basalt.
and long, heavy-weight pry bars are used (figure

4 ) together with the chisels and hammers to brealz
the basalt into small chunks. In this way, the peridot nodules are freed from the host roclz.
Once the rock is broken down and the peridot
nodules are freed,'the chunks of peridot with their
rock matrix are shoveled into first a one-half-inch
and then a one-fourth-inch mesh sizing sieve (figure 5).The material left in the sieve is then handsorted and the loose matrix and undesirable minerals are quickly discarded. Exceptionally large or
fine peridot grains are put aside to be sold individually. Once sieved for size, the mine-run peridot is stored in some type of sturdy, container,
usually a bucket or small tin can (figure 6).
Some of the rock faces being worked for peridot appeared dangerous inasmuch as the basalt
was loose and broken and certain faces had been
undercut with shallow tunnels. None of the
workers in these areas was wearing any head pro-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
207
Figure 4. Tools used to break the fractured

basalt into small chunks.
Figure 5. The freed chunks of peridot on matrix

are shoveled into a sizing seive.
tection. In addition, very few of the miners observed on the mesa were wearing any type of eye
protection, which is extremely important when
hammering rock with chisels. Nevertheless, anyone who has ever worked basalt can surely appreciate the efforts of the Apache peridot miner.
GEOLOGY OF PERIDOT MESA
The basalt capping the mesa is a vesicular, finegrained, hard rock that is dark gray to black on
208
San Carlos Peridot
Figure 6. Mine-run Sun Carlos peridot.
fresh surfaces. It appears to have been extruded as

the result of a single volcanic event. It extends
approximately three and one-half miles (5.6 lzm)
in a northeast direction and about two and threefourths miles (4.4 km] along a northwest-southeast axis. The cone that produced the flow lies
at the far southwestern end of the mesa (Lausen,
1927; see figure 7). The basalt ranges in thickness
from 3 m near the cone vent to over 30 m where
the flow filled natural depressions in the underlying Gila conglomerate, a flat horizontal to
slightly folded sedimentary structure of early
Pleistocene age. Thicker portions of the flow show
rudimentary columnar structure, while thinner
areas nearer the cone display a somewhat platy
and/or concentric structure that developed in the
flow during cooling and consolidation. The basalt is thought to be of late Tertiary or Quarternary age (Brornfield and Shride, 19561. Exposed
contacts between the basalt and underlying sedimentary rocks show a definite baked or heataltered zone.
Two theories have been proposed for the
origins of the vesicles in the basalt: (1)gas (carbon
dioxide?]expansion caused by heat and diminishing pressure as the lava rose in the cone throat
and poured out on the ground, andlor (2) water
vapor expansion if the surface of the ground was
wet when the flow emplaced.
The vesicles range in size from microscopic
(the most common] to several centimeters in their
longest dimension; they are spherical to subspherical or ovoid in shape, with some stretched
into elongated tubes by the flow of the fluid lava.
In general, the vesicles are larger as they near the
surface of the flow.
Under the petrographic microscope, the rock
proved to be a typical olivine basalt (Lausen, 1927).
Plagioclase feldspar (labradorite) is present as
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
nodules. The largest is over 25 cm in longest

dimension.
(Sterrett, 1909; Lausen, 1927). A thin shell of

spongy basalt containing hornblende and augite
envelopes each of the peridot nodules; this may
represent a thermal reaction zone that formed as
a result of limited magmatic differentiation,
chemical alteration, and fractional crystallization
within the boundaries of the alteration zone.
Figure 7 . Generalized geological map of Peridot
Mesa and vicinity, including the location of the
basalt outcrops. (Adopted from Lausen, 1972.)
slender laths, along with olivine and augite in

subhedral to anhedral grains. In addition, magnetite, apatite, analcime, diopside, chromite, biotite, and hornblende have been identified as accessories. Small blebs of volcanic glass of a dark
brown to black translucent to nearly opaque
transparency also occur in the basalt.
OCCURRENCE OF THE PERIDOT
NODULES AND THEIR ORIGIN
Peridot occurs as spherical, ovoid, semi-angular
included masses in the vesicular basalt (seefigure
8). Such masses range in size from 1 cm or less to
30 cm or more in longest dimension. In the richest mining areas, the nodules may be found within
a few centimeters of one another throughout large
volumes of the basalt (again, see figure 8); elsewhere they may occur as isolated units, separated
from one another by a meter or more of barren
rock. The masses are composed chiefly of granular olivine with most of the peridot crystals no
larger than a grain of sand; even the largest are
scarcely over a few cubic centimeters in volume
[see figure 9). The nodules closely resemble peridotite in composition and texture and, therefore,
may represent fragments torn at depth from a peridotite rock mass through which the basaltic lava
was forced. The random distribution of the nodules in the basalt tends to support this theory
San Carlos Peridot
DESCRIPTION AND GEMOLOGICAL

PROPERTIES OF SAN CARLOS PERIDOT
The mode of formation of the olivine nodules precludes the existence of extremely large single
crystals and solid masses such as those from
Burma and the classic locality of St. John's Island
(Zabargad) in the Red Sea. Faceted San Carlos
gems typically are small in size; the average
weight is between one-half and three carats. Gems
over three carats are somewhat rare, and stones
over five carats should be considered collectors'
pieces.
In color, the peridot ranges from a very dark
brown to brownish green to a very pleasing bright
lime green from which lively, attractive gems are
cut (figure 10).The darker gems are higher in iron
content than their lighter counterparts. A chemical analysis of San Carlos peridot (Anthony, Williams, and Bideaux, 1977)by S.S. Goldich (USNM
86128)showed 49.78% MgO, 40.90% SiOz,8.24%
FeO, 0.59% Fez03 0.30% NiO, 0.22% A1203,
0.12% MnO, and minor traces of TiOz, CaO,
Cr20s, and HzO. John Sinkankas (1976)reported
analytical percentage ranges of 48.34 to 49.49
MgO, 41.11 to 41.96 SiOz,8.67 to 10.37 FeO, 0.09
to 0.18 MnO, 0.09 to 0.16 CaO, 0.03 to 0.06
Crz03,and 0.01 to 0.02 TiOz. The 0.30% NiO reported by Anthony, Williams, and Bideaux, as
compared to the absence of this chemical in the
Sinkankas analysis, suggests that in some cases
nickel might play a part in the coloration of
peridot.
Tests performed by the author on the 12 sam-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
209
Figure 9. Sun Carlos peridot in

vesicular basalt matrix, 18 cm
in longest dimension,
pie stones pictured in figure 10 indicate that both

refractive index and specific gravity vary slightly
with color depending on the percentage of iron
present. Refractive indices of the test gems were
obtained using a GEM Duplex I1 refractometer
and a sodium light source. The lightest colored
gem was biaxial positive with a refractive index
of 1.649 alpha, 1.665 beta, and 1.686 gamma, and
a corresponding birefringence of 0.037. The darlzest specimen was biaxial positive with a refractive index of 1.653 alpha, 1.671 beta, and 1.691
gamma, and a birefringence of 0.038.
From these numbers, it is apparent that not
only does the refractive index increase with a
darkening of color and a rising iron content, but
the beta (intermediate)index also shifts numerically away from the alpha index toward the
gamma index. This movement of the beta index
suggests that if enough iron substitutes for magnesium in the structure, not only will the refractive index increase substantially, but the material
will also become biaxial negative in optic character, as the iron-rich end member fayalite proves.
Specific gravity, as well, varied with color.
Through the use of a specially modified Arbor 306
electronic balance, a specific gravity range of 3.28
to 3.38 was established for the test stones, with
lighter colored gems tending to cluster toward the
lower numerical value while darker stones showed
higher specific gravities. However, chromite, wit!;
a specific gravity of approximately 4.80 (and possibly magnesiochromite, with a specific gravity
of 4.20), is commonly present as an inclusion in
peridot, frequently in abundance. Its presence as
210
San Carlos Peridot
an inclusion in any significant amount will produce a higher than normal specific gravity for the
stone. In fact, the highest reading, 3.38, was obtained from a light green gem that contained numerous chromite octahedra.
On the GEM spectroscope unit, the visible
light absorption spectrum observed in both the
light and dark San Carlos gems was determined
to be typical of peridots in general and to match
lines already observed and recorded in the gemological literature, namely, at 4520, 4730, 4880,
4960, and 6400 A. The 4880 A and 4960 A lines
together usually appear as a single broad band.
Using GIAis Zeiss PMQg spectrophotometer, Stephen C. Hofer of GIA1sResearch Laboratory confirmed the spectrum and showed that the 4880 A
and 4960 A lines were in fact separate absorption
points in the spectrum. A weak, smudged line at
5200 A seen in the darkest gems did not appear
in the spectrophotometric scan.
INCLUSIONS IN SAN CARLOS PERIDOT
The inclusions found in San Carlos peridot are
limited in variety. When present, though, they are
usually quite interesting and often gemologically
diagnostic. Thus far, the following inclusions have
been identified: chromite and chromian spinel,
negative crystals, "lily pad" cleavages, glass blebs,
chrome diopside, biotite, and smolze-like veiling.
Chromite and Chromian Spinel. The most common inclusions are dark reddish-brown to black
euhedral to subhedral octahedrons of chromite
(FeCr204)or chromian spinel f(Mg,Fe)(Cr,Al)204].
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Figure 10. This selection of

12 cut gems, averaging 2.5
cts. each, illustrates the
color range common to San
Carlos peridot. The rough
that produced these cut
stones was collected from
the road bed on the mesa
in less than 30 minutes.
Carol Stockton of GIA's Research Labors-tory used

the scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive spectrometer to perform chemical analyses
on two randomly selected inclusions and found
both to be chrome-rich spinel phases, possibly
chromite (and referred to in this article as chromite). Dunn (1974)identified other similar inclusions as a close cousin to chromite: chromian
spinel (magnesiochromite). Although no chromian spinels were identified in this study, it seems
chemically possible for chromite and chromian
spinel both to be present as inclusions in a single
Peridot Mesa peridot. In the stones examined for
this study, the chromites were randomly distrib-
uted as single crystals or as small groups of crystals and were almost always associated with
tension fractures that resulted from the expansion of the chromite crystals against their hpst
(see figure 11).
Figure 11. A grouping of octahedral chromite

inclusions. Dark-field illumination,
magnified 40 x.
Figure 12. Negative crystals i n San Carlos.

peridot. Oblique and transmitted light,
magnified 100 X.
San Carlos Peridot
Negative Crystals. Negative crystals, as described

by Eppler (1966))were very abundant in the' San
Carlos peridots (see figure 12). Under magnification, with liquid nitrogen used as a cooling agent,
condensation and freezing of the fluid gas components in the negative crystals were observed by
the author. Although no actual analyses were performed on the contents of the negative crystals,
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
211
the author theorizes that the primary component

might be carbon dioxide (COz),as identified in
similar negative crystals by Roedder (1965,1976)
in experiments that he performed on peridots
from a number of localities.
"Lily Pad" Cleavages. The lily pad-like, discshaped inclusions commonly associated with peridot are abundant i n Peridot Mesa gems (see
figure 13). "Lily pads" i n San Carlos peridots are
all oriented along one of two directions of imperfect cleavage: the planes designated [OlOI, the
most common orientation for the lily pads, and
[loo]. These cleavages result from the rupturing
of a negative crystal and appear as circular to ovalshaped discs surrounding a transparent to whitish
negative crystal that may appear dark or even
black under certain lighting conditions. It is hypothesized that rupturing of the negative crystals
Figure 14. "Lily-pad" inclusion as viewed

under reflected light, "thin film" conditions.
Oblique illumination, magnified 70 X ,
sequent healing that may have taken place are

easily studied.
Glass Blebs. The peridots from Peridot Mesa contain numerous tiny glass blebs that are very similar in appearance to those described by Roedder
(1965, 1976) and Gubelin (1974, pp. 168-169) i n
Hawaiian peridots. Microscopic examination of
the glass inclusions shows that they often contain
one or more shrinkage gas bubbles (see figure 15).
Figure 15.Blebs of natural glass i n San Carlos
peridot often contain one or more gas bubbles.
Transmitted light, magnified 150 X .
Figure 13, Typical Son Carlos "lily-pad"
inclusion with central negative crystal and
surrounding cleavage disc. Dark-field
illumination, magnified 45 X.
is the result of heat and diminishing pressure as

the peridot is brought to the surface by the basalt.
As pressure falls off and the peridot is continually
heated by the molten basalt, fluids (possibly COz)
that filled the negative crystals at a much greater
pressure push outwardly against their peridot host
until the pressure is released through the formation of a cleavage around the negative crystal.
When viewed i n reflected light, as in figure 14,
the details of the cleavage surface and any sub-
212
San Carlos Peridot
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Movement of the gas bubbles in the glass beads

was brought about by carefully heating the peridot host to a temperature between 800' and 900'
C. At these temperatures, the glass beads melt
and the gas bubbles are free to move. Such heating, however, often results in the explosive rupturing of these fluid inclusions. Cooling experiments performed on the gas bubbles, with liquid
nitrogen as the cooling agent, indicate that the
gas filling the bubbles may be carbon dioxide.
When cut through during lapidary treatment,
some of the glass inclusions show themselves to
be underdeveloped negative crystals lined with
only a very thin shell of glass.
Chrome Diopside. Included crystals of chrome
diopside can easily pass unnoticed in a microscopic examination of San Carlos peridot unless
they are somewhat large, because they show virtually no interfacing and their color [see figure 16)
and refractive indexare very near those ofWperidot
(Koivula, 1980).In polarized light, however, they
are readily revealed as rounded subhedral to anhedral protogenetic included crystals. Thus far
these crystals have not been reported in peridot
from any other locality and may, therefore, be
diagnostic of the San Carlos material.
Biotite. As described by Gubelin (1974), biotite
mica is a rare inclusion in San Carlos peridot.
Only one small, euhedral, flat, brown, translu-
Fig~lre16- The deep green of this ~rotogenetic

crystal of chrome diopside contrasts with the
lighter green of its peridot host. Transmitted
light, magnified
cent, tabular crystal was noted by the author during this study.
Smoke-Like Veiling. Never before described or
photographed, and yet very common in San Carlos peridot, the smoke-like veiling shown in figure 17 at first appears to be a simple form of healing fracture. However, it should be noted that no
individual healing tubes or the tiny negative crys-
San Carlos Peridot
Figure 17. Characteristic of

peridot from the San Carlos
locality, this smoke-like
veiling is possibly the result
of solid-solution unmixing
or decorated dislocations.
Dark-field illumination,
magnified 60 X.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
213
tals that are commonly associated with healing

fractures can be microscopically resolved in any
of the smoke-like wisps. In addition, the veiling
never follows the two cleavage directions in peridot, as would be expected if this were, in fact, a
fracturing phenomenon in a mineral that had
cleavage (witness the formation of lily pads).
It is, therefore, this author's opinon that this
is not a healed-fracture phenomenon, but it is
possibly the result of a solid-solution unmixing
that occurs as the peridot is brought to the surface
and cools in the basalt. Other possibilities would
be olivine dislocation decoration as described by
Kohlstedt et al. ( 1976), who picture inclusions
somewhat similar to that shown in figure 17, or
a combination of solid-solution unmixing and
decorated dislocations.
It should be noted that the image in figure 17,
which was selected because it is so highly photogenic, is an exceptionally sharp example of
smoke-like veiling in peridot. In general, the effect is much more ghost-like, with the wisps so
fine and sometimes so concentrated as to fill the
entire host peridot completely, rendering it
slightly milky.
CONCLUSIONS
Peridot mining on the San Carlos Apache Reservation is an erratic affair, with most of the work
done by hand by the Indians who hold the rights
to the deposits. Once the peridot is freed from its
basalt host, it is sorted and marketed locally to
wholesale and retail customers alike. While few,
if any, formal production records have been kept,
the author viewed thousands of carats of gemquality material during his visit.
The gemological properties obtained from 12
test gemstones of San Carlos peridot are almost
classic textbook values. With the exception of
chrome diopside, which seems to be a diagnostic
inclusion in San Carlos material, and the smolze-
214
San Carlos Peridot
like veiling shown in figure 17, all other inclusions noted in this paper have been documented
in peridot from other localities. This suggests a
very similar paragenesis between peridot from
San Carlos and that from other mining areas.
REFERENCES .
Anthony J.W., Williams S.A., Bideaux R.A. (1977)Mineralogy
of Arizona. The University of Arizona Press, Tucson, AZ.
Basso K. (1977)In pursuit of the Apaches. Arizona Highways,
Vol. 53, No. 7, pp. 2-9.
Bromfield C.S., Shride A.F. (1956)Mineral Resources of the
Son Carlos Indian Reservation, Arizona. U.S. Geological
Survey Bulletin 1027-N, Washington, DC.
Dunn P.J. (1974)Chromian spinel inclusions in American peridots. Zeitschrift der Deiitschen Gemmologische GeseIIschaft, Jg. 23, H . 4, pp. 304-307.
Eppler W.F. (1966) The origin of negative crystals in gemstones. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 10, pp. 49-56.
Gubelin E.J. (1974) Internal World of Gemstones. ABC Edition, Zurich, Switzerland.
Kohlstedt DL., Goetze C., Durham W.B., Vander Sande J.
(1976) New technique for decorating dislocations i n olivine. Science, Vol. 191, pp. 1045-1046.
Koivula J.I. (1980)Diopside as an inclusion in peridot. Gems
a) Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 10, p. 332.
Kunz G.F. (1882)Precious stones. In U. S. Geological Survey,
Mineral Resources of the United States, Washington, DC,
p. 492.
Kunz G.F. (1892)Precious stones. In U . S. Geological Survey,
p. 770.
Kunz G.F. (1904)Precious stones. In U. S. Geological Survey,
p. 959.
Lausen C. (1927)The occurrence of olivine bombs near Globe,
Arizona. American Journal of Science, Vol. 14, 5th series,
pp. 293-306.
Roedder E. (1965) Liquid COz inclusions in olivine-bearing
nodules and phenocrysts from basalts. American Mineralogist, Vol. 50, pp. 1746-1 782.
Roedder E. (1976) Petrologic data from experimental studies
on crystallized silicate melt and other inclusions in lunar
and Hawaiian olivine. American Mineralogist, Vol. 61, pp.
684-690.
Sinkankas J. (1976)Gemstones of North America, Vol. 2. Van
Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York, pp. 116-1 18.
Sterrett D.B. (1909) Precious stones. In U. S. Geological Survey, Mineral Resources of the United States, pp. 772-775.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
NOTES
AND*
NEW TECHNIQUES
IRRADIATED TOPAZ A N D RADIOACTIVITY
B y Robert Crowningshield
A parcel of 100 stones of deep blue irradiated topaz,
imported from Brazil, w a s found t o be radioactive at
a level somewhat higher than typical background
activity. Analysis indicates that the material had
been treated b y neutrons i n a nuclear reactor. Most
irradiated topaz i n the trade is not radioactive.
Nevertheless, routine testing for radioactivity in
topaz, beryl, green diamonds, red tourmaline, and
possibly all gemstones m a y be advisable for t h e
protection of the jeweler.
Large quantities of colorless topaz are currently

being treated by gamma irradiation to turn them
blue, a process that does not produce radioactivity
in the stone (Nassau, 1980). The resulting color
is a medium deep blue that is significantly darker
than that of most natural blue topaz. A considerably darker color does result in rare instances
(M. Welt, personal communication, 1981); this
blue color is produced by a treatment [nature unknown) that is purportedly used on colorless topaz that will not turn blue with gamma rays (M.
Welt, personal communication, 1981).
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Mr. Crowningshield is Vice President-Director of the Gem
Identification Department of the Gem Trade Laboratory, Inc.,
New York.
Dr. M. Welt of Radiation Technology, Rockaway Township, NJ, was shown a parcel of about
100 unusually deep blue topaz gemstones that
had recently been imported from Brazil. Upon
testing, he found them to be radioactive. Two of
these stones were further examined by the author
and Dr. K. Nassau of Bernardsville, NJ, and are
described below. Subsequently, Dr. Welt tested
lighter blue topaz that also proved to be radioactive. Representative samples of light and dark irradiated stones and a larger, even lighter natural
blue topaz are shown in figure 1.
EXAMINATION
The two stones, 8 cts. and 10 cts. in size, were
exceptionally dark, fine-quality blue topaz. Gemological testing revealed a typical natural topaz:
with two-phase inclusions typical of topaz, refractive index of 1.61- 1.62, birefringence about
0.009, biaxial-doubly refractive, specific gravity
of 3.57, no features observed in the spectroscope,
and greenish fluorescence (long-wave, very faint;
short-wave, barely detectable).
The 10-ct. stone showed about 0.2 milliroentgens per hour [rnr/hr)*when tested in contact
with a Geiger counter survey meter, while the
parcel of about 100 stones shown to Dr. Welt
-
Acknowledgments: The author wishes to thank Dr. K . Nassau

and Dr. M. Welt for experimental results and helpful
discussions.
'1982 Gemological Institute of America
Notes and New Techniques
"The Roentgen, rod, rem, and rep are units used for
radiation dose and differ only slightly i n value.
Microcuries (pc) are units that measure the quantity
of radioactive material.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
215
Figure 1. Three
representative samples of
blue topaz. The two smaller
stones on the left have both
been irradiated to enhance
color. The larger, lighter
blue stone on the right has
not been treated.
Photograph by Tino
Hammid.
I
1
measured at 12 mrlhr. Gamma-ray spectroscopic

examination (K. Nassau, personal observation,
1981) showed the presence of the following
amounts of radioactive elements:
scandium-46: 0.1 pcuries (half-life 84 days)
tantalum-182: 0.002 pcuries (115 days)
manganese-54: 0.002 pcuries (303 days)
iron-59:
0.001 pcuries (45 days)
These radioactive elements were probably produced from neutron exposure in a nuclear reactor
by neutron reactions with scandium, tantalum,
iron, and cobalt, respectively. It should be noted
that the radioactivity from the major emitter,
scandium-46, is quite penetrating, consisting of
gamma rays with the relatively high energy of
889,000 and 1,120,000 electron volts.
DISCUSSION
A number of important points arise from these
findings.
First, the nature of the radioactivity indicates
that the stones were exposed to neutrons in a nuclear reactor. The importer stated that he had obtained several hundred of these stones some
months previously in Brazil. Given the half-lives
of the radioactive elements involved, it is obvious
that the stones had been even more radioactive
then; the dealer may have received an undesirable
dose of radioactivity himself while carrying them
about for some weeks. It is also evident that the

stones were imported without the required radioactive materials import license (issued by the
Nuclear Regulatory Agency),
Second, a spokesperson for the Nuclear Regulatory Agency stated that, for relatively low levels of activity such as might be associated with
a single stone, there are no appropriate standards.
This person added, however, the personal observation that the 0.2 mrlhr intensity of the 10-ct.
stone definitely would be "not desirable" for extended personal wear.
Third, a survey conducted by Dr. M. Welt, Dr.
K. Nassau, Mr. S. Church (of Church &Company,
Bloomfield, NJ), and others of a wide variety of
blue topaz, including several lots of the dark blue
material, indicates that none of these others contained detectable radioactivity above the usual
background reading of 0.02-0.05 mrlhr. Accordingly, it is not at present possible to determine
the extent of the problem.
Fourth, radioactivity has been reported in a
number of other gemstones, such as some of the
Maxixe-type blue beryls (Nassau, 1973) and the
occasional old radium-exposed green diamonds
(Liddicoat, 1981).Testing in the Gem Trade Laboratory has shown that some of the latter are extremely high in radiation emission, darkening
photographic film in just a few minutes. In addition, people are experimenting with irradiation
on a wide variety of gem materials, for example,
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
to turn pale tourmaline dark red (Nassau, 1974).

Tests show that some of these materials may also
be radioactive. It should be noted that even if the
color fades or is removed by heat treatment, the
radioactivity still remains.
The specific type and intensity of the radioactivity will depend on impurities present in the
gemstone as well as on the time of exposure in
the nuclear reactor. All radioactive material slowly
loses its activity, the time being dependent on the
half-lives of the active elements involved.
Fifth, for the protection of his staff and himself
personally, as well as for liability protection with
respect to hiscustomers, the jeweler (particularly
one who handles large parcels of any particular
type of gemstone) may wish to obtain a Geiger

counter survey meter and check all parcels of
stones. A similar test should probably be performed routinely on all stones examined in testing laboratories.
REFERENCES
Liddicoat R.T. Jr. (1981) Handbook of Gem Identification,
1 lth ed. Gemological Institute of America, Los Angeles.
Nassau K. (1973) The nature of the new Maxixe-type beryl.
Lapidary Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 1032- 1038, 1052- 1059.
Nassau K. (1974) The effect of gamma rays on tourmaline,
greenish-yellow quartz, pearls, kunzite, and jade. Lapidary
Jownal, Vol. 28, pp. 1064-1074, 1084.
Nassau K. (1980)Irradiation-induced color in gemstones. Gems
eJ Gemology, Vol. 13, pp. 343-355.
NONFADING MAXIXE-TYPE BERYL?

By K. Nassau a n d B. E. Prescott
It is sometimes stated that there exists some
Maxixe-type deep blue beryl (occasionally misnamed
"aquamarine") that does not fade. All specimens
ever reported in the literature did fade, typically
t o almost colorless i n one to t w o weeks in bright
sunlight or over a somewhat longer period under less
intense illumination. A "nonfading" specimen recently examined proved t o be typical fading Maxixetype beryl. A possible reason w h y such a stone might
give the impression that i t is nonfading is discussed.
With the exception of some brown topaz and some
k ~ ~ n z tneo, significant gemstone material fades on
the same time scale as does Maxixe-type beryl.
Several years ago there appeared on the gemology

scene a deep blue beryl that had unusual properties. Specifically, the material was at first designated aquamarine, but the dichroism of the stone
differed from that of aquamarine. It was soon
shown that the color faded upon exposure of the
material to heat or to light. A detailed study (Nassau and Wood, 1973a and 1973b; Nassau et al.,
1976) demonstrated that an irradiation-induced
color center produced the color and that this ma-
terial was closely related to, but not identical

with, the naturally occurring deep blue beryl found
in 1917 in the Maxixe mine in the Piaui area of
northeastern Minas Gerais, Brazil, which also
faded. The new material was designated "Maxixetype beryl" to distinguish it from the original,
natural "Maxixe beryl." Although the stones appear to fade at the same rate, the color centers in
these two materials have been shown to be slightly
different (Anderson, 1979).
Statements are occasionally made that specific specimens of Maxixe-type beryl do not fade.
All such material studied in detail and reported
in the literature has been found to fade (e.g.,Nassau and Wood, 1973a and 1973b; Crowningshield,
1973; Schmetzer et al., 1974; Nassau et al., 1976;
and Anderson, 1979). One such purportedly nonfading specimen recently became available to the
authors; it was examined to establish if it did fade
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Nassau and Dr. Prescott are research scientists residing in
Bernardsville and Murray Hill, New Jersey, respectively.
"7982 Gemological Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
217
type beryls: left-the

subject specimen as
received; center-the
specimen after being
subject to light and heat
(corresponding to curve C
of figure 2); right-a
typical, near-saturated dark
blue specimen.
- ,.-
and, if so, why the claim that it did not would

have been made.
THE EXPERIMENT
A 2-cm fragment of blue beryl was obtained with
the kind cooperation of Dr. J. Keane of KMC Inc.
(Bedford, MA). The specimen was reported to
originate from a New England locality, although
the exact site was unknown. It had been irradiated some years ago and purportedly had maintained its color during this time while lying on a
desk.
Examination showed a typical Maxixe-type
beryl, but of a much paler blue than the intense
color that usually results from irradiation to saturation, as seen in figure 1. A slice cut from the
specimen was polished and the polarized spectra
were measured in a Cary Model 14 spectrophotometer at room temperature. The result was an
absorption spectrum typical of a Maxixe-type
beryl, with the blue-causing absorption bands in
the ordinary ray (Nassau and Wood, 1973a and
1973b; Nassau et al., 1976), as at A in figure 2.
This specimen was exposed for 100 hours (at
a distance of 10 cm) to the focused light from a
25-watt microscope lamp equipped with a blue
filter in an environment that was air-conditioned
in such a way that no heat was experienced by
the beryl. As can be seen from the much-reduced
absorption in curve B of figure 2, this treatment
produced a drastic bleaching. Heating in an oven
at 20WC overnight removed all the remaining
color, as shown in curve C of figure 2 and also in
figure 1.
.
1
X I X E -TYPE
BERYL 84049
THICKNESS ABOUT 0 . 5 c m
ORDINARY RAY ( u)
0
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
WAVELENGTH (MICROMETERS)
Figure 2. Absorption spectra plotted for the

Maxixe-type beryl studied: curve A-as
received; curve B-after 100 hours under a 25watt microscope lamp; curve C-after heating
at 20o0C overnight (ordinary ray spectrum only
shown here),
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
DISCUSSION
The specimen proved to be an "ordinary," fading
Maxixe-type beryl and had undoubtedly faded significantly since it was irradiated. The question
remained, though, why it had been thought to be
nonfading.
A possible answer was obtained by means of
some light-intensity observations taken with a
photographic exposure meter. From a series of
measurements recorded during a sunny day (late
June in New Jersey)and from a sampling of desks,
ranging from brightly lit by a large window to the
more usual interior desks lit by incandescent or
fluorescent lamps, it was found that the average
desk illumination was about one hundredth the
average outdoor illumination. Accordingly, a
Maxixe-type beryl that faded in one week in the
sun to less than one half its original color would
reach the equivalent stage in 100 times as long a
period on a typical desk, that is, in two years.
A series of factors may slow the fading even
more: the illumination at some desks is lower
than at others; the stone may lie face down, so
that what light there is does not enter as effectively as occurred in a purposely face-up positioned fade test; papers can inadvertently cover
the specimen part of the time; and there is some
small variability among Maxixe-type beryls that
otherwise appear to be identical, as has been reported (Nassau et al., 1976).
The "nonfading" specimen examined in this
report had not lost all of its color over several
years on a desk. Clearly, though, it had lost some
color, but the loss had been so slow and gradual
that it was not evident to the eye in the absence
of a color reference sample.
A survey was made among various gem authorities for other gemstone materials that might
fall into a similar fading category. Only three

were candidates. Of these, amethyst was eliminated since reports of fading could not be substantiated where a high probability of exposure to
heat was not also present. There remained brown
topaz from a few localities (such as some in Mexico and in Utah) which fades rapidly, and also
some lzunzite. Apart from these, all other acceptable gemstones do not fade even after many decades under bright spotlights in museum and store
displays.
It may be concluded that no authentic instance of nonfading Maxixe-type beryl has been
proved. Although fading may be delayed by exposure to only low levels of light and can be
halted completely in the absence of light, there
is a major qualitative difference between this material and nonfading gemstones acceptable to the
trade.
REFERENCES
Anderson L.O. (1979) The difference between Maxixe beryl
and Maxixe-type beryl: an electron paramagnetic resonance investigation. Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 16, pp.
3 13-3 17.
Crowningshield R. (19731 Developments and highlights at
GIA's lab in New York. Gems a) Gemology, Vol. 14, pp.
172- 179.
Nassau K., Prescott B.E., Wood D.L. (19761 The deep blue
Maxixe-typc color center i n beryl. American Mineralogist,
Vol. 61. pp. 100-107.
Nassau K., Wood D.L. (1973a) Examination of Maxixe-type
blue and green beryl. Gems a1 Gemology, Vol. 41, pp. 130133.
Nassau K., Wood D.L. (1973b)The nature of the new Maxixetype beryl. Lapidary Journal, Vol. 27, pp. 1032-1058.
Schmetzer K., Beredinski W., Bank H, (1974) Ueber die Mineralart Beryll, ihre Farben und Absorptionsspektren. Zeitschrift der L l e ~ ~ t s c l ~Gemmologischen
en
Gesellschaft, Vol.
23, pp. 5-39.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
219
THE CUTTING PROPERTIES OF KUNZITE

By John L. Ramsey
I n the process of cutting l~unzite,a lapidary comes
face-to-face with problem properties that sometimes
remain hidden from the jeweler. By way of examining these problems, we present the example of
a one-kilo kunzite crystal being cut. The cutting
problems shown give ample warning to the jeweler
to take care i n working with kunzite and demonstrate the necessity of cautioning customers to
avoid shocking the stone when they wear it i n
jewelry.
T h e difficulties inherent in faceting lzunzite are

legendary to the lapidary. Yet the special cutting
problems of this stone also provide an important
perspective for the jeweler. The cutting process
reveals all of the stone's intrinsic mineralogical
problems to anyone who works with it, whether
cutter or jeweler. Knowledge of these problems
also aids the person marketing the stone, both in
conveying the specialness of the faceted gem and
in advising customers of the proper care that it requires.
To explain the various problems presented by
kunzite, this article describes the cutting of an
extremely large kunzite crystal. In some ways,
the size of the crystal magnifies the problems and
renders them examinable in a manner that allows
us to generalize to all lzunzites.
It should first be mentioned that the availability of a one-kilo, essentially clean lzunzite
crystal from Brazil in today's marketplace is in
itself a phenomenon. Certainly, a number of fine
crystals from Brazil were available in the late
1950s and early 1960s, but these disappeared from
the market some time ago. Afghanistan produces
kunzite, but nothing of the size and quality of the
crystal described. This particular crystal, which
was virtually unflawed and of superb color (figure
1))had been held in a European collection for 25
years before its release to the author.
220
THE PROBLEMS OF PERFECT CLEAVAGE

AND RESISTANCE'TO ABRASION
Kunzite is a variety of spodumene, a lithium aluminum silicate (see box). Those readers who are
familiar with either cutting or mounting stones
in jewelry are aware of the problems that spodumene, in this case kunzite, invariably poses. For
those unfamiliar, it is important to note that kunzite has two distinct cleavages. Perfect cleavage
in a stone means that splitting, when it occurs,
tends to produce plane surfaces. Cleavage in two
directions means that the splitting can occur in
a plane along either of two directions in the crystal. The property of cleavage, while not desirable
in a gemstone, does not in and of itself mean trouble. For instance, diamond tends to cleave but
splits with such difficulty that diamonds are cut,
mounted, and worn with little trepidation. In
contrast, the abrasive process used in sawing and
faceting represents a danger with kunzite. The
separation in kunzite happens very easily, especially if the stone is ground against the direction
of cleavage, and it may simply fall apart during
faceting.
To compound the problem, kunzite has an unusual resistance to abrasion. While the hardness
of spodumene is 6Y2 to 7, it grinds with more difficulty than corundum which, at 9, is exceeded in
hardness only by diamond. The resistance no
doubt comes from the crystal structure, which is
also responsible for the problems with cleavage.
The combination of these two problems in one
gem material forces the cutter to delicately balance two factors: (1) a stone that resists abrasion
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Mr. Ramsey is president of Ramsey Gem Import, Inc.,
Escondido, CA.
"1982 Gemological Institute of America
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 198 1
Figure 1 . The one-kilo

lz~mzitebefore cutting.
The dimensions were
150 c m x 5.1 c m x
4.9 cm. Photograph
Î981 Laura Ramsey.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
221
PROPERTIES OF SPODUMENE
SPECIES: spodumene (lithium aluminum
silicate)
Varieties? kunzite flavender, pink,
amethystine purple)
hiddenite (green)
triphane (colorless to yellow)
Problem inclusions: tubular inclusions
mtile
open cleavages
JEWELRY PROPERTIES
Ha
695-7
Cleavage: perfect, two directions
Fiaetutes; subconchoidal, frays easily
Steam deani- extremely sensitive; use other
method
OPTICAL PROPERTIES
Refractive index: 1.660(0.005) to
I .676 [0.005)
4
%
: 0.016, medium
Pkecbreism: trichroic-light to deep colors
Dispersion: 0,017, medium
Specific gravity: 3.18 (20.03)
must be given a fair amount of physical pressure

against the diamond cutting wheel or it will not
cut, and (2) a stone that will split easily in two
directions may separate if too much pressure is
placed against the lap.
In addition, the propensity of kunzite to fall
apart during cutting tends to be aggravated by the
fact that resistance to abrasion varies with respect
to the different axes of the crystal. Since dopping
is not an exact process, the cutter cannot determine precisely whether grinding will be only
mildly difficult or extremely difficult. Kunzite
never grinds easily. One positive point, though,
is that kunzite is perhaps one of the easiest stones
to polish.
HOW LARGE A STONE TO CUT?
With these factors in mind, the next step was to
determine the optimum size of the finished material. The rule of thumb in cutting is usually to
produce the largest gem possible from each piece
of rough regardless of the species. This is done
because large stones are relatively rare. For every
one-carat diamond there are hundreds or thousands of 10 pointers, and so on through most of
the known gem species.
Upon evaluating this kunzite, we saw that we
had three cutting options: (1)one 1,500-ct. stone,
(2) many smaller gems, or (3) several extremely
large gems.
Cutting a 1,500-ct. stone was a temptation,
since at that size it would have been one of the
largest spodumenes ever faceted (see Sinlzanlzas,
1959, for a description of the cutting of an 1,800ct. green spodumene). Kunzite is distinctly trichroic, however, and the best color is seen parallel to the c-axis of the crystal, which is invariably also the narrow axis. While trichroism in
lzunzite varies from crystal to crystal, in this case
the exceptionally high trichroism of the stone virtually dictated the cutting orientation: the table(s)
had to lay perpendicular to the c-axis. The choice
of cutting a single 1,500-ct. stone was, therefore,
ruled out because of the poor color orientation
that would have resulted.
Following the premise that in any gem the
sizdquality ratio is of paramount importance, we
also ruled out the second alternative, that of cutting the crystal into many small stones (although
we were assured by many gem dealers that there
is a ready market for these smaller gems). Instead,
we chose as our model the 800-plus-carat kunzite
housed in the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, which is one of the few large spodumenes of the variety kunzite with exceptional
color and clarity.
From the point of view of aesthetics, there was
only one choice. Not only did the trichroism of
this crystal dictate the cutting preference, but the
opportunity to cut some genuinely fine, large
kunzite gems, and thus add to the other large
stones already in existence, also prompted the selection of the third option.
CUTTING THE CRYSTAL
Tom Carleton, of Menasha, Wisconsin, agreed to
do the cutting under the author's supervision. At
this point, we looked to the existing literature for
tips on cutting spodumene, but found little helpful information. The article by Sinlzanlzas referred
to earlier discusses some basic techniques, but
new technology has contributed much to the field
in the two decades since that article appeared. For
example, whereas Sinkankas had to charge his
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
own cutting laps, we had precharged, bonded and

plated diamond laps. Then, too, there is some
published information with which we disagree on
the basis of previous experience cutting smaller
spodumenes. In their book, Faceting for Amateurs, Glenn and Marth Vargas state that "the
table should be oriented 80 or 100 degrees away
from [the long axis of the crystal]." Although we
have the utmost respect for the Vargas's and their
book, use the book continually as a reference, and
recommend it to every faceter we train, practical
experience has shown this particular prescription
to be unnecessary. For cutting procedures we had
to rely primarily on our own experience and
knowledge.
The next step was to calculate the largest finequality stone that could be realized from this
crystal. In this case, the goal was to exceed the
560-ct. kunzite the author had cut the previous
year. Given the dimensions and the weight of this
first stone, we felt that we could predict the probable weight of a second stone of the same species.
The two stones would be different in shape and
the new stone was to be cut with different angles,
so an exact comparison was impossible; yet the
possible length x width x depth of the new stone
correlated to the dimensions of the first such that
a 700-ct. stone was deemed possible. Using these
crude mathematical calculations, we marked a
line on the crystal with a diamond scribe. That
line was the place to begin sawing.
The initial sawing was done by the author (figure 2 ) because of his greater experience with Izunzite. A Raytech saw was used, with Johnson Brothers blades. As a precaution against shocking the
stone, the decision was made to change the saw
blades at an extremely high frequency, two per
cut. Because kunzite resists abrasion, it ruins any
diamond tool, including saws. It seemed logical
that a dull blade would generate a great deal of
heat and possibly ruin the crystal (subsequent experiments with inferior material proved this
point). The first saw cut was made starting at 3:00
p.m. (figure 3). Two hours and thirty-three minutes later we had a crystal section that weighed
1,298 cts. Nearly 40 minutes of this time was devoted to cooling down either the cutting oil or the
crystal. We changed saw blades twice during that
period.
Two and one-half hours to make a single saw
cut is a very long time and demonstrates the
Figure 2, The author examines the crystal

during the sawing process.
amount of care required for this material. Sawing

a quartz crystal of equivalent dimensions would
take about five minutes.
The next step in the process was to dop the
1,298-ct. piece for faceting. Dopping involves attaching a stone for cutting to a dop stick-a metal
rod that is inserted into the faceting machine. In
this way the faceting machine holds the stone
during cutting and permits very accurate grinding
(abrading).In most faceting, the material holding
the stone to the dop stick is a type of sealing wax,
heated along with the stone to form the bond. In
the case of extremely large stones, however, the
danger of thermal (heat)shock is great because of
the temperature difference between the outside
of the stone, where heat is applied, and the interior of the stone, which starts out at room temperature. This is why steam cleaning is not recommended for jewelry containing kunzite. The
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
223
n
Figure 3. The crystal as i t appeared moments
after the first cut.
greater the size of a stone, the greater the problem. To avoid heat shock, epoxy was used to bond
the rough stone to the dop stick.
One of the main concerns was whether or not
the 1,298-ct.piece of rough would yield a finished
stone of 700 cts. We calculated that our recovery
rate had to be 54%) a little on the high side. Yet
both the shape and cleanliness of the rough crystal were good, and the cutter had already proved
that he was capable of a good recovery rate.
Another concern was the ability to maintain
cutter concentration on the project (see figure 4).
The demands of this lzunzite-the slow grinding
process when working across the end of the crystal, the possibility of splitting, and the high value
of the stone-made the job very tedious. Yet a
slow, tedious procedure must be observed to avoid
fracturing or cleaving the stone. Jewelers face
similar problems with kunzite during the mounting of a finished stone.
The grinding process that the cutter started
with is called rough cutting, which is done with
a coarse-grit diamond wheel. Normally a stone of
this size would be ground with a grit of 180.
Given the delicate nature of lzunzite, however, a
grit half that coarse, 360, was used. The rough
cutting of the pavilion took three days. By way of
contrast, the entire faceting process for a 20-ct.
tourmaline, aquamarine, or garnet would normally take only a few hours. The faceting machine used for the lzunzite was a second-generation design by Bryant Harris of Fallbrook,
California.
Fortunately, the grinding process, which was
potentially the most dangerous portion of the
224
work (i.e., when splitting was most likely to occur), went well. The next steps, fine grinding and
polishing, were unlikely to cause cleavage problems and went faster than the rough grinding.
When the rough grinding was completed, we felt
confident that the stone would hold together for
the entire process, and it did. After 14 days, Carleton finished the first stone-703.5 cts. (see figure 5).We had reached our goal and were accurate
in our calculations to within 0.49% or 4911,000.
More realistically, we were lucky within 99.999%.
The remaining stones went smoothly and more
quickly. These stones weighed 725 cts., 514 cts.,
and 145 cts. respectively (see figure 6). The onekilo Brazilian crystal had yielded four beautiful
stones totaling 2,087 cts. Not only were the finished gems large but, as can be seen from the photographs, they were also of the finest possible
color for lzunzite.
Figure 4. Carleton faceting the kunzite. This
custom-made faceting machine, a secondgeneration design b y Bryant Harris of
Fallbrook, California, is big enough t o cut the
world's largest faceted stone.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Figure 5. The first g e m

faceted from the crystal,
703.5 cts. The second stone
Figure 6. The final three

kunzites: 725, 514, and
245 cts., respectively.
Photograph ^1981 Laura
Ramsey.
CONCLUSION
The care shown in working this crystal into finished gems emphasizes the need for care that
everyone must show lzunzite. The jeweler must
exercise caution in the choice of a protective
mounting and in the mounting process. Proper
admonition to purchasers to avoid shock to the
is
advised. Only when jewelers and
their customers are adequately educated in the
properties of all colored stones will the market be

able to fully utilize and appreciate these gems.
REFERENCES
Sinlzankas J. (1959) 1800 sea-green carats.Gems el Gemology,
Vol. 9, No. 10, pp. 299-305.
Vargas G., Vargas M. (1977)Faceting for Amateurs. Published
by the authors, Thermal City, CA.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
225
EDITOR
Chuck Fryer
Uem trade
GIA, Santa Monica
LAB NOTES
A CORAL SUBSTITUTE,
DYED MARBLE
The Santa Monica laboratory recently encountered some loose drilled

beads that looked like reddish-orange
coral to the unaided eye. A microspot hydrochloric acid test revealed
effervescence, a typical carbonate
reaction. High birefringence by the
spot method was also indicative of
a carbonate. Under the microscope,
however, the structure associated
with coral was not seen. Instead, the
material had the somewhat granular, almost sugary, texture indicative of marble. In addition, surface
fractures could be seen to contain
concentrations of a reddish-orange
dye (see figure I ) .
If a gemologist were to examine
this type of material without checlzing structure and allow the color
and birefringence to influence his
judgment, he could easily mistake
these dyed marble beads for true
reddish-orange coral.
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Gem Trade Laboratory, New York
Karin N . Hurwit
Gem Trade Laboratory, Santa Monica
Robert E. Kane
Gem Trade Laboratory. Los Angeles
Santa Monica laboratory had not

previously seen a diamond with
these characteristics. We still have
no explanation for how these grooves
might have occurred. Perhaps one of
our readers can solve this mystery.
times these stones have suffered no

permanent damage. Most diamonds
that are mounted in jewelry and
worn frequently accumulate foreign
substances such as oils and soaps,
particularly on pavilion surfaces.
When they are placed in contact with
high heat, such as that which would
be encountered in a fire or in retipping a prong, the foreign substances
often become charred. While this
charred residue is usually difficult
to remove, in many cases boiling the
stone in an acid bath will clean the
offensive coating.
Other diamonds may bc clamaged more severely and may have
suffered surface erosion as a result
of oxidation. These stones require
repolishing to repair the damage.
Recently submitted to the Los An-
Figure 2. Unusual marks on a

diamond. Magnified 16 X.
Figure 3. Badly burned

diamond. Magnified 18 X.
Burned Diamond
Burned diamonds are occasionally
submitted to the laboratory for the
purpose of estimating fire damage
and the approximate weight loss to
be anticipated in recutting. Some-
geles laboratory was a yellow pearshaped diamond that was reportedly

burned in a house fire (see figure 3).
This stone was burned so severely
that none of the facets remained and
large cavities appeared on both the
Figure 1. Concentrations 01
dye in a marble bead.
Magnified 6 x.
DIAMOND
Angular Grooves on Diamond
While visiting Japan, a New York
dealer acquired a diamond that
showed very unusual features. As
can be seen in figure 2, small marks
extend from the girdle up across two
upper girdle facets into a bezel facet.
They outline the shape of an angle.
This same outline was found i n different places in the crown area. The
t2 7982
226
Gemological Institute of America
Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
crown and pavilion surfaces. Since

the color of this diamond proved to
have resulted from artificial irradiation, the client decided not to have
the stone recut.
"Chameleon" Diamond
Some of the rarest fancy color diamonds are the medium dark, yellowish- to grayish-green stones known
as "chameleon" diamonds because
they will temporarily change color
and become yellow after a period in
darkness. They will also turn yellow
when heated mildly. Most return to
their green color after only a short
exposure to light. All such stones
that we have encountered may be
recognized by the strong yellow
fluorescence and phosphorescence.
Diamond polishers recognize them
by the intense red glow they emit
while on the wheel.
Recently, in our New York laboratory, we encountered two very pale
grayish-green stones that we were
about to dismiss with the statement, "Color origin undetermined,"
when the yellow phosphorescence
was noted. O n a hunch, we checked
the color before and after mild heating in an alcohol flame. As we suspected, when the stone was heated
all traces of green disappeared, leaving a pleasant light yellow color. The
green returned after about five minutes in the Diamondlite.
By coincidence, the next day we
received two slightly darker grayishgreen "chameleons." According to
the cutter, both came from the same
rough and glowed red while on the
wheel.
The greatest coincidence occurred later that day when we received a pear-shaped, typical dark
gray-green stone that turned to an
intense orange-yellow when heated.
It too returned to green after about
five minutes in the Diamondlite. A
faint absorption line at about 4190
A could be seen in the hand spectroscope-one
of two absorption
peaks in the area that were observed
more readily with the recording
spectrophotometer.
Lab Notes
Green Diamonds
Occasionally, we encounter other
pale green diamonds with green or
brown spots on their naturals or
faceted girdles (figure 4). This suggests-but does not prove-that the
stones have been exposed to natural
irradiation, which often produces
green-skinned and brown-skinned
rough crystals (see figure 5).
Figure 4. Brown spots on t h e

faceted girdle of a diamond.
Magnified 20 x ,
Other pale bluish-green diamonds seen recently in the New

York laboratory were determined
to be type II,, stones, which are
transparent to short-wave ultraviolet
light. The dark-centered stone on
the left in figure 6, a short-wave
transparency test photo, is type k;
the other stone is type I. Although
the color could be due to irradiation,
type HA crystals that have this color
naturally have been recorded. The
questions arise: Can the color green
in diamonds ever be due to factors
other than irradiation, either natural
or man induced? What caused the
color of such famous green diamonds as The Dresden Green?
Figure 7 illustrates a dark green
round brilliant with mossy color
patches over the entire surface. Such
an appearance immediately suggests
radium treatment. However, the
stone neither reacted to the scintillometer (Geiger counter) nor "took
its own picture" from radioactivity
Figure 5. Green skin on a

naturally irradiated r0us.h
diamond crystal. M q n i fied 15 x .
Figure 7. Mossy color patches

on w h a t appears t o b e a
treated green diamond.
Magnified 15 x.
Figure 6. Short- w a v e
ultraviolet transparency test of
type / I A (left) and type I (right)
diamonds.
when placed on a film overnight.

Every indication points to a treated
stone, but we do not know what
treatment method was used.
EMERALD
Emerald Substitute, Dyed Beryl
A cabochon set i n a yellow metal
mounting was recently submitted
to the Santa Monica laboratory for
identification. Testing proved i t to
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
227
Figure 8. Dyed beryl cabochon

i n a ring. Magnified 6 X,
be a whitish beryl that had been partially dyed green to resemble an emerald (see figure 8).We often see pale
emeralds dyed to improve their appearance, but this stone was an example of complete color alteration
from white to green through dying.
A similar situation occurred when
a lot, consisting of transparent green
emerald-cut stones ranging in size
from one to two carats, was brought
to the Los Angeles laboratory. The
client explained that these stones
had been stored in a gem paper for
several years and had lost a significant amount of their green color.
Three of the stones were selected
from the lot for identification. Two
of these proved to be emeralds oiled
in the manner that seems to be typical. These two stones apparently
lost some oil over the years so that
the color subsequently appeared
lighter.
When the third stone was viewed
with the unaided eye in overhead
lighting, it appeared to be a medium-dark green with just a few
Figure 9. Dyed beryl as seen

with normal, dark-field
illumination. Magnified l o x .
near-colorless areas. Figure 9 shows

how this stone appeared in dark-field
illumination. When the stone was
placed on translucent white plastic
over transmitted light, however, it
proved to be a near-colorless beryl
with green and minor amounts of
yellow dye present in numerous surface fractures (see figure 10). The
client stated that this stone had lost
more color than the rest of the stones
in the lot.
The use of translucent white
plastic over an intense light source,
as in this case, and examination of
the stone under a microscope using
transmitted light are the easiest ways
of detecting this type of treatment.
The former technique, in particular,
is an excellent, simple alternative to
immersing the stone in a heavy liquid, which carries the risk of removing dye, oil, cement, and the like.
moved back and forth quite readily

in its liquid-filled chamber. Note the
position change of the gas bubble
in figures 11 and 12. Also trapped
within the inclusion, suspended in
the liquid phase and adhering to
the surface of the gas bubbles, were
a countless number of tiny white
crystals that appeared to be calcite.
A black opaque material thought to
be shale and metallic, brass-colored
crystals of pyrite were also present.
A Remarkable Three-Phase
Inclusion
The Santa Monica laboratory had
the welcome opportunity to examine a Colombian emerald crystal that
played host to one of the largest
three-phase inclusions ever encountered. The crystal measured approximately 22.8 m m in length by 11.3
m m in largest diameter and weighed
24.07 cts.
The fluid inclusion in the crystal
was easily visible to the unaided eye.
The gas bubble measured approximately 5.0 m m in its longest dimension, and as the crystal was tilted it
Figure 11. Large bubble in a

three-phase inclusion in
emerald. Magnified 6 X .
Figure 10. Dye concentration

visible in the stone shown in
figure 9 when viewed over
diffused transmitted light.
Magnified 10 X.
Figure 12. Movement of the

bubble in emerald from the
position shown in figure 11.
Magnified 6 X.
PEARLS
Natural Pearls Worn Out
The natural pearl necklace in figure
13 was more worn than any previously seen in the New York laboratory. Many of the small pearls that
undoubtedly touched the wearer's
Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Figure 13. A pearl necklace

showing extreme wear.
Magnified 10 X.
Figure 14. A rope necklace of 7%-mm mother-of-pearl beads.
Pearl Simulant
Figure 14 illustrates a not-unattractive rope necklace of mother-of-pearl
beads with a lacquer coating that
was seen in New York. We could
not substantiate the client's claim
that these are very thin-nacre ["immature") cultured pearls with a
nearly clear lacquer as a protective
coating. When a con~mercialfingernail polish remover dissolved the
lacquer on a small spot near the drill
hole of one bead, we could see no
evidence of nacre.
neck were either gone entirely or reduced to fragments. The one held by
the stoneholder in this photo could
be passed over all the knots in its
area. The mystery is that the string
still appeared to be relatively strong.
Although such damage is not a common occurrence, people with an acid
skin condition should be cautioned
not to wear pearls constantly against
the skin or should be advised to rinse
them in water after wearing.
Figure 15. Dyed "crackled" green quartz, 0.96 ct.

. . .---
^T!ALL:P
L-4da,
Îfl^[Jsk*.Ê.^,
. -.
.a.
QUARTZ
Dyed "Crackled" Quartz
The Los Angeles laboratory recently
received for identification one intense green, emerald-cut stone and
one bright red, oval, modified-brilliant-cut stone. To the unaided eye,
these stones had an obvious "crackled" appearance (figure 15). Magnification revealed dense concentrations of dye in intertwined surface
fractures that extended deep into the
stone (figure 16).When examined in
the polariscope, in conjunction with
a condensing lens, both stones exhibited bull's-eye uniaxial interference figures, thus proving that they
are quartz. The "crackling" (by
heating) and subsequent dying of
colorless and near-colorless quartz
Figure 16. Dyed "crackled"

red quartz. Magnified 38 X.
Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
229
Figure 17. An 8.70-ct. bluishgray star quartz cabochon.

has been practiced for many years
and is usually intended to imitate
gemstones other than quartz. In the
early 1940s, dyed green "crackled"
quartz was represented on the market as "Indian emerald."
It has been quite a while since
dyed "crackled" quartz was last seen
in this laboratory. These two stones
serve as a reminder of the many
treatments and imitations that have
been known for many years, but may
seldom be encountered today.
Star Quartz
The 8.70-ct. light bluish-gray star
quartz seen in figure 17 was recently
sent to the Los Angeles laboratory.
The phenomenon of asterism in
quartz is usually associated with rose
quartz. Asteriated rose quartz often

exhibits a weak star and is frequently backed w i ~ ha foil mirror to
improve and accentuate the asterism. Colored foil backings are also
used to imitate star corundum. Some
star quartz, and particularly the very
light gray and bluish-gray quartz
from Brazil, exhibits a fairly strong
asterism when cut en cabochon, like
the stone illustrated here which is
presumably from Brazil.
Asterism i n star quartz appears
to be confined almost entirely to the
surface of the stone, rather than emanating from the interior as is the
case with star rubies and sapphires.
Most star quartz contains microscopic needles of rutile oriented in
definite crystal directions. These rutile needles produce asterisin when
the cabochon is viewed with the
light coming through the optic axis
direction, called diasterism, or with
a strong overhead reflected light,
called epiasterism.
Figure 18. Multiplane girdle,

thought t o be typical of
treated sapphire. Magnified 12 X .
spectroscope and only a weak red
fluorescence i n long-wave ultraviolet light, both clues that indicate
unnatural color. Inspection of more
than 50 stones that were almost
identical in color showed evidence
of high-temperature treatment. Several had internal stress fractures, and
many showed surfaces that had not
been completely repolished. Most
showed multiplane girdles (figure 18).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
SAPPHIRE
Heat-Treated Yellow-Orange
Sapphires
The latest suspect encountered in
New York in the ongoing battle to
detect corundum treatment methods is a lot of unusually bright, yellow-orange natural sapphires that
show no iron absorption in the hand
The photos that appear in figures 1, 2, 8,

1 1 , and 12 were taken by John Koivula in
the Santa Monica laboratory. Bob Kane of
the Los Angeles laboratory is responsible
for figures 3 , 9, and 10. Shane McClure,
also associated with the Los Angeles laboratory, photographed the stone in figure
16. All of the photographs that originated
from the New York laboratory-figures 4 ,
5, 6 , 7, 13, 14, and 18-were taken by
Rene Moore. Tino Hammid, of the Gem
Media Department at GIA, photographed
the stones in figures 15 and 17.
BACK ISSUES OF GEMS & GEMOLOGY ARE NOW AVAILABLE

First published in 1934, GEMS & GEMOLOGY
is an i m ~ o r t a n rt e ~ o s i t o wof information on
developments in gemology over the last five
decades. Many of the issues published quarterly
since that first 1934 issue through the last issue
under the old format, Winter 1980, are now
available for purchase at the following rates:
1-3 issues
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Copies of the first three issues published under
the new format- Spring, Summer and Fall o f
1981- are also available for 35.00 each.
Lab Notes
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To place your order and determine the
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NOTE: For some issues, only a few copies
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GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Editorial Forum
A N AUSTRALIAN COLLEAGUE
CLARIFIES OUR REPORT ON
AUSTRALIAN SAPPHIRE
I congratulate you on your new editions of Gems e.9
Gemology. It is a fine, well-presented journal. I was,
however, amazed at comments contained in the column, Gem News-Sapphire, Volume 17, Summer 1981.
It appears that the information received in the States
concerning Australian sapphire is very sketchy, and I
would like to draw your attention to a few facts.
Queensland sapphire fields were first started in 1892.
During the last fifteen years there have been at least 40
mining operations being carried out, some of which
have processed up to one thousand cubic yards a day.
The main product is blue sapphire, not yellow, gold
or green. However, due to the fact that particularly fine
stones in these [latter] colours are produced there,
Queensland has gained a reputation for them. Almost
all the production of blue stone is exported in the rough
state to Thailand for treatment and cutting.
The sapphire fields in New South Wales, some 500
miles to the south of the Queensland fields, have also
been producing sapphire from large-scale alluvial mining for the past fifteen years. The stone is similar to
Queensland material but generally considered to be of
an overall better quality.
Thailand, up until the advent of large-volume sales
of Ceylon stone there during the last three years, was
selling Australian sapphire as Thai, and Australian sapphire made up about 80% by volume of all stone exported from Thailand. Even now it accounts for the
greater majority of stone exported from that country,
certainly in terms of carats and possibly total value.
Editorial Forum
I feel it is about time Australia is recognized in gemmological circles for what it is, i.e., one of the biggest
producers of sapphire in the world. Also I would like
to destroy the common n~isconceptionthat Australia
only produces dark greeny-blue stone of inferior quality, or green or yellow stone.
T. S. Coldham, B.A., F.G.A.A.
Sapphex Pty. Ltd.
Sydney, Australia
W e thank Mr. Coldham for his comments and are

pleased to report that he has agreed t o prepare a more
extensive article on this subject for a future issue of
the journal.-Editor
A TRIBUTE TO
LEW KUHN,
THE TEACHER
Your tribute to Lewis Kuhn in the Summer 1981 issue
of Gems eJ Gemology was indeed fitting and appropriate. 1 only regret its necessity.
I was one of the GIA resident students that Lew invited to his office and shared his time and knowledge
with. One could not escape his concern and devotion
to the industry and its students. His ability to speak
and teach has touched many a gemologist. I'm glad I
was one.
William C. Sites
Sites Jewelers
Clarksville, T N
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981 231
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
Dona M . Dirlam, Editor
REVIEW BOARD
Stephanie L. Dillon
GIA, Santa Monica
Bob F. ~ f f l e r
GIA, Santa Monica
Caroline K. Goldberg
GIA, Santa Monica
Joseph P. Graf
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Santa Monica
Gary S. Hill
GIA, Santa Monica
Jill M. Hobbs
GIA, Santa Monica
Karin N. Hurwit
John I. Koivula
GIA, Santa Monica
Noel P . Krieger
GIA, Santa Monica
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Los Angeles
Elise B. Misiorowski
Gary A. Roskin
Michael L. Ross
GIA, Santa Monica
COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Amber mining in the Dominican Republic. P. C. Rice,
Rocks o) Minerals, Vol. 56, No. 4, 1981, pp. 145152.
Over the last 30 years, amber from the Dominican Republic has become increasingly known and sought after.
This relatively new source now rivals the traditional
mining localities of the Baltic region.
The current Dominican production comes from secondary deposits that do not allow us to formulate an
accurate date of origin, although the Lower Miocene
This section is designed to provide as complete a record

as possible of the recent literature on gems and
gemology. Articles are selected for abstracting solely at
the discretion of the section editor and her reviewers,
and space limitations may require that we include only
those articles that will be of greatest interest to our
readership
Inquiries lor reprints of articles abstracted must be
addressed to the author or publisher of the original
material.
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her
initials at the end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are
identified by their full names.
"7 982 Gemological Institute of America
232
Richard J. Saindon
GIA, New York
Andrea L. Saito
GIA, Santa Monica
Peter C. Schneirla
GIA, New York
Frances Smith
R. Stephen Smith
GIA, Santa Monica
Carol M. Stockton
GIA, Santa Monica
Evelyn Tucker
GIA, Santa Monica
age has been suggested, as has the Cretaceous age.

These deposits are yielding several colors of amber, including red, yellow, and a unique blue fluorescent variety from various sites. Using picks and shovels, the
miners dig small holes and tunnels in the soft sedimentary rock to reach the amber-bearing strata.
Like the author's book Amber: The Golden Gem of
the Ages, this article is articulate and well illustrated.
An in-depth geological study, personal communications with knowledgeable people, and visits to the actual mines have nicely augmented Ms. Rice's research
on amber.
Frederick L. Gray
Garnets from Umba Valley, Tanzania-members of
the solid solution series pyrope-spessartine.
K. Schmetzer and H. Bank, Neues fahrbuch fur
Mineralogie Monatshefte, No. 8, 1981, pp. 349354.
Drs. Schmetzer and Bank describe six garnets represented to be "Malaya" garnets from the Umba Valley
in Tanzania. Complete chemical and physical data are
provided for the stones studied, which are also described in terms of four end members: grossular, pyrope, spessartine, and almandine. The described color
range of the six specimens ranges through rose, rosered, wine red, and reddish brown. In addition, the authors present a fairly comprehensive review of the existing literature on this type of East African garnet.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
The conclusion drawn is that, as the six garnets examined support the idea of solid solutions existing
among the end members pyrope, spessartine, and almandine, these stones need no new name and, in the
authors' opinion, can be referred to by the subgroup
termpyralspite. They also conclude that only chemical
and/or spectroscopic investigation can reveal whether
any single specimen belongs to the pyrope-almandine
or pyrope-spessartine series.
CMS
Golden yellow tourmaline of gem quality from Kenya.
H. Hanni, E. Frank, G. Bosshart, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 7, 1981, pp. 437-442.
The authors investigated the chemical composition
and optical characteristics of golden-yellow tourmalines from the Voi-Taveta area of Kenya. Previous articles have focused on stones from Brazil, Burma, and
Sri Lanka; with attractive stones coming out of East
Africa, however, this research is very timely.
The microprobe was used on four stones to determine chemical composition. The results are presented
in a table that includes several point analyses for each
crystal, indicating the variation that can exist within
one crystal. The authors conclude that these compositions fall within the range of the ideal formula and
that the stones are magnesium-aluminum tourmalines
of the dravite-uvite series. They note a tendency toward deficiency of Mg(Na,Ca), with a corresponding
excess of aluminum that suggests additional substitution of aluminum for these elements. Since the microprobe recorded the presence of only one transition
element, titanium, the authors argue that the intensity
of the yellow color is due to different percentages of
titanium oxide. When the authors analyzed the thin
rim of green that occurs in some of these crystals, a
greater concentration of iron was observed. The absence of tsilaisite or elbaite components corroborates
previous reports which concluded that no solid solution exists between dravite and elbaite.
The X-ray powder diffraction diagrams also substantiate previous research, and testing on a Topcon refractometer produced the acceptable refractive index
values. The inclusions cited were negative crystals parallel to the c-axis, flat healing fractures of long and
short drops of residual liquid, and curved growth tubes
or trichites.
The authors conclude with a short discussion of results observed from a spectrophotometer, noting in particular that a wide absorption band occurs at 4400 A
on the spectrum. This is probably caused by titanium
and thus confirms the microprobe data.
DMD
Growth structure in Ceylon zircon. T. G. Sahama, Bulletin de Minkralogie, Vol. 104, No. 2-3, 1981, pp.
89-94.
This report describes a detailed study of the growth
structure of alluvial zircon crystals from the Ratnapura
area of Sri Lanka. The 15 crystals examined ranged

from the strongly metamict, which are frequently
brown, to the nearly ordered ones, which are often yellow. Although the concentric structure evident in many
of these stones has been described in the literature, it
had not been studied previously. The author argues
that evidence does not exist to call this structure zoning, rather it should be termed banding. He then classifies the bands as being of three types: (1) fine, (2)
coarse, and (3)high birefringent or high density. The
fine, microscopic banding may originate from rhythmic
fluctuations in the rate of crystallization. The coarse
banding is visible to the unaided eye and may be homogeneous or may consist of a group of fine bands.
The density of some of the crystals tested tended to
decrease from the core to the outer edges, while other
crystals showed a directly opposite trend. Chemical
analysis showed that the uranium content varied regularly with the degree of density, giving rise to the
conclusion that variations in the degree of radiation
damage caused by the uranium are mainly responsible
SFM
for the visible growth banding.
New data for jeremejevite. E. Foord, R. Erd, G. Hunt,
Canadian Mineralogist, Vol. 19, No. 2, 1981, pp.
303-3 10.
Jeremejevite (Al&OisEOH]3) is an extremely rare gem
material found only on Mt. Soktuj, Transbaikal, East
Siberia, U.S.S.R., and at Cape Cross, Swakopmund,
Namibia (South West Africa). Foord et al. have studied
material from both localities and compared these stones
with a synthetic (OH)-jeremejevite. Natural material
from both localities shows anomalous optical properties related to growth-sector zoning. The Mt. Soktuj
crystals have a core of biaxial material with a uniaxial
rimj the Cape Cross jeremejevite exhibits the opposite,
having a small uniaxial core and a biaxial rim. The Mt.
Soktuj crystals are colorless, while the Cape Cross material is cornflower blue in varying intensities depending on its composition.
The electron microprobe revealed minor amounts
of OH (hydroxyl)and major amounts of F (fluorine)in
the natural samples. The presence of fluorine has not
been previously recorded; its recognition here is fundamental to establishing a standard chemical composition for jeremejevi te.
The authors' interpretations of mid-infra-red spectra
support the presence of aluminum, boron, hydroxyl,
and fluorine in the natural jeremejevite. Unit-cell data
and optical constants are tabulated for Mt. Soktuj, Cape
Cross, and synthetic (OH)-end member jeremejevite
along with calculated densities for the respective
samples.
The authors state that the widely disputed optical
properties concerning variation in 2V angle, the relationship of optical properties to growth features, and
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
233
the origin of anomalous optics will be treated in a subsequent paper.

Stephen C. Hofer
An unusual pleochroism in Zambian emeralds.
K. Schmetzer and H. Bank, Journal of Gemmology,
Vol. 17, No. 7, 1981, pp. 443-446.
African gemstones are generating much interest as research topics because the properties they exhibit are
different from those of stones from more traditional
localities. One such case is that of Zambian emeralds.
Although the Miku and Kafubu emerald deposits of
Zambia have been known since 1931, they have been
commercially important only since 1977. Not only do
these stones have unusually high refractive indices of
no 1.589-1.590 ancl ne 1.580-1.581, but some also look
blue to bluish green and have a blue pleochroic color
when viewed parallel to the c-axis and a yellowish
green when viewed perpendicular to the c-axis. T o determine the causes of this unique coloration and distinctive pleochroism, the authors performed electron
microprobe analyses and plotted absorption spectra on
emeralds from the Kwale District of Kenya and the
Lake Manyara area of Tanzania, as well as from the
Miku deposits of Zambia.
The microprobe analyses of the samples studied revealed that in addition to chromium and vanadium as
trace elements, they also contained iron. While the
samples from Kenya and Tanzania had less than 0.50%
iron, the Zambian emeralds had 0.73%. The Zambian
samples also had unique absorption spectra: they exhibited not only the expected chromium bands of emerald, but also the iron bands found in aquamarine. The
authors conclude that the bluish-green pleochroic emeralds from Zambia owe their unusual color and spectra to the combination of an emerald component and
an aquamarine component in the same crystal. Since
the aquamarine component is most influential parallel
to the c-axis and the emerald component is most influential perpendicular to the c-axis, the stones appear
blue when viewed parallel to the c-axis and yellowgreen when viewed perpendicular to the c-axis.
Peter C . Keller
DIAMONDS
Diamond production in Guyana. R. J. Lee, Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 7, 1981, pp. 465-479.
This article covers the major aspects of diamond mining and gives a brief overview of the history of the diamond industry in the tiny South American country of
Guyana.
No primary deposits have ever been discovered in
Guyana, although one or two academic geologists continue to search for diamondiferous pipes. The author
discusses Guyana's alluvial deposits, dividing them
into four groups: (1)the high alluvials or hill deposits,
(2)terrace deposits between the hill deposits and river
234
channels, (3) river-flat deposits, and (4) deposits in a

plateau that is located to the west of Guyana about
1,000 in above sea level.
Since gold and diamond mining are often linked together, they are both discussed in the section on history
of production. In the 1880s, as a result of a crisis in the
sugar industry, many laborers packed what they owned
and moved into the bush in search of diamonds and
gold. Since they arrived at the deposits without food or
equipment and had to obtain credit, or 'laock', for the
salt port that is the basis of a bush diet, the nameporliknocker was coined and is still used today for "Those
small bands of men with little money and much faith."
Even today miners must obtain credit from bush traders who supply food, liquor, and equipment in exchange for diamonds.
Lee also discusses the methods used to work the
deposits, and provides photographs and diagrams of the
sites and equipment.
This is an interesting and informative article about
an industry that is unfortunately in decline in this
country. The author cites one hope when he describes
finding six pieces of deep-blue sapphire in one sieve. He
closes with the suggestion that perhaps soon we will
see Guyana sapphires on the market as well as the occasional Guyana diamond.
ET
fitude de la coloration de quelques diamants du museum
national d'histoire naturelle (Study of the coloration of some diamonds from the National Museum
of Natural History). J. F. Cottrant and G. Calas,
Revue de Gemmologie, a.f.g., No. 67, June, 1981.
Messrs. Cottrant and Calas obtained an unspecified
number of colored diamonds from the French National
Museum of Natural History ancl performed spectrophotometry on them using a Cary 17D spectrophotometer. The diamonds were rough octahedra of the colors
yellow, orange, green, and pink.
The authors provide a graph of the spectra for these
stones, using both wavelength and energy parameters.
The spectra are labeled and broken down into "systems," which are shown to be consistent with and diagnostic of not only the color of the diamonds but also
the diamonds themselves.
Cottrant and Calas conclude that spectra are valuable in determining the nature of impurities and color
in diamonds. They state that further tests into the fluorescence and electromagnetic properties of diamonds
are progressing.
Michel Roussel-Dupre
First diamond finds in Alpine-type ultramafic rocks of
the northeastern USSR. N. A. Shilo, F. V. Kamins h y , S. A. Palandzhyan, S. M. Til'man, L. A.
T k a c h ~ ~ k L.
o , D. Lavrova, K. A. Shepeleva. Doklady Akademii Nauk SSSR, Vol. 241, No. 1, 1980,
pp. 179-182.
On the basis of recent thermodynamic research, sci-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
entists have argued that the pressures and temperatures

at which Alpine-type ultramafic roclzs crystallized were
very high, with some approaching the range necessary
to form diamond. In particular, such conditions were
calculated by Kaminskiy and V. I. Vaganov for some
ultramafic plutons in the Koryalz Mountains of the
U.S.S.R.
Peridotite samples from various plutons in this area
were analyzed by a thermochemical decomposition
method, whereby the samples are fused with alkalies
and decomposed in acids. Diamonds were found in two
samples, confirming earlier predictions. The diamonds
recovered were small, colorless fragments measuring
0.375 mm x 0.15 mm and 0.2 mm x 0.125 mm, respectively. X-ray diffraction analysis verified the identification. Both stones showed a yellow-green ultraviolct fluorescence, which would be unusual for
kimberlite diamonds. The photoluminescence spectrum showed lines at 415.2 nm, 496 nm, and 503 nm.
The authors conclude that the discovery of diamonds in the Alpine-type ultramafic roclzs is of great
scientific importance, and that detailed study of different types of these roclzs will result in new diamond
finds.
SFM
The ice layer in Uranus and Neptune-diamonds in the
sky? M. Ross, Nature, Vol. 292, No. 5822, 1981,
pp. 435-436.
Current U.S. space exploration efforts have led to some
startling speculations. Marvin Ross, of the University
of California, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
in Livermore, California, conjectures from recent shoclzwave experiments that there may be diamonds on the
planets Uranus and Neptune. He theorizes that between the inner rocky core and an outer hydrogenhelium layer of each planet is a layer of "ice" composed
in part of methane. Shock heating would cause the separation of the hydrogen and carbon atoms of which
methane is composed, thereby freeing the carbon which
under tremendous heat and pressure could form
diamond.
The author illustrates this theory with two diagrams. The first is a plot of temperature and pressure
data for water, ammonia, and methane as predicted for
the ice layer of Uranus and Neptune. The second is the
Grover phase diagram for diamond, with the first plot
superimposed. This short article, although thought
provoking, lacks the background material needed for it
to be meaningful to the average reader.
Frederick L. Gray
Scientist forecast Siberian diamond finds. N. Y. Sobolev, Diamond News and S.A. jeweller, Vol. 44,
No. 8, 1981, pp. 51, 53, 55, 57.
In 1829 the first diamonds on Russian territory were
found in alluvial deposits in the Urals. Although ad-
ditional alluvial deposits have been located since then,

no lzimberlite sources for these deposits have been
found. In 1954 Geologist Larisa Popugayeva discovered
the first lzimberlite pipe, not in the Urals but in the
Yalzutia area of Siberia. Interestingly, the discovery of
this and subsequent pipes was predicted by Vladimir
Sobolev in the late 1930s.
Sobolev stated that diamond-bearing pipes would be
found not in the Urals but in the northern part of the
Siberian platform. He based that prediction on information gleaned from laboratory and on-site geological
studies performed in the harsh Siberian environment,
and from published information on South African diamond deposits. His prediction held. The 1954 discovery, named Zarnitsa, was followed in 1955 by the location of the "Mir" pipe, largest of all the Russian
pipes, and then others. Author Sobolev provides a rare
and fascinating glimpse into Soviet scientific
history.
Frederick L. Gray
GEM INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Defectos reticulares y color en las gemas (Structural
defects and color in gems). J. Solans Huguet and
M. V. Domenech, Gemologia, Vol. 13, No. 47-48,
1980, pp. 9-22.
In an earlier work in Gemologia [J. Solans Huguet,
19741, studies investigating the causes of color in gemoloeical
- materials were discussed. The causes determined fell into two large groups: those related to the
chemical composition of the crystals themselves; and
those linked to defects in the crystalline structure. In
this article, the authors maintain that in two thirds of
gemological materials, color is caused by three types
of defects: (1) holes in the atomic structure caused by
missing anions or cations, (2) interstitial atoms occupying positions where normally there are no atoms, and
(31 substitutional atoms-that is, atoms in the lattice
that differ from those that form the structure. Minerals
with this last type of defect exist in solid-solution series, where gradual replacement can occur between distinct end members. Occasionally, substitutional atoms
belong to the same chemical species as those that form
the structure, but are in valences distinct from the
usual number.
One can determine if the color in a given gemstone
is due to structural defects by observing whether heat
treatment causes change in color; if such is the case,
the color of the material in auestion must have been
due to a color center. Excepted are cases involving substitutional atoms with electrons of the sublevels d
or f.
Amazonite, topaz, diamond, fluorite, quartz, lapislazuli, sodalite, tugtupite, and hackmanite are discussed. The authors point to the need to use not only
spectroscopy, but spectrophotometry as well, to derive
conclusions. A short bibliography is provided.
SLD
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
235
Demise of the Beilby-Bowden theory of polishing. P. J.

Crowcroft, Journal of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 7,
1981, pp. 459-465.
In this article, Dr. Crowcroft lays to rest a favorite piece
of gemological esoterica: the Beilby-Bowden theory of
polishing. First proposed by G. T. Beilby in 1901, the
theory held that a polish can be produced on a material
if enough heat is generated to melt a thin layer of the
material and create an amorphous, glass-like shiny surface. Crowcroft states that the theory received some
apparent support from experiments in the 1930s; by the
1950s, however, it had been "completely superseded."
Despite this (Crowcroft continues], modem gemological literature contains no mention of the debunking,
but stops with discussion of the experiments done in
the 1930s.
Crowcroft reports that in the 1950s Dr. L. E. Samu e l ~repeated Beilby's experiments with metals, supplementing them with electron diffraction studies.
Samuels concluded that in metal polishing the abrasive
particles act "in a similar manner to a planing tool.
Material is removed and scratches are produced, the
better the polishlthe finer the scratches." In the early
1960s) Dr. D. C. Cornish and coworkers studied glass
polishing under various conditions. They found that
polishing was actually a process of removing material
from a strain layer created during initial cutting and
grinding operations: "To achieve a good finish it is imperative that the surface be lowered beyond this strain
region." Cornish et al. concluded that the rate of material removal depended on the pressure used, the speed
of the machine, the chemical activity of the polishing
compound, and the chemical composition of the glass,
stating: "A chemical mechanism of polishing was proposed which involved the absorption of hydrated silica
from the glass by the polishing powder following the
disruption of the surface Si-O-Si bonds." The rate of
removal was found to be "temperature-independent."
Crowcroft also makes passing mention of some factors that would affect an alternative interpretation of
the experimental evidence originally cited in support
of the Beilby-Bowden theory. About modern research,
Crowcroft says: "The use of glass and ceramics for heat
shields, missiles, and electronics has ensured continuing research into the nature of non-metallic surfaces
after abrasion and polishing." He then recommends
The Science of Ceramic Machining and Surface Grinding 11 [which can be obtained from the U.S. Government Printing Office) as a good survey of present
research; among other topics, it covers the polishing of
sapphire by superheated steam. While admitting the
lack of a comprehensive theory of gem polishing-one
that includes techniques such as tumbling and polishing cabochons with leather-Crowcroft concludes that:
'Polishing. . . involves the removal of material to below the damaged and deformed layers of material resulting from the prior pre-polishing operations." The
236
article is complemented by a 22-entry bibliography

which traces the evolution of the discussion. R.I.P.
MLR
A fibre-optic reflectivity meter. P. Read, Journal of
Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 7, 1981, pp. 454-458.
Mr. Read discusses the operating principals and capabilities of a new reflectivity meter developed by U. A.
Aldinger of Stuttgart, West Germany. The instrument
sends a pulse of infrared radiation along a fiber-optic
light guide that is tipped with a test probe 1 mm in
diameter. At the tip, a tiny lens 1 m m in focal length
concentrates the beam. When the tip is brought at right
angles to the gem's surface, the reflected radiation is
collected by the detector portion of the probe. As the
reflected energy reaches a maximum, a memory circuit
in the unit latches onto the value and feeds the corresponding electrical impulse to a needle scale.
The smallness of the tip allegedly permits the testing of cabochons and deeply recessed set stones. However, closely set small stones may give anomolous high
readings as a consequence of the high reflectivity of the
surrounding metal. The main precautions to be taken
in using this instrument are a clean, relatively scratchfree stone surface and a perpendicular contact between
the probe and the surface. Also, the instrument's scale
shows general ranges for various gemstones (names in
German); the numbers on the scale that do not correspond to the refractive indices of the respective gemstones are evidently arbitrary units. The cost of the
unit was not stated.
BFE
Some fallacies of gemmology. R. K. Mitchell, Journal

of Gemmology, Vol. 17, No. 7, 1981, pp. 446-450.
Keith Mitchell attempts to debunk some misconceptions in gemology. He reviews information on the diamond pen, breath test, dichroscope, and Chelsea filter.
Unfortunately, he is inconsistent about citing references and evidence.
He begins with the diamond pen test, pointing out
that the term surface tension is a property of liquids
and not of solid crystals, and thus it cannot be used to
explain the diamond pen test. He suggests that the test
is founded instead on diamond's affinity for hydrocarbons, since the ink used is based on a glycol.
Mitchell goes on to discuss problems with the breath
test. When he attempted a controlled experiment,
standardizing the initial temperature of a number of
stones by placing them in a refrigerator before testing
and then controlling the environmental temperature
during testing as closely as possible, he found that
either the stones demisted at roughly the same rate or
in those cases where there were differences they were
not necessarily repeatable. He concludes that the breath
test is valuable as a way of masking the internal characteristics of a diamond so that its color can be assessed, but that as a separation technique it is "at best
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
hit or miss and at worst a bit of gemmological flummery we can well do without."
He next comments on the dismissal by some authors (he doesn't say who) of the dichroscope and the
Chelsea filter. His defense of the dichroscope is strong,
but his discussion of the Chelsea filter amounts to an
unsupported assertion that "the Chelsea filter is still
a powerful tool in gem identification and should not be
dismissed out of hand."
In his conclusion, Mitchell refutes the notion that
the dichroism of tourmaline consists of only light and
dark of one color. In looking at more than 80 tourmalines, he discovered a stone that showed yellow-brown
in one direction and bright green at right angles to it.
Another stone appeared almost black when examined
normally but showed dichroic colors of "deep tourmaline green" and "deep garnet red" when viewed under the dichroscope. He describes the stones, but offers
ET
no explanation for their unusual dichroism.
morphic), the author discusses pegmatites in detail,

describing their origin and keys to their identification.
In the field, the reader is advised to observe differences in the terrain, because highly mineralized zones
in igneous rocks are subject to rapid decomposition.
Such decomposition often shows itself as rounded hills
with a reddish soil that can support plant life more easily than the surrounding terrain.
Openings formed as a result of folding and uplifting
or along planes in sedimentary rocks are good places to
look for hydrothermal deposits. Since hot water will
dissolve limestone, this environment also offers good
possibilities for mineralized zones.
Contact metamorphic deposits are usually easy to
see since two distinct rock types are adjacent to one
another. Marbles and schists are also metamorphic
rocks that often contain interesting minerals and gems.
In his conclusion, Mitchell reviews the formation
of some specific minerals and notes localities where
GSH
they might be found.
GEM LOCALITIES
Colourless grossular and green vesuvianite gems from
the Jeffrey Mine, Asbestos, Quebec. W. Wight, and
J. D. Grice, Canadian Gemmologist, Vol. 3, No. 2,
pp. 2-6.
The authors, who are both connected with the National Museum of Natural Sciences in Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, describe the first faceted specimens of
colorless grossular and green vesuvianite from the Jeffrey Mine at Asbestos, Quebec. The properties that
they report for these stones fit well with those observed
in similar stones from other locations. Although the
authors do not provide quantitative analyses for the
stones examined with the article, they do refer to the
compositions of the materials.
The authors also give a very useful review of the
other color varieties of grossular and vesuvianite from
the Jeffrey Mine. However, the brevity of this article
provides just enough information to whet one's appetite. Given the quality and increasing quantities of the
gem materials, especially grossular, coming from this
locality, it is hoped that the authors will publish a more
in-depth study of the museum's collection of Jeffrey
gems in the near future.
CMS
How to find mineral and gemstone deposits. J. R.
Mitchell, G e m s and Minerals, No. 522, 1981, pp.
32-39.
This article provides general information that is helpful
in the search for mineral deposits. The collector should
begin by noting the geologic setting of known collecting sites, since minerals tend to occur in similar settings worldwide. Also, searching near known sites and
downstream from such sites in rivers and washes may
turn up specimens or new deposits. After reviewing the
three types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and meta-
JEWELRY ARTS
African gold-extravaganza with a message. Jewelers'
Circular Keystone, Vol. 152, No. 6, 198 1, pp. 148152,
Africa-the verv name of this beautiful continent inspires new and different ideas in jewelry. Many of these
ideas were revealed by Intergold at the New York Jewelers of America show in July, in a presentation entitled
"African Gold."
The designs are flamboyant works of art that mix
gold with porcupine quills, giraffe and elephant hair,
wildebeest tails, shells, ivory, wood, and beads. The
jewelry pieces have been coordinated with costumes
that reflect ethnic African traditions. Flamboyant as
the costuming may be, Intergold seeks to inspire designers with new ideas rather than set new fashion
trends.
Don MacKay-Coghill, who is chief executive of Intergold's worldwide offices, states that the marriage of
gold and these other natural materials will offer the
consumer a less-expensive alternative in jewelry. In
these inflationary times, this concept is important. As
the article states, however, the public's reaction will
be the true test of whether the ideas are a success.
Lillian C . Hensel
Gilding through the ages. A. Oddy, Gold Bulletin,
Vol. 14, No. 2, 1981, pp. 75-79.
The art of gilding, or applying a layer of gold to the surface of another metal, goes back at least as far as 3000
B.C., as documented by the discovery in Syria of silver
nails with gilded heads. Andrew Oddy takes us through
the ages with an account of the different methods used
in the gilding process, beginning with mechanical gild-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
237
ing where the foil was folded over the edges of the object. Around 2000 B.C., when methods for purifying
gold developed, i t became possible to hammer gold thin
enough to produce leaf. Since gold leaf is not strong
enough to support its own mass, new techniques then
had to be devised for attaching the leaf.
This description of a fascinating process is rich with
information gleaned from artifacts as well as from historical writings. As in his previous articles, Oddy includes an extensive bibliography.
NPK
The long history of lost wax casting. L. Hunt, Gold
Bulletin, Vol. 13, No. 2, 1980, pp. 63-79.
Hunt traces the history of lost wax and investment
casting from its earliest appearance sometime around
4,000 B.C. in the Middle East up to the present day. As
one would expect, a subject this vast has to be somewhat abbreviated, but the article is amply footnoted
and an extensive bibliography is included for further
reference.
The author touches upon the various techniques
exhibited by each culture and speculates about the possible influence each had on the others. Hollow casting,
indirect casting, and carved molds for wax models are
also discussed, as is the more recent development of
rubber molds for mass production.
EBM
Okimono and netsuke: made in Hong Kong! S. Marlzbreiter, Arts of Asia, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1981, pp. 137141.
Ironically, Hong Kong has a thriving Japanese nctsulze
carving industry. The demand in Hong Kong for netsuke began about 10 years ago. In recent years the industry has grown, gearing itself to the tourist trade.
This article describes the background and business of
one master carver, Mr. Suen. He was trained as a
Chinese carver in the northern or Peking style, and for
years he carved traditional Chinese ivories. In 1976, he
started his netsuke factory. It was difficult to learn the
Japanese style of carving; he had few opportunities to
examine fine true netsuke and had to rely on illustrations in books and magazines. When he and his wife
visited Japan, the Japanese carvers, aware that he was
a Chinese carver from Hong Kong, were careful to prcserve their own secrets.
Today Mr. Suen has 10 young craftsmen-apprentices
in his shop. The first part of netsuke making, the initial
blocking of the piece, is done by his inexperienced apprentices. He and his most experienced workers do the
more detailed second part. The article explains, with
the use of photographs, the 15-part process Mr. Suen
uses to produce his netsuke; however, to preserve Mr.
Suen's trade secrets, the author does not discuss or photograph the second stage of the worlz, which Suen calls
the "making of the rough." The author does, however,
illustrate the other stages, including polishing, paintET
ing, and aging (in a smoke box).
238
Opportunities ahead for platinum. Executive Jeweler,

Vol. 1, No. 4, 1981, pp. 163-164.
Many people are not aware of the advantages of using
platinum for jewelry. For example, platinum is a very
hard and durable metal; jewelry craftspeople do not
have to worry that it will bend or break as easily as gold
does. It is also more desirable for use in expensive jewelry because platinum will hold large stones more securely than other metals.
In this article, a few jewelers recount their sales experiences with platinum. Now that platinum is competitive with gold in price, it may be more viable to the
prospective customer.
Johnson Matthey, Inc., a worldwide fabricator and
distributor of platinum metals, has just announced
their Fifth Annual Platinum Jewelry Design Competition for rings, jewelry with gemstones, and jewelry
without gemstones. In addition, Johnson Matthey, Inc.,
has implemented a one-million-dollar promotional
campaign to educate the public about the desirable aspects of platinum.
Lillian C. Hensel
Rhinebeck: jewelry artists at work. E. Laure, Jewelers'
Circular Keystone, Vol. 152, No. 9, 198 1, pp. 9497.
Each year one of the fall issues of Jewelers' CircularKeystone features the Northeast Craft Fair, held in June
in Rhinebeclz, New Yorlz. As one of the major craft
shows of the country, it is limited to about 500 artists
who must compete for the honor of participating.
While 1980 was the year of cloissone, this year's
show will be remembered for the use of titanium and
tantalum, space-age metals that produce vibrant colored pieces when heat treated. Laure characterizes the
show as containing many well-designed, well-crafted
items of jewelry fashioned by a variety of new artists.
She goes on to discuss a number of the artisans, describing their backgrounds and their worlz. The eight
color photographs of jewelry that accompany the article illustrate why this is considered such a significant
craft event.
DMD
She designs jewelry that may save a life! Executive
Jeweler, Vol. 1. No. 4, 1981, p. 81.
Mary Ann Scherr, chairperson of the Metals, Fibers,
Clay, and Class Department at Parsons School of Design in New York City, has developed a unique concept
in jewelry design. She creates jewelry to assist with
certain medical problems. Her designs include a posttracheotomy necklace to aid the emotional recovery of
tracheotomy patients, pulse-monitoring bracelets, and
necklaces that carry a hearing aid battery. After her
own thumb was severed, she designed a llthumble:" a
protective device made of gold or silver that slips over
the finger to protect i t following surgery. In collaboration with a doctor, she has designed a posture belt
that signals the wearer to hold in hislher stomach and
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
a no-nod alarm monitor that warns a driver when his/

her head nods. She also makes metal whiplash collars
that resemble African jewelry. The possibilities seem
Lillian C. Hansel
endless.
Stone flower blossoms. L. Butorina, Australian Lapidary Journal, Vol. 17, No. 9, 1981, pp. 19-24.
The stone carvings from the Soviet Union are famous
worldwide. The name of one carving factory, Yekaterinburg, is often associated with major museum pieces
as well as with items sold in the trade. Butorina gives
us a glimpse into the history of this 254-year-old factory. Now called Russkiye Samotsvety, i t is located in
Sverdlovsky in the Ural Mountains, where carving material is abundant. Two hundred different types of jasper alone have been found in this region. Five photographs illustrate carvings made from jasper as well as
those fashioned from other materials such as rhodonite, obsidian, and corundum.
Originally, the primary function of the factory was
to fill orders for the imperial court under strict specifications of design and material. One of the key differences for the carvers today is that they have flexibility
in designing and making their pieces. Another lzey difference is that machines augment that hand work; for
example, diamond saws may be used to preform the
pieces. However, the tradition of beautiful hand work
continues, as each piece is carved and finished individually.
DMD
Tibetan jewelry: a lost art. V. Reynolds, American
Craft, Vol. 41, No. 5, 1981, pp. 30-35.
This article describes in detail the clothes and jewelry
worn by Tibetans, examples of which were recently
exhibited at the Newark Museum in New Jersey. Tibetan men and women traditionally wore clothing that
identified their specific region as well as their social
and financial status. These customs of adornment have
been documented as early as the seventh century, A.D.,
and may date back even further.
The jewelry described is primarily composed of gold,
silver, copper, and brass set with turquoise, coral, pearls,
amber, and agate-as well as beads made of glass or
plastic. In fact, there have been periods in the 19th and
20th centuries when glass and plastic were considered
valuable in their own right both because they are substances that were technically unknown to the Tibetans
and because of their flawless appearance and their colors,
which may be brighter than natural stones. In fact, gold
and silver were often coated with an orange lacquer
wash to satisfy the vivid sense of color of the Tibetans.
The jewelry worn by Tibetan men usually included
heavy cast gold or silver earrings set with turquoise,
finger rings, charm boxes on bead necklaces, medallions, and hat finials. Rank was often denoted by the
amount of jewelry and whether gold, silver, or copper
was used.
Women wore large, elaborate headdresses that incorporated their own hair and that were adorned with
coins and ornaments representing their wealth and
rank. They also wore ear ornaments, charm boxes, and
milk-pail hooks. These elaborate headdresses and other
pieces of jewelry were part of everyday dress, judging
from photos showing women milking, riding, and harvesting while wearing such items.
Since the abolishment of traditional Tibetan society
and religion following the takeover of Tibet by China
in the 1950s, these modes of dress and ornamentation
EBM
have virtually disappeared.
Totally tantalizing: new jewelry of titanium or tantalum. Executive Jeweler, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1981,
p. 65.
Titanium and tantalum, metals that have heretofore
been used primarily in the aircraft and space industries,
are becoming popular materials for jewelry. Both are
extremely hard and light. The lzey attraction, however,
is that they can be changed from their natural drab gray
to intense iridescent colors. Heating different areas of
either metal with a torch or with high voltage will produce different colors and combinations of colors depending on the temperature used. Although these vibrant colors affect the surface of the material only and
can be scratched off with a sharp point, they will last
if the jewelry is worn carefully.
Because both metals cost about the same as silver,
the finished pieces are unique and inexpensive, creating a new, futuristic look in jewelry.
Lillian C. Hensel
RETAILING
Brilliant company: New York's resplendent jewelers.
N. T. Gardiner, Town and Country, Vol. 135, No.
5017, 1981, pp. 188-199.
The "who's who" in fashionable jewelers are photographed displaying some of today's finest jewelry creations. Diamond to tanzanite, emerald to amethyst,
and ruby to pearl are all shown off in elaborate suites
of jewelry on some of the major jewelry people in New
Yorlz. Included are M. Claude Arpels, president of Van
Cleef and Arpels in New York; Ralph Destine, president of Cartier, U.S.A.; Henry Platt, vice-chairperson
of Tiffany & Co.; Designer David Webb; Dominique
Gerard, president of the M. Gerard Joalliers store in
New York; Nicola Bulgari, director of the Bulgari store
in New York; Count Enrico Carimati di Carimate,
president and chief designer of Carimati Jewelers; and
Ronald Winston, president and chairperson of the board
of directors of Harry Winston, Inc.
Gardiner comments on the influence that these jewelers have on the culture of the city as well as on jewelry. The article is both interesting and well
presented.
NPK
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
239
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Natural and synthetic gem materials, a comparison.
I. Sunagawa, Bulletin de Mindralogie, Vol. 104, No.
2-3, 1981, pp. 128-132.
Emphasizing that the solid-liquid interface is the only
place where crystal growth occurs, Ichiro Sunagawa
compares natural and synthetic crystals, specifically
their growth conditions and how their properties are
affected by differences in growth mechanisms. Synthetic and natural diamond and emerald crystals are
used to illustrate the discussion.
Natural crystallization can be regarded as growth
from solution phases exclusively; this is in contrast to
synthetic growth, which can be accomplished from
either melt or solution phases. Melt products should
be easily identifiable because of their rough solid-liquid
interface growth and the resulting characteristics, such
as curved growth or curved color banding. Solutionphase crystals may not be detected as easily. The differences in the chemistry of solutions in solution phases,
however, result in differences that can be reflected on
surface microtopograph~~
the article provides comparison photographs of both natural and synthetic emerald
and diamond crystal faces. Internal morphology, revealed by X-ray studies, can also reveal differences but
only for the properties affected by crystal growth.
A LS
Synthetische rubine mit edelsteinqualitat, isometrischem habitus und hoher zahl unbeschadigter
kristallflachen (Synthetic ruby with gemstone
quality, isometric habit, and a high number of undamaged crystal faces). P. 0 . Knischka and E.
Gubelin, Zeitschrift der Deutschen Gemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 29, No. 314, 1980, pp.
155-189.
In a comprehensive and highly technical article, the
authors describe a synthetic ruby that is made by a process described as "gradient technique." Although the
authors do not include details of this process, they do
state that it involves supercooling and supersaturation.
The resulting crystals show bright, even growth faces
that have mineralogical indices with many numbers as
well as combinations that have not been seen before.
The trademark for this synthetic is made from a combination of Paul Knischka's initials with the P reversed.
For the purposes of this abstract, we will refer to this
material as synthetic P-K ruby.
Diagrams of known corundum forms showing 8-,
1 4 - and 20-sided crystals are given. Synthetic P-K ruby
shows at least five different mineralogical indices, and
diagrams demonstrate crystals of 32 and 38 faces. There
are apparently at least five different types of this synthetic. The possible forms of some are given. (One
group has so much iron in the lattice that the ultraviolet reaction is nearly the same as that of natural ruby.)
240
Six full-color photographs of crystals and crystal

groups that have 32 faces with typical forms are shown.
Inasmuch as all six have different height-to-depth ratios, the explanation that the habit of corundum is due
not only to the corundum structure but also to factors
of its growth environment is endorsed.
As with all synthetic processes, the crystals grown
by the "gradient technique" involve supersaturation.
This occurs in one of three ways: (1) through sudden
lowering of temperature, (2)through inherent chemical
processes, or (3)through evaporation.
Comparative experiments on ruby, synthetic ruby
by Verneuil, and synthetic P-K ruby types 0, 1, 2, and
3 were performed. X-ray spectral analysis yielded the
following information: (1)the iron content of natural
ruby can be as high as five times that of the synthetics;
(2)the chromium content of natural ruby is unmistalzably lower than that of synthetics; (3) a measurable
content of titanium was found in all three materials;
(4) silica was noticeable in natural ruby and in synthetic P-K ruby but was missing in the Verneuil product. This experiment indicated that in the future it may
be possible to separate natural rubies from synthetic
rubies by determining the trace elements that the material in question contains. Evidence of trace elements
was also obtained through atomic absorption spectrophotometry. (It is unfortunate that in order for the
above experiments to be performed the samples were
pulverized. ]
Gemological tests were carried out on the P-K ruby
with the following results: in color and appearance this
material is very similar to the natural, although the
fine Burmese color has not been achieved and the synthetic appears more violet. Dichroism, refractive index,
and birefringence are the same for both this synthetic
and natural ruby. The specific gravity is approximately
3.97, though clusters may yield a lower value of about
3.94. Most of the spectrum of the synthetic shows the
same absorptions and maximum transmissions as the'
natural, but differences exist in transparency in the
near-ultraviolet area. (The statement was made that it
would be dangerous to rely on this evidence for separations.) In the area of fluorescence, a possible difference exists because the natural ruby has more iron. The
synthetic glows scarlet red under long- and short-wave
ultraviolet light, and shows a weak phosphorescence
for approximately seven seconds. It is in the area of inclusions that valuable indications of identity can be
found. The P-K ruby appears to be cloudy but upon
close examination many folded inclusions, color streaks,
liquid feathers, two-phase inclusions, black platelets,
and negative crystals can be seen. The liquid feather
inclusions are much like those in hydrothermal synthetic ruby from Chatham and are difficult to distinguish from those in natural ruby. The platinum hexagonal platelets that are sometimes seen in synthetics
but never in naturals are very valuable in making a sep-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
aration. Under high magnification, it can be seen that

the gas bubbles visible under low power are actually
the gas phase of the two-phase inclusions. These peculiar two-phase inclusions are a clear indication of the
P-K synthetic ruby.
Barbara Taylor
MISCELLANEOUS
Contact metamorphics, part I. B. Jones, Rock and Gem,
Vol. 11, No. 11, 1981, pp. 34-40.
Heat is the major requirement for contact metamorphism and normally is the result of an intruding magma.
Since a magma may take millions of years to cool, a
series of alteration zones are produced. Close to the
magma, there is more heat and, therefore, more alteration so that a different set of minerals forms there
than in zones farther away. With this type of alteration,
impure calcium carbonate rocks or argillaceous shales
form the most productive deposits.
Bob Jones begins his discussion of individual metamorphic minerals with the amphibole and pyroxene
groups. Pyroxenes are single chains of silicon and oxygen tetrahedrons held together by magnesium or iron
ions. Amphiboles are double-chain silicates that are
also held together by magnesium or iron ions. In these
groups, the metallic ions may vary in proportion with
each other or may exchange for other metallic ions,
thus creating many complex minerals. Visually, amphiboles tend to form long needles with a diamondshaped cross section, while pyroxenes form stubbier
equidimensional crystals. Jones concludes part I with
a review of specific minerals from these two groups,
including hornblende, epidote, vesuvianite, pectolite,
prehnite, and diopside.
GSH
Mineral fakes. P. J. Dunn, R. E. Bentley, W. E. Wilson,
Mineralogical Record, Vol. 12, No. 4, 1981, pp.
197-219.
In an extensive article on faked mineral specimens and
their detection, the authors define a fake as "an object
represented as a natural mineral specimen but having
one or more falsified characteristics of synthesized
parts." Falsified characteristics may include attachments, color, luster, clarity, shape, faces, or surface
composition. The oldest fake the authors found dates
from 1724. Entitled "Moor with tray of emeralds," it
is a statue of a man holding a specimen of emeralds in
matrix. The emeralds have been implanted in holes

carved into the matrix. The specimen itself appeared
much earlier than the statue, and has been traced to
around the early 1500s when it was apparently presented to King Charles I of Spain. This historical review
describes other fascinating accounts of fakes.
Turning to recent efforts at fakery, the authors
examine in detail eight different types, the minerals
involved, and methods of detection. One particularly
interesting fake is produced in chalcedony or chrysoprase by immersing a slab in aqueous copper solution
and shooting a laser beam through the center. This
causes the copper to crystallize into a "bloom" or flower
within the structure of the slab.
In the detection section, the authors begin by reminding the reader that the most effective method is
careful visual examination aided by 5-15 x magnification. They then discuss techniques for detecting the
different types of fraud, such as checking for glue in
ultraviolet light because most glue fluoresces. Lastly,
the authors warn that faked specimens are abundant
and should be watched for by the collector.
S FM
The occurrence of gold in the gem beds of Sri Lanka.
C. B. Dissanayake and S. W. Nawaratne, Economic
Geology, Vol. 76, No. 3, 1981, pp. 733-738.
The authors report on the significance of small flakes
of gold found in association with alluvial gem materials
near the Ratnapura district in Sri Lanka. Nine tenths
of Sri Lanka is said to be composed of Precambrian
metamorphic rocks, which are subdivided into the
Highland Group, the Vijayan Complex, and the Southwest Group, each having specific mineral assemblages.
The authors relate the complex metamorphic environments of the Highland and Southwest Groups and the
volcano-sedimentary components of the terrain, suggesting this environment as a possible source for the
gold.
Two geologic maps illustrate the detailed geology
of Sri Lanka and the sampling area in the southeastern
part of Ratnapura. Geologic cross sections of the goldbearing gem pits in a stream bed in the Ratnapura
region are also included, each with sedimentation features that are characteristic of several cycles of deposition. Gold, occurring as dust or flakes, is found mixed
with these gravel deposits. Associated minerals include
pyrite, ilmenite, garnet, monazite, magnetite, rutile,
and quartz.
Stephen C. Hofer
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
241
EMERALD AND
OTHER BERYLS
By John Sinkankas, 704 pp., illus.,
Chilton Book Co., Radnor, Pennsylvania, 1981. US$37.50*
In the preface to this impressive
work, Captain Sinkankas states that
the inspiration for Emerald and
Other Beryls was Joseph E. Pogue's
classic boolz on turquoise, and that
the objective of this newest of his
publications is the same as Pogue's:
that is, to "arouse a greater interest
in a fascinating field-that
concerned with precious stones and their
relation to mankind." Certainly,
Sinkanlzas has accomplished this.
Emerald and Other Beryls is one of
those rare books that, when published, generates such excitement
that it is destined to be an "instant
classic." It is very difficult to imagine a more definitive or exhaustive
work on any subject. Suffice it to say
that the book represents 15 years of
research.
Emerald and Other Beryls is
broadly divided into three parts:
'History and Lore," "Chemical and
Physical Properties" and "Beryl Localities." Part I covers a wide range
of subjects. It starts with the use of
beryl in ancient Egypt and proceeds
through its early use in the Americas. Next, Sinkankas reviews the
subject of beryl from the standpoint
of the early literature, describing
references to this gem material by
such authors as Agricola, DeBoodt,
and Hauy. "Beryl in Magic, Mystery, and Medicine" is discussed
next, starting again with early Egyptian lore and then examining the
occult properties of this material,
including its effects on personal
traits, love and marriage, and even
business transactions. Sinkankas
also delves into the therapeutic uses
of beryl-including its prescription
in various cultures as a cure for such
problems as eye disease, epilepsy,
fever, complications of pregnancy,
and digestive-tract ailments. In this
first part of the book, Sinlzankas also
talks about the biblical references to
beryl, beryl as a birthstone, and emeralds in fable. He concludes the
section by discussing the engraving
242
Book Reviews
BOOK
REVIEWS1
Robert Effler, Editor
of beryl and describing some of the

most important specimens of engraved beryl found in major collections around the world. He lists these
collections by country.
Part II addresses the scientific aspects of the beryl family. It discusses in great detail such topics as
the crystal structure and chemical
composition of beryl, its physical
and optical properties, crystallography, color, and luminescence. There
is a particularly interesting section
on artificial and synthetic beryl, and
inclusions found in beryl. Part II of
the book also includes a discussion
of the cutting and polishing of beryl,
and closes with a section on the various types of deposits in which beryl
is found. Sinkankas divides these
deposits into volcanic, early magmatic, late magmatic, metamorphichydrothermal, hydrothermal, and
sedimentary.
This general discussion of deposits forms a firm basis for part I11 of
the book, "The Beryl Localities."
This third, and by far largest, section
of the book comprises at least half
of the total work. It is the section
that will have the greatest appeal
and use for the collector and museum curator. Sinlzankas describes
all known sources of all types of
beryl from ores, to specimens for the
collector, to gem deposits. The locality section is an easy-to-use reference because the localities are arranged by country in alphabetical
order. References to the literature
on a given deposit are also included
at the end of the discussion of each
country. What makes this discussion of beryl localities unique and of
even greater importance is Sinkankas's practice of placing particular
emphasis on those localities about
which information is difficult to ob-
tain or little has been published in

the past. The well-known deposits
are covered, but not in as exhaustive
a manner as one would expect given
the detail of the rest of the boolz.
These descriptions are left to existing literature. The information that
Sinkanlzas has amassed on beryl localities is virtually unprecedented.
For example, how many readers are
aware of the two-inch bluish-green
beryl crystals from Commonwealth
Bay, Adelic Land, Antarctica? This
locality information is beautifully
supplemented with maps, photographs, and sketches of the occurrences.
One of the most important aspects of any book from the perspective of the researcher is its bibliography. In the case of Emerald and
Other Beryls, the bibliography is another indication of just how exhaustive the research was and how much
a labor of love this book has been for
John Sinkankas: over 700 references
to beryl are presented. In addition,
Sinkankas includes an appendix of
beryl nomenclature, listing over 500
names for beryl that he encountered
during his research.
Emerald and Other Beryls is the
ultimate reference on beryl and is a
definite must for the library of anyone interested in gems.
PETER C. KELLER
Santa Monica, California
LAPIDARY CARVING FOR

CREATIVE JEWELRY
By Henry Hunt, 144 pp., illus., Desert Press, Souse, Arizona, 1981.
US$12.95
For the gem enthusiast or lapidary
desiring a good introduction to gemstone carving techniques, this book
is indeed a welcome addition to
publications on the craft. The author describes all the equipment
needed to carve and then thoroughly
explains the uses of all items. He
even describes the making of wheels,
points, and the like, which is not an
' This book is available for purchase at
the GIA Bookstore, 1735 Stewart St.,
Santa Monica, C A 90404.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
uncommon practice for those who

carve. Although suppliers have excellent assortments of wheels and
polishing points, many advanced
carvers make what they need for a
particular job.
The book deals primarily with
the carving of transparent gem materials. The author thoroughly explains how to work each stone, such
as amethyst, citrine, peridot, beryl,
and even some synthetics, each in
a separate chapter. Hunt has pursued a rather different end product
than most carvers. Much of his work
has been directed toward bringing
out the optical effects possible from
the particular gem material. Such
effects as internal reflections, refraction within curved polished surfaces, changes of color due to thiclz-
ening or thinning areas within the

carved object, and the like, are pursued in order to utilize the material
to what the author perceives to be
its greatest potential beauty. For
example, from chapter 1, "Optical
Qualities of Transparent Stones," we
note: "you cannot see through the
stone. Light is reflected internally
back and forth, with the result that
the carving scintillates as it moves
around. The light seems to come
from within the stone." And, further along, we read: "The optical
qualities of the stone become part of
the aesthetics of the carving. The
surface form and the color of the
carving is not the end of the story.
What happens to the light inside the
stone, how it defines the shape, becomes equally important."
The objects carved by the author

certainly have interest value, but
they may not be aesthetically exciting for everyone. Many black-andwhite pictures appear throughout the
book.
Ideally, carving is the ultimate
expression of the art of worlzing
gemstones. When one can combine
proper techniques of working the
gemstone to its greatest potential
beauty with artistic and creative talent, to execute a meaningful, worthy object that will delight all who
h a y see it, then he or she has arrived at a plateau deserving of much
recognition. This book will certainly help the lapidary along that
path.
BILL KERR
Santa Monica, California
DIAMONDS: FROM BIRTH TO ETERNITY

Diamonds: From Birth to
Eternity was painstakingly
researched over a five year
period by renowned diamond authority Arthur
Norman Wilson. The former
head of public relations for
DeBeers Consolidated Mines
and the Anglo American
Corporation, Wilson traveled
the world interviewing the
diamond industry's major
figures and gathering information for this volume.
It is the most comprehensive
work on the origin of
diamond ever assembled.
A fine example of the bookmaker's art,each copy of

this limited edition is handbound in rich leather with
hand-marbled endpapers
and 20K gold stamping.
Each book is numbered and
features 30 tipped-in color
prints and over 150 black
and white photographs as
well as numerous maps and
graphs in its 500 pages of
highest quality paper.
It is a collector's edition of
enduring value. Only 500
copies will be printed. Price
is $375.
For further information, contact: Dianne Eash, Gemological Institute of America,

1660 Stewart Street, Santa Monica, CA 90404; (213) 829-2991, Extension 298.
Book Reviews
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
243
Stephanie Dillon, Editor
The Wernher Collection-Luton

Hoo, Luton, Bedfordshire LU13TQ1
England. Telephone: (0582)22955.
Luton Hoo is a country house open
to the public. The collection includes Renaissance jewels and
a large group of Carl Faberge's
works. The collection is open from
April 3 to October 10.
National Museum of History- 49
Nan Hai Road, Taipei, Taiwan.
Telephone: (2)361-0278.
This museum of Chinese history
and art has an extensive collection
of jade from the Shang, Chou,
Chin, and Han dynasties to the
present. "Chinese Jade in 4,000
The 28th Annual Tucson Gem &

Mineral Show will be held
February 12-14 in the Tucson
Community Center, 260 South
Church, Downtown Tucson,
Arizona. The show will feature
lectures and programs by curators,
mineralogists, and hobbyists, as
well as competitive exhibits, including a best-of-species competition in malachite. There will be
more then 120 cases of special
exhibits containing mineral specimens from museums and private
collections throughout the world.
Annual meetings will be held by
Friends of Mineralogy, the Mineral
Museums' Advisory Council, and
Species Collectors; also convening will be the Neal Yedlin
Years" is an event for which many

collectors have lent their jade to
augment the museum's collection.
The exhibit, to be held in spring
1982, will give a comprehensive
view of Chinese jade.
Heimatmuseum-6580 IdarOberstein 1, Hauptstrasse 436,
West Germany. Telephone: 0678 124619.
The Heimatmuseum houses crystal
specimens from around the world,
as well as cut gems and a collection of antique and modern jewelry. Bowls, figures, and cameos are
displayed in a special exhibit on
the carver's art. There is an old
agate-grinding mill with water
wheel as well as an old-fashioned
goldsmith's workshop. There is

also a darkroom with fluorescent
minerals displayed under ultraviolet light. The museum is open
to the public year round.
Museu de Minerals e Rochas do
DNPM-Av. Pasteur 404, Praia
Vermelha, 22291 Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil.
The museum's permanent collection comprises various pieces of
ornamental stone and 300 cut
specimens of quartz, topaz, tourmaline, beryl, spodumene, and
several nonsilicates. The museum
is open to the public Monday
through Friday all year.
Memorial Micromount Symposium.

Information: Tucson Gem &
Mineral Show Committee, P.O.
Box 42543, Tucson, Arizona 85733.
For further information, contact:

American Gem Society, 2960
Wilshire Boulevard, Los Angeles,
California 90010.
The 1982 American Gem Society

Conclave meets at the Fairmont
Hotel in New Orleans, Louisiana,
April 23-27. Numerous AGS and
GIA personnel will lead the activities of the five-day program,
which carries the theme, "Your
AGS Image: the Formula for
Success." After beginning with a
day of workshops, the agenda
continues with the theme session,
the Shipley luncheon, the Intergold
luncheon, an evening program on
diamonds, young people's and
spouses' sessions, and three days of
concurrent laboratories, seminars,
and conference groups in the areas
of gemology and sales promotion.
The National Association of

Jewelry Appraisers, newly formed,
is conducting a membership drive.
Dedicated to maintaining professional standards and education in
jewelry appraisal, the association
plans to publish a monthly newsletter and an annual membership
directory. Richard E. Baron is
executive director of the organization. Information: National
Association of Jewelry Appraisers,
7414 East Camelback Road, Scottsdale, Arizona 8525 1; telephone:
(602)941-8088.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
to
Volume- 17
Numbers 1 4
SUBJECT INDEX
T h i s i n d e x gives t h e first a u t h o r ( i n parentheses) a n d first page of t h e article o r G e m T r a d e
Lab N o t e s ( G T L N )section i n w h i c h t h e indexed subject occurs. The reader i s referred t o
t h e a u t h o r i n d e x for t h e full t i t l e and t h e coauthors, where appropriate, of t h e articles cited.
A
Afghanistan (Sar-e-Sang)
lapis-lazuli deposits in (Wyart) 184
Alexandrite, synthetic
cryogenic cooling of, to enhance
spectra [Hofer)143
Almandine, see Garnet
Amber
inorganic inclusions in (Koivula)
34
Amethyst
irradiation in (Rossman)60
Amethyst-citrine quartz (Nassau)37
Andradi te
from San Benito County, California [Payne) 157
Aquamarine
bead cut from trapiche-like crystal (GTLN)40
Arizona, San Carlos Apache
Reservation
peridot locality [Koivula)205
Asterism
in bluish-gray quartz (GTLN)226
in corundum, as enhanced or removed by heat treatment (Nassau) 121
four-rayed star in spinel (GTLN)
40
B
Beryl
causes of color in (Rossman)60
heat treatment of (Rossman)60
Book reviews
Amber: The Golden Gem of the
Ages (Rice)59
Emerald and Other Beryls [Sinlzankas) 242
Gemstone and Mineral Data Book
[Sinkankas) 179
Index
Lapidary Carving for Creative

Jewelry [Hunt)242
Optical Mineralogy: The Nonopaque Minerals (Phillips]59
Ruby and Sapphire [Belyaev, ed,]
179
The World of Diamonds (Green)
179
c
C1E (Commission Internationale de
lJEclairage) system of color measurement as used in garnet study
(Manson) 191
Care of gem materials
kunzite [Ran~sey)
220
pearls (GTLN)226
Cat's-eye, see Chatoyancy
Chatoyancy
in andradite [Payne) 157
in sillimanite [GTLN) 161
Colombia
emeralds of (Keller)80
Color stability
lack of, in Maxixe and Maxixetype beryl (Rossman) 60, (Nassau) 217
in spodumene, blue topaz, and
yellow diamonds (Rossman)60
Coral
substitute made of dyed marble
(GTLN)226
Corundum, see Ruby and Sapphire
Cryogenic cooling of gemstones to
enhance spectra [Hofer)143
Cubic zirconia
current status (Nassau)9
separation from diamond
[Nassau) 9
see also Diamond simulants
D
Dark-field illumination, see Lighting methods
Demantoid, see Andradite
Devonshire emerald (Keller)80
Diamond
angular grooves on surface of
(GTLN] 226
burned (GTLN)226
with concave facets (GTLN) 161
spectra (Hofer) 143
cyclotron treated (GTLN)40
effects of irradiation and heating
in (Rossman)60
inclusions in, olivine
(GTLN) 101
inclusions in, ruby (Meyer) 153
origin in lumberlite, as determined by scanning electron microscopy (Stockton)72
with radiation stains on natural
[GTLN)40
with unusual natural (GTLN)40
Diamond, colored
chameleon (GTLN)226
green (Rossman) 60, (GTLN) 101,
226
yellow (GTLN)40,
(Rossman)60
Diamond, cuts and cutting of
concave facets, (GTLN) 161
cube cut [GTLN) 40
laser sawing (Baker) 150
Peruzzi cut (GTLN)40
Diamond simulants
detection of (Hobbs)20
Diffusion
as a method of heat treating sapphires (GTLN)40,
(Nassau) 121
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
245
E
Emerald
carved slice [GTLN) 161
Colombian mines-history, geology, and current economic status of (Keller)80
spectra (Hofer) 143
large three-phase inclusion in
(GTLN)226
"manufactured" specimen (GTLN)
101
natural emerald with unusual
structure [GTLN)40
notable emeralds (Keller)80
substitutes made from dyed beryl
(GTLN)226
Emerald, synthetic
Lechleitner overgrowth, chromium content of (Schmetzer)98
Linde, as compared to Lechleitner
(Schmetzer)98
"natural" inclusions in material
from U.S.S.R. (GTLN)40
new source of (GTLN) 101
Emilia emerald crystal (Keller)80
Endangered species
Helmeted hornbill (Kane)96
of irradiated diamonds (Rossman)

60
of ruby and sapphire [Nassau) 121
of topaz (Rossman) 60
of zircon (Rossman)60
Hiddenite (Rossman)60
Hooker emerald brooch (Keller)80
Hornbill ivory
description of (Kane)96
Inclusions
in diamond, hollow tubules
[GTLN)40
in emerald, large three-phase inclusion (GTLN)226
in heat-treated corundum (Nassau) 121
inorganic, in amber (Koivula)34
olivine in diamond (GTLN) 101
in peridot (Gubelin) 2, (Koivula)
205
photography of (Koivula) 132
ruby in diamond (Meyer) 153
in ruby, thin films [GTLN) 101
in synthetic emerald (GTLN)40,
101
in synthetic ruby (GTLN)40, 161
Irradiation
of amethyst (Rossman)60
of diamond (Rossman)60
Faceting
as a factor in amethyst-citrine
difficulties in cutting lzunzite
quartz (Nassau)37
(Ramsey)220
of fluorite (Rossman)60
see also Diamond, cuts and cutof Maxixe beryl [Rossman)60
ting of
and radioactivity (CrowningFiber optic illuminator, see Lighting
shield) 215
methods
of smoky quartz (Rossman]60
Fibrolite, see Sillimanite
of spodumene [Rossman)60
Fluorite
of topaz (Rossman)60
effects of irradiation in (Rossman)
of topaz by neutrons as opposed to
60
gamma rays (Crowningshield )
215
G
Ivory
Garnet
carvings (GTLN) 161
quantitative chemistry of, detersee also Hornbill ivory
mined by scanning electron microscopy (Stockton) 72
stones in red-to-violet color
range-almandine, pyrope, rhodolite, spessartine (Manson)191 Jade substitute
plastic snuff bottle (GTLN) 101
see also Andradite
Jadeite
Gems e0 Gemology
origin of color (Rossman)60
introduction to (Liddicoat) 1
Golden jade, see Hornbill ivory
H
Heat treatment
of beryl (Rossman)60
as a factor in amethyst-citrine
quartz (Nassau)37
246
Index
Kunzite
cutting difficulties of (Ramsey)220
irradiated to simulate hiddenite
[Rossman)60
L
Lapis-lazuli
dyed and wax treated [GTLN) 101
from Sar-e-Sang, Afghanistanhistory, geology, and current
status of (Wyart) 184
Laser sawing
of diamonds (Baker) 150
Lazuri te
in lapis-lazuli (Wyart) 184
Lighting methods
for photography of inclusions
(Koivula) 132
Liquid nitrogen
as used in cryogenic cooling of
gemstones (Hofer) 143
M
Malachite
carving broken along bedding
planes (GTLN)40
Maxixe beryl
effects of irradiation in (Rossman)
60
fading of (Nassau) 21 7
Maxixe-type beryl
nonfading? (Nassau)21 7
Maw-sit-sit
as identified by scanning electron
microscopy (Stoclzton)72
Microscope
photography with (Koivula)132
Mogul emerald (Keller)80
N
Nephrite
carved (GTLN) 161
Oblique illumination, see Lighting

methods
Olivine
as inclusion in diamond (GTLN)
101
Opal
black, wax treated (GTLN) 161
porous (GTLN) 101
textural analysis of, as determined
by scanning electron microscopy (Stoclzton) 72
P
Patricia emerald crystal (Keller)80
Pearl simulant
mother-of-pearl beads (GTLN)226
Pearls
care of (GTLN)226
identification when damaged by
fire (GTLN) 101
GEMS &GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
Pearls, cultured
bronzy-colored dyed (GTLN)40
damaged outer layer (GTLN)40
mabe, assembled (GTLN] 161
314 cultured blister pearls (GTLN)
101
Peridot
inclusions in (Gubelin) 2, (Koivula) 205
lore and origin of word
(Gubelin] 2
from San Carlos Apache Reservation, Arizona-history,
geology, mining methods, and current status of [Koivula)205
from Zabargad-history, geology,
and mining methods of
[Gubelin)2
Photomicrography
of inclusions in gemstones (Koivula) 132
Polarized light microscopy, see
Lighting methods
Pyrope, see Garnet
Q
Quartz
asterism in bluish-gray stone
(GTLN)226
dyed, crackled red and green
(GTLN)226
effects of irradiation in amethyst
and smoky quartz [Rossman)60
Radioactivity
of neutron-irradiated topaz
(Crowningshield)2 15
Refractometer
with cubic zirconia hemicylinder
(Hurlbut Jr) 93
Rhodolite, see Garnet
Royal azel, see Sugilite
Royal lavulite, see Sugilite
Ruby
heat treatment of (Nassau) 121
as inclusion in diamond [Meyer)
153
inclusions in, as identified by
scanning electron microscopy
[Stoclzton) 72
Index
thin-film inclusion in (GTLN)101

Ruby, synthetic
Chatham (GTLN) 161
Chatham, "natural" inclusions in
(GTLN)40
flux grown (GTLN) 161
heat treatment of (Nassau) 121
s
St. John's Island, see Zabargad
San Benito County, California
andradite locality (Payne) 157
San Carlos peridot, see Peridot
Sapphire
diffusion of [induced surface coloration] (GTLN) 40, (Nassau]
121
heat treatment of (Nassau] 121,
(GTLN)226
geuda (Nassau) 121
parti-colored (GTLN) 161
Sapphire, synthetic
heat treatment of (Nassau] 121
Scanning electron microscope
applications of, in gemology
[Stockton] 72
Sillimanite
cat's eye [CTLN) 161
Spanish Inquisition necklace (Keller)
80
Spectra
of diamond [Hofer]143
of dyed jadeite (Rossman)60
of emerald (Hofer) 143
of garnets (Manson] 191
of "greenfire," demantoid, and
golden cat's eye andradite
(Payne) 157
of jadeite (Rossman)60
of sugilite (GTLN] 101
of synthetic alexandrite (Hofer)
143
of synthetic turquoise [Rossman)
60
of turquoise (Rossman)60
of yellow beryl (Rossman) 60
Spectrophotometer
to test gemstones (Hofer)143
Spectroscopy
low-temperature (Hofer) 143
Spessartine, see Garnet
Spinel
exhibiting 4-ray star (GTLN)40
Spodumene
color-causing agents in (Rossman)
60
see also Kunzite and Hiddenite
Star phenomena, see Asterism
Sugilite
as distinguished from sogdianite
or leucophoenicite (GTLN) 101
T
Taaffeite
inclusions in, as identified by
scanning electron microscopy
(Stoclzton)72
Thermoluminescence
used to separate natural from irradiated blue topaz (Rossman)
60
Topaz
irradiation and heating of (Rossman) 60
radioactivity of, caused by neutron irradiation (Crowningshield) 2 15
separation of natural from irradiated blue by thermoluminescence (Rossman)60
Topazolite, see Andradite
Transmitted light, see Lighting
methods
Trystine, see Amethyst-citrine
quartz
Turquoise
separating natural from dyed or
synthetic (Rossman] 60
u
Unclassified oddity
corundum specimen with tourmaline and kyanite (GTLN)101
z
Zabargad (St. John's Island)
peridot locality (Gubelin)2
Zircon
heat treatment of (Rossman)60
Indexes prepared by Dona Dirlam
GEMS &. GEMOLOGY
Winter 1981
247
AUTHOR INDEX
This index lists, in alphabetical order, the names of authors of all articles that appeared in
the four issues of Volume 17 of Gems 0 ) Gemology. Full citation is provided under the first
author only, with reference made from joint authors.
B
Baker D.M.: Revolution in diamond
cutting: laser sawing of diamond
crystals, 150-152
Bank H., see Schmetzer K.
Bariand P., see Wyart J.
Crowningshield R.: Irradiated topaz
and radioactivity, 215-2 17
F
Filippi J., see Wyart J.
G
Gubelin E.
Zabargad: the ancient peridot island in the Red Sea, 2-8
see Meyer H.O.A.
H
Hobbs J , : A simple approach to detecting diamond simulants, 20-33
Hofer S.C., Manson D.V.: Cryogenics, a n aid to gemstone testing,
143-149
Hurlbut C.S. Jr.: A cubic zirconia
refractometer, 93-95
K
Kane R,E.: Hornbill ivory, 96-97
Index
Keller P.C.: Emeralds of Colombia,

8 0- 92
Koivula J.I.
The hidden beauty of amber: new
light on an old subject, 34-36
Photographing inclusions, 132142
San Carlos peridot, 205-214
Nassau K., Prescott B.E.: Nonfading

Maxixe-type beryl?, 217-219
L
Liddicoat R.T. Jr.: An introduction
to the new Gems 0) Gemology, 1
R
Ramsey J.L.: The cutting properties
of kunzite, 220-225
Rossman G.R.: Color in gems: the
new technologies, 60-7 1
Manson D.V., Stockton C.M.: Gem

garnets in the red-to-violet color
range, 191-204
Manson D.V., see Hofer S.C. and
Stockton C.M.
Meyer H.O.A., Gubelin E.: Ruby in
diamond, 153- 156
N
Nassau K.
Artificially induced color in amethyst-citrine quartz, 37-39
Cubic zirconia: an update, 9- 19
Heat treating ruby and sapphire:
technical aspects, 121- 131
P
Payne T.: The andradites of San
Benito County, California, 157160
Prescott B.E., see Nassau K.
s
Schmetzer K., Bank H., Stahle V.:
The chromium content of Lechleitner synthetic emerald overgrowth, 98-100
Stahle V., see Schmetzer K.
Stockton C.M., Manson D.V.: Scanning electron microscopy in gemology, 72-79
Stockton C.M., see Manson D.V.
w
Wyart J., Bariand P., Filippi J. [trans.
by C . Stockton): Lapis-lazuli from
Sar-e-Sang, Badalzhshan, Afghanistan, 184- 190
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Winter 198 1

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VOLUME XVII

A quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America

183 The New Gems & Gemology Is One Year Old

184 Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang, Badakhshan, Afghanistan

215 Irradiated Topaz and Radioactivity

Gem Trade Lab Notes

245 Index to Volume 17, Numbers 1-4

01982 Gemological Institute

All rights reserved.

Editor, G e m Trade Lab Notes

THE NEW GEMS & GEMOLOGY

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

LAPIS-LAZULI FROM SAR-E-SANG,

T h e lapis-lazuli deposits at Sar-e-Sang i n

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

"198Gemological Institute of America

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

apis-lazuli is an ornamental stone (figure 1) that has

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 1. Three-centimeterlong talisman of lazurite

turn from the Persian lajevard and from which

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

Little lapis has been found elsewhere in the

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 2. Lazurite slab from

and polished for jewelry or as objets d'art. It was

nosilicate structure, common to all the minerals

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 3. Map of the routes from Kabul to the

THE SITE OF SAR-E-SANG

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

Fig~ire4. The small valley of Sar-e-Sang.Note

lished in 1841. He was the first European to visit

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 5. The route through

which usually extend laterally for 20 to 100 m,

DESCRIPTION OF THE DEPOSITS

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Figure 7. A block of lazurite i n the m i n e dumps

leries. The rock is very hard; to break it up, early

baikal deposits in the U.S.S.R., which present

NOTES ON THE ORIGIN

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

cations. The kaolin of the shale possesses the

Lapis-lazuli from Sar-e-Sang

period. Therefore, it is likely that current legal

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

GEM GARNETS IN THE

The gemological classification of garnets

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Manson is director of research and Ms.

982 Gemological Institute of America

Red-to-Violet Gem Garnets