October 2012

Volume 8, Number 5

ISSN 1811-5209

Rare Earth
Elements
ANTON R. CHAKHMOURADIAN and FRANCES WALL, Guest Editors

Minerals, Mines, and Magnets

Dynamics in the Global Market
Mineralization in Igneous Rocks
Hydrothermal Mobilization
Deposits in China
Mining and Exploration in North America
Elements is published jointly by the Mineralogical Volume 8, Number 5 • October 2012 A BOUT THE COVER :
Society of America, the Mineralogical Society Peralkaline rocks of the
of Great Britain and Ireland, the Mineralogical Lovozero plateau (in the
Association of Canada, the Geochemical Society, background) in the Kola
The Clay Minerals Society, the European
Association of Geochemistry, the International
Rare Earth Elements Peninsula host loparite deposits
Guest Editors: Anton R. Chakhmouradian and Frances Wall that have been exploited in the
Association of GeoChemistry, the Société Karnasurt mine (pictured here)
Française de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie,
since 1951 and served as the
the Association of Applied Geochemists,
Rare Earth Elements: Minerals, principal source of rare earths
the Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft,
the Società Italiana di Mineralogia e Petrologia, 333 Mines, Magnets (and More)
for Soviet industry. Loparite
production has declined
the International Association of Geoanalysts,
the Polskie Towarzystwo Mineralogiczne Anton R. Chakhmouradian and Frances Wall drastically since the collapse
(Mineralogical Society of Poland), the Sociedad of the USSR due to market
Española de Mineralogía, the Swiss Society of pressure and other economic
Mineralogy and Petrology, the Meteoritical problems. The deposits of
Society, and the Japan Association of Mineralogical weathering-resistant, eudialyte-
Sciences. It is provided as a benefit to members Dynamics in the Global Market rich nepheline syenite making
of these societies. 341 for Rare Earths up the “roof” of the Lovozero
Elements is published six times a year. Individuals plateau could breathe new life
are encouraged to join any one of the partici- Gareth P. Hatch into this region and the entire
pating societies to receive Elements. Institutional Russian rare earth industry if
subscribers to any of the following journals— technologists figure out a way
American Mineralogist, Clay Minerals, Clays and to profitably recover these
Clay Minerals, Mineralogical Magazine, and The Rare Earth Mineralization
Canadian Mineralogist—also receive one copy 347 in Igneous Rocks:
elements from eudialyte. PHOTO :
A NTON CHAKHMOURADIAN
of Elements as part of their 2012 subscription.
Institutional subscriptions are available for Sources and Processes
US$160 (US$175 non-US addresses) a year in Anton R. Chakhmouradian and Anatoly N. Zaitsev
2013. Contact the managing editor (tremblpi@
ete.inrs.ca) for information.
Copyright 2012 by the Mineralogical Society Hydrothermal Mobilisation
of America 355 of the Rare Earth Elements:
All rights reserved. Reproduction in any form, A Tale of “Ceria” and “Yttria”
including translation to other languages, or by
any means—graphic, electronic, or mechanical, Anthony E. Williams-Jones, Artashes A. Migdisov,
including photocopying or information storage and Iain M. Samson
and retrieval systems—without written permission
from the copyright holder is strictly prohibited.
Publications mail agreement no. 40037944
361 Diversity of Rare Earth Deposits:
The Key Example of China
Printed in USA Jindrich Kynicky, Martin P. Smith, and Cheng Xu
ISSN 1811-5209 (print)
ISSN 1811-5217 (online)
www.elementsmagazine.org
Rare Earth Mining and Exploration
www.elements. 369 in North America
geoscienceworld.org
Anthony N. Mariano and Anthony Mariano Jr.

D E PA R T M E N T S
Editorial – Tales, Tales… . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
From the Editors – Elements Course Packs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Triple Point – A Sabbatical Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
People in the News – Macfarlane, Brown, Dingwell . . . . . . 326
CosmoElements – The Stardust Comet Mission . . . . . . . . . . 327
Meet the Authors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Society News
Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
Association of Applied Geochemists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Meteoritical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .380
Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . .382
European Association of Geochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .384
The Clay Minerals Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .385
Geochemical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .386
Mineralogical Society of America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .388
International Association of GeoChemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .390
Spanish Mineralogical Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
Mineralogical Association of Canada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
Book Review – Layered Mineral Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Parting Shots – Full Stop for Mother Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
Advertisers in This Issue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

321
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The Mineralogical The Geochemical Society SOCIETY NEWS EDITOR: Patrice de Caritat The Sociedad Española
Society of America is (GS) is an international (Patrice.deCaritat@ga.gov.au) de Mineralogía (Spanish
composed of individuals organization founded in Association of Applied Geochemists Mineralogical Society) was
interested in mineralogy, 1955 for students and P.O. Box 26099 founded in 1975 to promote
crystallography, petrology, scientists involved in the Nepean, ON K2H 9R0, Canada research in mineralogy,
and geochemistry. Founded practice, study, and teaching Tel.: 613-828-0199; fax: 613-828-9288 petrology, and geochem-
in 1919, the Society promotes, of geochemistry. Our office@appliedgeochemists.org istry. The Society organizes
through education and research, the under- programs include co-hosting the annual www.appliedgeochemists.org annual conferences and furthers the training
standing and application of mineralogy by Goldschmidt ConferenceTM, editorial over- of young researchers via seminars and
industry, universities, government, and the sight of Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta The Deutsche special publications. The SEM Bulletin
public. Membership benefits include special (GCA), supporting geochemical symposia Mineralogische published scientific papers from 1978 to
subscription rates for American Mineralogist through our Meeting Assistance Program, Gesellschaft (German 2003, the year the Society joined the Euro-
as well as other journals, a 25% discount on and supporting student development Mineralogical Society) pean Journal of Mineralogy and launched
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series and Monographs, Elements, reduced GS annually recognizes excellence in “promote mineralogy and news, abstracts, and reviews. Membership
registration fees for MSA meetings and short geochemistry through its medals, lectures, all its subdisciplines in benefits include receiving the European
courses, and participation in a society that and awards. Members receive a subscription teaching and research as well as the personal Journal of Mineralogy, Macla, and Elements.
supports the many facets of mineralogy. to Elements, special member rates for GCA relationships among all members.” Its great SOCIETY NEWS EDITOR: Juan Jimenez Millan
and G-cubed, and publication and confer- tradition is reflected in the list of honorary
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ence discounts. fellows, who include M. v. Laue, G. v.
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especially tries to support young researchers,
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Tel.: 703-652-9950; fax: 703-652-9951 Washington University Membership benefits include the European The Swiss Society of
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and Ireland is an inter- Explore GS online at www.geochemsoc.org Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft knowledge in the fields of
national society for all dmg@dmg-home.de mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry
those working in the The European Association www.dmg-home.de and to disseminate it to the scientific and
mineral sciences. The of Geochemistry was public communities. The Society coorganizes
Society aims to advance the founded in 1985 to promote The Società Italiana the annual Swiss Geoscience Meeting and
knowledge of the science of mineralogy and geochemical research and di Mineralogia e publishes the Swiss Journal of Geosciences
its application to other subjects, including study in Europe. It is now Petrologia (Italian Society jointly with the national geological and
crystallography, geochemistry, petrology, recognized as the premiere of Mineralogy and Petro- paleontological societies.
environmental science and economic geochemical organization logy), established in 1940, SOCIETY NEWS EDITOR: Urs Schaltegger
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through scientific meetings and the publica- geochemists and researchers in associated senting all researchers deal-
tion of scientific journals, books and mono- fields, and promoting research and teaching ing with mineralogy, petrology, and related Swiss Society of Mineralogy and Petrology
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Magazine and Clay Minerals. Students receive receiving the European Journal of Mineralogy, Géosciences
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The Mineralogical Society The International Società Italiana di Mineralogia e Petrologia
12 Baylis Mews, Amyand Park Road Association of Dip. di Scienze della Terra The Meteoritical Society
Twickenham, Middlesex TW1 3HQ, UK GeoChemistry (IAGC) has Università di Pisa, Via S. Maria 53 is an international organi-
Tel.: +44 (0)20 8891 6600 been a pre-eminent interna- I-56126 Pisa, Italy zation founded in 1933 for
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The Société Française Ms. Jennifer Cook, Hon. Sec. of Mineralogical
Mineralogical Association of Canada de Minéralogie et de British Geological Survey Sciences (JAMS) was
490, de la Couronne Cristallographie, the Keyworth, Nottingham, NG12 5GC, UK established in 2007 by
Québec, QC G1K 9A9, Canada French Mineralogy and http://geoanalyst.org merging the Mineralogical
Tel.: 418-653-0333; fax: 418-653-0777 Crystallography Society, Society of Japan, founded
office@mineralogicalassociation.ca was founded on March 21, The Polskie in 1955, and the Japanese
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Society is to promote mineralogy and ogiczne (Mineralogical and Economic Geologists, established in
The Clay Minerals crystallography. Membership benefits include Society of Poland), founded 1928. JAMS covers the wide field of mineral
Society (CMS) began as the the “bulletin de liaison” (in French), the in 1969, draws together sciences, geochemistry, and petrology.
Clay Minerals Committee European Journal of Mineralogy, Elements, and professionals and amateurs Membership benefits include receiving the
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incorporated with the primary purpose of education and technology through annual
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Environment, Analysis; the AAG newsletter, fields of mineralogy, geochemistry, and petrology, but that do not themselves have
EXPLORE; and Elements. a membership base.

E LEMENTS 322 O C TOBER 2012

 EDITORIAL

TALES, TALES…
PRINCIPAL EDITORS
The formation of ore the future evolution of the resource of strategic
JAMES I. DREVER, University of Wyoming, USA deposits often appears metals; the development of applications has been
(drever@uwyo.edu) to result from a “magic much faster than that of knowledge about how
GEORGES CALAS, IMPMC, France
(Georges.Calas@impmc.jussieu.fr) chain” made from a the resource might be increased to match this
JOHN W. VALLEY, University of Wisconsin, coherent succession of expansion. The names of the rare earth elements,
USA (valley@geology.wisc.edu)
geological, geochemical, such as ytterbium and europium, have become
ADVISORY BOARD 2012
JOHN BRODHOLT, University College London, UK mineralogical, etc. pro- familiar to the public, because they are frequently
NORBERT CLAUER, CNRS/UdS, Université de cesses that concentrate heard on the radio, TV, and Internet. There is
Strasbourg, France
WILL P. GATES, SmecTech Research metallic elements. The an emerging collective fear that we will run out
Consulting, Australia efficiency of such ele- of this resource. This is perfectly depicted in
GEORGE E. HARLOW, American Museum Georges Calas
of Natural History, USA ment concentration is the cartoon reproduced below and published in
JANUSZ JANECZEK, University of Silesia, Poland really extraordinary, as December 2010 by the French satirical magazine
HANS KEPPLER, Bayerisches Geoinstitut,
Germany illustrated by elements such as gold, which is con- Le Canard Enchaîné.
DAVID R. LENTZ, University of New Brunswick, centrated from the ppb level to nuggets weighing
Canada
ANHUAI LU, Peking University, China 70 kg. As a consequence, humankind has used for The fi rst issue of Elements, guest edited by Robert
ROBERT W. LUTH, University of Alberta, Canada millennia these mineral resources, which have Bodnar, was on the theme “Fluids in Planetary
been central to technological progress since the Systems.” Interestingly, the fi rst article of the
DAVID W. MOGK, Montana State University, USA
TAKASHI MURAKAMI, University of Tokyo, Japan
ROBERTA OBERTI, CNR Istituto di Geoscienze Stone Age. And it is still the case. Rare earth ele- issue, written by Steve Kesler—and thus the fi rst
ments do not take full advantage of this “magic contributed article published in Elements—was
e Georisorse, Pavia, Italy
TERRY PLANK, Lamont-Doherty Earth
Observatory, USA chain.” The most abundant rare earth elements entitled “Ore-Forming Fluids.” Since, Elements
are indeed similar in crustal abundance to transi- has published several articles dealing with ore-
XAVIER QUEROL, Spanish Research Council, Spain
MAURO ROSI, University of Pisa, Italy
BARBARA SHERWOOD LOLLAR, University of tion elements such as chromium or nickel. Despite forming processes. However, the present issue on
this, ore deposits of the former are much rarer rare earth minerals and deposits is devoted only
Toronto, Canada
TORSTEN VENNEMANN, Université de
Lausanne, Switzerland to ore deposits. It
than those of the
OLIVIER VIDAL, Université J. Fourier, France perfectly illustrates
MEENAKSHI WADHWA, Arizona State latter. Scandium,
University, USA how recent labora-
a transition ele-
BERNARD WOOD, University of Oxford, UK tory and field data
JON WOODHEAD, University of Melbourne, ment usually clas-
Australia provide clues to
sified with the rare
understanding the
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE earths due to its
CARLOS AYORA IBÁÑEZ, Sociedad Española conditions of for-
di Mineralogía
geochemical prop-
mation of rare earth
LIANE G. BENNING, European Association erties, forms fewer
of Geochemistry deposits.
THOMAS D. BULLEN, International Association
than 10 rare or very
of GeoChemistry rare and unique The “rare earth
BERNARDO CESARE, Società Italiana di
Mineralogia e Petrologia minerals. A geo- crisis” that occurred
BARBARA L. DUTROW, Mineralogical chemical invariant in 2010 underlined
Society of America, Chair
W. CRAWFORD ELLIOTT, The Clay Minerals Society during weathering t he i mp or t a nc e
MONICA M. GRADY, The Meteoritical Society processes, exploited of teaching ore
BERNARD GROBÉTY, Swiss Society of
Mineralogy and Petrology only as a by-product, – What? A gram of dysprosium! You’ve gone overboard! deposits in the Earth
GUY LIBOUREL, Société Française scandium is a typ- – We wanted to offer you lanthanum, but we didn’t find any! science curriculum.
de Minéralogie et de Cristallographie
MAREK MICHALIK, Mineralogical Society ical element not (Cabu, Le Canard Enchaîné, 15/12/2010 – © Le Canard Enchaîné) This realization is
of Poland involved in the
EIJI OHTANI, Japan Association of
affecting the posi-
Mineralogical Sciences “magic chain.” tions and funding opportunities in many Earth
IAIN M. SAMSON, Mineralogical Association
of Canada Rare earths minerals do not usually attract science departments. For instance, Europe is cre-
attention and are often put in a modest place in ating a network on minerals resources, ERA-Min
EDWIN A. SCHAUBLE, Geochemical Society
CLIFFORD R. STANLEY, Association
of Applied Geochemists museum mineral collections. They are also sacri- (www.era-min-eu.org), in order to strengthen a
ficed in mineralogy classes to leave time for more community that received less attention in the
PETER TRELOAR, Mineralogical Society
of Great Britain and Ireland
FRIEDHELM VON BLANCKENBURG, noble or “important” minerals. This reminds me past. And new expertise will arrive in the field.
Deutsche Mineralogische Gesellschaft
MICHAEL WIEDENBECK, International of Andersen’s Ugly Duckling, a tale beloved around The Beauty was sleeping: it has been said that,
Association of Geoanalysts the world that shows an apparent transforma- during the emergence of China’s rare earth
MANAGING EDITOR tion for the better. Indeed, despite rare earths
PIERRETTE TREMBLAY, tremblpi@ete.inrs.ca
supremacy, most Western countries did not realize
being of prime importance in geochemistry, rare the perilous situation they now fi nd themselves
EDITORIAL OFFICE
earth minerals remained, in the past, of minor in, as if they were sleepwalking. The Sleeping
importance for most mineralogists. However, Beauty is awaking. It is our hope that the present
recent events have put the spotlight on them, revival of interest in ore deposits in general and
placing the rare earth resource in the forefront in rare earth deposits in particular, integrating
of present-day concerns. Modern societies are sustainable development concepts and an active
490, rue de la Couronne anxious to obtain this resource needed for many environmental conscience in the exploitation and
Québec (Québec) G1K 9A9, Canada technological developments: once extracted, rare
Tel.: 418-654-2606 Fax: 418-653-0777 utilization of mineral resources, will continue to
Layout: POULIOT GUAY GRAPHISTES earths are desirable, although, in the past, they help us fi nd answers about the workings of the
Copy editor: THOMAS CLARK never attracted such attention and fame. The Ugly “magic chain.”
Proofreaders: THOMAS CLARK
and DOLORES DURANT Duckling is now a noble swan.
Printer: ALLEN PRESS Georges Calas (georges.calas@upmc.fr)*
The publishers assume no responsibility for In most countries, politicians and the media Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris
any statement of fact or opinion expressed frequently question Earth science departments
in the published material. The appearance of
advertising in this magazine does not constitute and organizations about rare earths, as our disci-
endorsement or approval of the quality or value plines have always been involved in the explora-
of the products or of claims made for them.
tion, mining and mineral processing of metallic
www.elementsmagazine.org resources. They are eager to hear from us about * Principal editor in charge of this issue

E LEMENTS 323 O C TOBER 2012

 FROM THE EDITORS

THIS ISSUE For the fi rst three years of Elements, Peter Heaney entertained and
enlightened us with his beautifully crafted Triple Point articles. I was
This issue devoted to the rare earth elements is timely: these ele-
delighted that he accepted my invitation to write a 12th column. So all
ments have become indispensable not only for producing the techno-
the Heaney fans out there, read about his sabbatical project and enjoy!
logical gadgets our society is consuming in exponentially increasing
quantities, but also for meeting future energy challenges, while the
resource is limited. The six articles assembled by Guest Editors Anton
Chakhmouradian and Frances Wall therefore focus on the resource
aspect, from the economic context to the distribution of deposits world-
wide. I learned a lot working on this issue. I was surprised by the
caption of Figure 1A in the Hatch paper stating that direct-drive wind
turbines contain approximately 150–200 kg of Nd and 20–30 kg of Dy
per megawatt of generating capacity. That seemed a lot, so I queried the
author. His answer: “Now you know why everyone’s making a big fuss
about fi nding future supplies.” Extracting rare earths from minerals is Elements Course Packs at MinPubs.org
complex, and in many instances deposits will not become economic It is now possible to take content from different issues of Elements and
to exploit until we fi nd new ways to extract these elements. Also I now combine it with material from the American Mineralogist and the Reviews
understand why China is almost a monopoly producer. in Mineralogy and Geochemistry series, then assemble the articles in
specially priced course packs that students can purchase on their own.
Are thematic articles in Elements review articles? The question was The course packs can be provided in either paper or electronic form.
debated at the last meeting of the Executive Committee. One former It is also possible to purchase single Elements articles (from volume 1,
guest editor argued that he had instructed all authors in his issue to number 1 to the present). Check www.minpubs.org (see also page 389).
provide a snapshot of their field, and perhaps this is an appropriate
If you wish to have a course pack assembled for your class, obtain an
way to describe Elements’ thematic articles. Occasionally, original
entire Reviews volume as a single electronic fi le, or if you are ordering
research results are published in Elements. This is what A. Williams-
5 or more articles and would like a coupon code for a 25% discount on
Jones answered to my query regarding Figure 5 in his manuscript: “The
your order, or have other questions, contact jaspeer@minsocam.org.
modeling was done for the purpose of this manuscript. I wanted to also
add some original science. The discovery that fluorine could not be an Pierrette Tremblay, Managing Editor
agent of REE transport was also made during the preparation of this
manuscript and led to a separate manuscript that is now in review.”

ONLINE ACCESS ERRATUM

If you receive a print copy of Elements, you are also In the article “Granitic Pegmatites: Scientific Wonders and Economic
entitled to the electronic version, from volume 1, number Bonanzas”, published in the August issue (8: 257–261), the
1—go to www.elementsmagazine.org/archives.htm. second sentence of the final paragraph on page 257 should read
User ID = your e-mail address A model now associated with Cameron et al. (1949) …
Password = membership number of the society you
are a member of The word “David” was inadvertenly added during the first round of
corrections to the proofs, and the error was not picked up by the
If your institution subscribes to GeoScienceWorld, we encourage you managing editor nor the authors. We apologize for any misunderstanding.
to access Elements at www.elements.geoscienceworld.org. This error has been corrected in the electronic version of the article.

E LEMENTS 324 O C TOBER 2012

 TRIPLE POINT

CELESTINE FOR STATE MINERAL! Triple Point raises issues of broad interest to the readers of Elements and
explores different aspects of our science (teaching, publishing, historical
A SABBATICAL PROJECT aspects, etc.), our societies, funding, policy, and political issues

Academy of Freiberg, and that he explored the Pennsylvania wilds in the

late 1780s, collecting rocks and fossils for scientific study in his home
Fifteen years ago, a faculty colleague contem- country. Martin Klaproth (discoverer of Ti, Zr, and U) published the
plated his upcoming sabbatical—and decided composition as strontium sulfate in 1797; a year later, Abraham Gottlob
that he would vanish. He informed few people Werner gave celestine a formal physical description and its name, based
of his destination and made sure that every tech- on its lovely sky-blue color.
nological intrusion met with polite rebuff. To all
but his closest associates, he simply disappeared Does that legitimate the designation of celestine as the Pennsylvania State
one day and reappeared a year later—project Mineral? You bet! Only about 300 different minerals are found in the
completed. Keystone State. Of those, eight represent the first discoveries worldwide
of a new mineral species: celestine, sauconite, lansfordite, nesquehonite,
The efficiency of his model was so absolute I downeyite, matulaite, laphamite, and eastonite. Given the scientific roy-
decided to replicate it for my own sabbatical— alty associated with the first characterization of celestine, its historical
Peter Heaney with one exception. Can we shut off e-mail for precedence, and its beautiful blue color, wouldn’t you choose it as state
an entire year and emerge professionally intact? In 1997 it was possible, mineral?
but today? Reluctantly, I opened the gates to that one Trojan horse, but
no other. I secured a corner office within the Department of Mineral Though they sometimes seem to exist only to provide answers for Trivial
Sciences at the US National Museum, whose entry demands multiple Pursuit and Jeopardy, state objects fundamentally are symbols of celebra-
stations of identity confi rmation. I pointed my chair away from the tion—of a region’s heritage, its natural resources, and its economic foun-
office door to dissuade the very friendly people in the department from dation. Surprisingly, only 20 of the 50 US states officially have designated
being very friendly to me. Waves of e-mails washed across my computer state minerals (excluding state rocks and gems; see TABLE 1). Some states
screen without eliciting a response. Days passed without one ring from have opted for glitter (gold: Alaska, California, North Carolina); some
my office phone. favor stolid ores (galena: Missouri, Wisconsin); and other states are a bit
quirky (bowenite of Rhode Island is a “jade-like” variety of serpentine).
I was luxuriating in my isolation when one January morning a message
appeared that raised the hairs on the back of my neck. TABLE 1 OFFICIAL US STATE MINERALS
US State Mineral US State Mineral
Mr. Heaney,
Alabama Hematite Massachusetts Babingtonite
I am a 6th grade student at Commonwealth Alaska Gold Missouri Galena
Connections Academy. I did a science paper Arkansas Quartz Nevada Silver
on what would I like to have as a state min- California Gold New Hampshire Beryl
eral, and I was excited to fi nd that there was Colorado Rhodochrosite North Carolina Gold
none already listed. So, I am on a journey to Connecticut Almandine garnet Rhode Island Bowenite
get celestine named as the Pennsylvania State Delaware Sillimanite South Dakota Rose quartz
Mineral. I am currently in the “lobbying” step. Georgia Staurolite Utah Copper
Would you be interested in helping me? Illinois Fluorite Vermont Talc
Royce holding a piece Kentucky Coal Wisconsin Galena
of celestine
Royce Black, Geologist-in-Training
Celestine is economically less prominent than some state minerals, but it
was an actor in a major scientific drama that now is largely lost to history.
As Paul McCartney’s lyrics to “Yesterday” played through my mind, I Thanks to the likes of Lavoisier, Priestley, Davy, and Scheele, techniques
frantically began to consider my various avenues of plausible deniability. I in chemical analysis blossomed in the late 1700s. At that time, a budding
could pretend that the e-mail was lost in my spam filter. It happens all the natural philosopher could establish an international reputation through
time! But Royce, whom I would come to admire as an indomitable force the discovery of a new element; such breakthroughs were accorded the
of nature, had blanketed the Pennsylvania mineralogical community public and professional acclaim that greets advances in fundamental par-
with his request, and many of his recipients redirected their messages ticle research today. Unknown minerals were targeted as the most likely
to me with copies to him. Rats! I could of course claim to be busy with repositories of new elements, and naturalists like Schütz traveled to exotic
more important matters. What, after all, are the public obligations of localities across the world in hopes of finding them. Déodat de Dolomieu
a professor whose governor has cut by 20% the state’s contribution to (of dolomite fame) had in fact reported celestine occurrences in Sicily in
the university budget? 1781, but he misinterpreted the mineral as barium sulfate—today’s barite.
Klaproth, a true genius of analytic chemistry, inferred that Schütz’s mate-
In the end, it was “Geologist-in-Training”—the sign-off that would grace
rial was insufficiently dense to be barium sulfate. Fortunately, strontium
all of Royce’s future e-mails to me—that I could not resist. Maybe, with
was discovered as a new element in the early 1790s (from a carbonate in
the right encouragement at the right time, Royce would develop into a
Strontian, Scotland). It took a few years—but only a few—for Klaproth
future Roebling medalist. Or, at least, maybe he will figure out how agates
to identify celestine as the Sr-rich analogue of barite.
form. So I accepted my fate and began to turn two questions over in my
mind: What claim does celestine hold on the title of Pennsylvania State Unlike my former colleague, I cannot claim to have completed this
Mineral? And what is the purpose of state objects anyway? sabbatical project. Royce has hand-delivered hundreds of letters to
Pennsylvania state legislators, of whom a few have expressed strong
A few days’ worth of Internet sleuthing settled the first question per-
support for his proposal. A hearing in the state capitol, however, has
suasively. MinDat.org cites a 1791 pamphlet in which the existence
been postponed from the summer to an indefinite date in the fall, and
of a new “kind of barite” from central Pennsylvania is first recorded.
Royce may be learning more than he wanted to know about the legisla-
Authored by Andreas Gotthelf Schütz in High German (with the Gothic
tive process. Nevertheless, those assisting his mission have gained an
type used in the masthead of the New York Times), the 16-page article
unexpected appreciation for the impact that state minerals can wield in
is freely downloadable from the digital archive at the Bavarian State
educating the next generation of Earth scientists. Maybe the 30 missing
Library. Gerhard Franz of the Technical University of Berlin provided an
states will join the charge.
annotated translation for us, and the hunt was on. We now know that
Peter J. Heaney
Schütz (1771–1807) was a German naturalist trained at the famed Mining
Dept. of Geosciences, Penn State University

E LEMENTS 325 O C TOBER 2012

 PEOPLE IN THE NEWS

ALLISON MACFARLANE TO HEAD THE NUCLEAR Stanford University. Dr. Brown’s stellar career as a professor and
REGULATORY COMMISSION researcher in mineralogy and geochemistry is well known and amply
justifies the award.
Allison M. Macfarlane, designated by President
Obama as chair of the Nuclear Regulatory Dr. Brown received his BS in chemistry and geology from Millsaps
Commission, was sworn in on July 9 as the College (1965) and his MS (1968) and PhD (1970) in mineralogy and
15th person to lead this agency charged with crystallography from Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University.
regulating the civilian use of nuclear mate- He has served as president of the Mineralogical Society of America
rials. She will serve a term ending June 30, (1995–1996) and is a fellow of the Geological Society of America (1997),
2013. “The agency faces multiple challenges. the Geochemical Society (1999), and the American Association for the
I look forward to working collegially with my Advancement of Science (2000). He has also received the Mineralogical
fellow commissioners and the excellent, dedi- Association of Canada’s Hawley Medal (2007) and the Mineralogical
cated staff at the NRC to address these issues,” Society of America’s Roebling Medal (2007).
said Macfarlane, an expert in nuclear
waste issues. He has made major contributions to a broad range of fundamental
and applied problems, at the interface between Earth science, environ-
Allison Macfarlane holds a doctorate in geology from the Massachusetts mental science, physics, and chemistry. His public service is reflected
Institute of Technology. Most recently she was an associate professor by the positions he has held and the more than 30 committees in
of environmental science and policy at George Mason University in which he has participated at various levels, including occupying key
Fairfax, Virginia. She has held fellowships at Radcliffe College, MIT, and positions advising and providing research management for NSF- and
Stanford and Harvard universities. From 1998 to 2000 she was a Social DOE-supported centers. He is also known for the many students he has
Science Research Fellow–MacArthur Foundation Fellow in International advised and the extensive effort he has made to get students involved
Peace and Security. She has served on National Academy of Sciences in mineralogy. His research has been concerned with major societal
panels on nuclear energy and nuclear weapons issues. issues, such as the remediation of polluted or contaminated sites, the
sequestration of heavy metal/metalloid and organic pollutants/con-
From 2010 to 2012 she served on the Blue Ribbon Commission on
taminants in ecosystems, the impact of certain minerals or the elements
America’s Nuclear Future, created by the Obama Administration to
they contain (or release) on human health, and the disposal of waste
make recommendations about a national strategy for dealing with the
(industrial, nuclear, etc.). He also helped popularize large user facili-
nation’s high-level nuclear waste. Her research has focused on envi-
ties and has contributed to increasing the visibility of the geosciences.
ronmental policy and international security issues associated with
nuclear energy, especially the back-end of the nuclear fuel cycle. In 2006
MIT Press published a book she coedited with Rod Ewing, Uncertainty HONORARY DOCTORATES FOR DONALD DINGWELL
Underground: Yucca Mountain and the Nation’s High-Level Nuclear Waste, The University of Alberta awarded a DSc to
which explored technical issues at the proposed waste-disposal facility Donald Bruce Dingwell on 6 June in Edmonton
at Yucca Mountain, Nevada. for his contributions to experimental geosci-
ences, volcanology, and excellence in science.
Allison Macfarlane is the third woman to serve as chair of the commis-
He delivered a convocation address—at the
sion, the 33rd member to serve on the panel, and the only individual
university where he obtained his PhD in
with a background in geology to serve on the commission.
198 4 — e nt it le d “P repa r i ng for t he
Unexpected.”
GORDON BROWN HONORED BY AGI
University College London also awarded a
The Medal in Memory of Ian Campbell for
DSc to Dingwell on 5 September for his major
Superlative Service to the Geosciences is the
achievements in experimental Earth sciences. Dean Catlow cited his
American Geosciences Institute’s highest
important role in the scientific landscape of Europe and the world.
award, given in recognition of singular per-
formance in and contributions to the profes- Renowned for establishing the experimental investigation of melts and
sion of geology. The 2012 Campbell medalist magma as a vital component of Earth sciences, Don Dingwell holds the
is Gordon E. Brown Jr., Dorrell William Kirby Chair of Mineralogy and Petrology at the Ludwig Maximilian University
Professor of Earth Sciences at the Department of Munich. He is serving as the secretary general of the European
of Geological and Environmental Sciences of Research Council, a major position in the international granting system.

E LEMENTS 326 O C TOBER 2012

 CosmoELEMENTS

THE STARDUST COMET MISSION:

STUDYING SEDIMENTS FROM THE
SOLAR SYSTEM’S FROZEN ATTIC
Comets are ice-bearing bodies that eject solids and volatiles when they
are sufficiently close to the Sun. The surviving inventory of these bodies
is only a fraction of a vast population of ice-bearing planetesimals that
once filled the cold regions of the early Solar System. The NASA Stardust
mission collected thousands of solid particles during a close flyby of
a 4.5 km diameter active comet and returned them to Earth in 2006.
These samples of comet 81P/Wild 2 provided the fi rst sample-based
information on proven cometary materials. Detailed laboratory studies
of these samples have provided “ground truth” insight into the origin
FIGURE 1 Orthogonal views of the surface of comet Wild 2. The complex surface
of comets that could not have been obtained by either remote sensing of this and other imaged comets significantly differs from the impact-
gardened surfaces of asteroids. IMAGE : NASA (HTTP ://STARDUST.JPL.NASA.GOV/PHOTO /
or in situ methods. COMETWILD2.HTML)

Wild 2 is currently on an orbit that ranges from Jupiter to Mars but,

like other Jupiter-family comets, it is believed to have spent nearly all A stunning outcome of the sample studies is that the majority of
of Solar System history beyond Neptune. Its depression-covered sur- 1–100 µm grains in Wild 2 are familiar materials that are found in prim-
face (FIG. 1) was probably shaped by sublimation, a process that may itive meteorites. The ice and organics in the comet may have formed in
have eroded hundreds of meters off its original surface. Over 20 dust cold regions, but the solids—most of the comet’s mass—were formed
jets were observed during the flyby, and this ejection process allowed by the same high-temperature nebular processes that made the bulk
samples to be collected on a low-cost mission without landing. Dust of solids that accreted to form meteorite parent bodies. If we think of
particles impacted into low-density silica aerogel and aluminum foil asteroids and comets as collections of cosmic sediments, respectively
at a speed of 6.1 km s-1 (FIG. 2). The aerogel capture process worked accumulated in the inner and outer Solar System, it is astonishing that
wonderfully for solids larger than a micron but it often degraded or they contain similar rocky materials.
melted smaller particles. Particles collected by Stardust are believed to The most common large grains appear to be chondrule fragments,
be a sampling of solids that were at the edge of the Solar System at the common meteoritic components that were pulse heated to 1700–2050 K
time of its formation. They were packed in ice and do not appear to (Hewins and Radomsky 1990) as freely orbiting nebular components.
show evidence of parent-body thermal metamorphic alteration. The Wild 2 contains examples of a wide range of chondrule types, including
compositional range of adjacent olivine grains in dust particles and the Fe-rich, Fe-poor, and Al-rich. As seen in meteorite chondrules, 16O-rich
preservation of moderate Cr abundances in olivine, along with other relict olivine grains have been found in these igneous objects that
indicators used to gauge alteration levels in meteorites, imply that the
comet is no more internally processed than the parent bodies of the
most primitive meteorites.

The mission was named Stardust in part because it was commonly

believed that the rocky portion of comets would be composed of pre-
solar interstellar grains, the primary carriers of heavy elements involved
in star and planet formation. This belief was partly based on the idea
that comets formed in distant isolation from the inner regions of the
Solar System where meteorite parent bodies formed and nebular pro-
cesses destroyed nearly all presolar grains. The major surprise of the
Stardust mission has been that all of the micron and larger grains
that have been analyzed have isotopic compositions consistent with
formation in the Solar System. Five submicron isotopically anomalous
(inorganic) presolar grains have been identified, but their abundance
is small. Due to capture degradation of submicron grains, the absolute
abundance of presolar grains in the comet is difficult to determine,
but the current best estimate is on the order of 1000 ppm (Leitner et
al. 2010, 2012), a value that is small but higher than the ~100 ppm
found in presolar grain–rich meteorites and micrometeorites and also
higher than the typical ~375 ppm abundance in 10 µm interplanetary
dust particles (IDPs). These fi ndings imply that preserved isotopically
anomalous interstellar grains are not a major component of this comet,
and the fact that such grains do not dominate any IDP, which are likely
of cometary origin, suggests that the early Solar System did not contain FIGURE 2 These three aerogel impact tracks illustrate dramatic structural
any refugia that preserved presolar solids with distinctive isotopic com- differences between impacting Wild 2 particles, which traveled left to
right in the images. The particle that made the top track (290 µm long; T58) was
positions. It is likely that the combination of nebular environments and solid and did not experience fragmentation, while the center track (T113;
migration processes destroyed nearly all of the initial solid materials Nakamura-Messenger et al. 2011) was made by a weakly bonded aggregate of solid
from which the Solar System formed. These silicate-destroying processes particles that were each several microns in size. Most of the mass that produced the
should also have destroyed presolar organics. This fi nding casts doubt bottom track (1.4 mm long; T141) was composed of either very fine or thermally
unstable components that stopped in the upper track portion, producing the large
on the long-held notion that interstellar molecules played a significant hollow, bulb lined with melted and compressed silica aerogel. The deepest
role in making habitable planets in our Solar System and perhaps in penetrating particle, labeled 1, is a sulfide, and particle 2 is a CAI. A 0.4 µm,
any planetary system. isotopically presolar SiC grain was found on the bulb wall. IMAGES : NASA (HTTP ://
STARDUST.JPL.NASA .GOV / PHOTO /COMETWILD2.HTM)

E LEMENTS 327 O C TOBER 2012

 CosmoELEMENTS

is that the comet’s rocky components are inner Solar System materials
that were transported to the edge of the solar nebula where they could
accumulate low-temperature ice and organics. Supporting this notion is
the observation that the comet appears to contain a wider diversity of
materials than are found in specific chondrite groups. Chondrite groups
have distinctive properties because much of their mass was made from
local materials that in some cases have restricted ranges of properties,
such as oxygen isotope composition and minor element composition of
olivine. It appears that a major difference between asteroids and Wild
2 is that asteroids were largely constructed from locally made materials
whose properties give meteorite groups distinctive characteristics, while
comets like Wild 2 contain a broader mix of nebular materials.

The simplest interpretation of this fi nding is that comets represent

the Solar System’s frozen attic and that their rocky materials were
transported and mixed over distances of tens of astronomical units.
The abundance of high-temperature nebular solids at the edge of the
Solar System is strong evidence for massive outward transport of inner
Solar System materials by a variety of nebular processes (Shu et al.
2001; Bockelée-Morvan et al. 2002; Cuzzi et al. 2008; Ciesla 2010; Boss
2012). An alternative view is that the high-temperature components
Backscattered electron microscope images of the microtomed faces of originated in the outer Solar System, perhaps inside transient Jupiter-
FIGURE 3
four fragments in a single track (T77). 77,1 Fo62-67 olivine with a small mass objects that formed in the outer Solar System but were disrupted
kosmochloric augite grain on its perimeter. 77,2 is Fo62 olivine with an egg-shaped (Bridges et al. 2012).
kamacite, (Fe,Ni), in its interior. The metal grain contains a small grain of
schreibersite, (Fe,Ni)3P. 77,3 is Fo52 olivine with a small, Cr-rich spinel in its center. The studies of Wild 2 samples have shown that the rocky fraction
77,5 is a complex mix of Fe-rich olivine, kosmochloric diopside, and small amounts
of albite. The two bright grains are pyrrhotite and pentlandite. This track also
of this comet is a fabulous mix of fi ne- and coarse-grained materials
comprised a range of other phases, including forsterite, Mn-rich (LIME) forsterite, that are remarkably similar to high-temperature components found in
Mn-rich pigeonite, enstatite, and pyrrhotite. The aligned surface features are chatter asteroidal meteorites. The samples do not show evidence for the appre-
pits formed during the cutting process. In all images, the vesicular and smooth gray ciable thermal or aqueous alteration that has modified essentially all
materials making sharp contact with the grain perimeters are, respectively, melted
and compressed aerogel. IMAGE : WWW.LPI.USRA.EDU /MEETINGS /LPSC2010/PDF/2146.PDF
meteorite samples. The diverse set of minerals and rocks in the comet
are inconsistent with astronomical predictions. If Wild 2 solids were
nearly all derived from inner portions of the protosolar nebula, it is
clearly predate the final melting of their host (Nakamura et al. 2008). perhaps likely that the rocky contents of other comets have a similar
In addition to chondrules, Wild 2 also contains calcium–aluminum- origin. Comets differ in volatile contents but their rocky materials may
rich inclusion (CAI) fragments (Simon et al. 2008). CAIs, which are all be the same. If this is correct, then it is also possible that Pluto, its
rich in rare earth elements, are the oldest solids formed in the nebula, similar-size neighbor Eris, Neptune’s moon Triton, and perhaps tens
and they are distinguished by their 16O-rich compositions (similar to of Earth masses of comet bodies that were ejected from the early Solar
that of the Sun) and a host of refractory phases that condense above System were made from these materials. With this in mind, future
1400 K. Although the origin of chondrules and CAIs is uncertain, it comet sample returns, more ambitious than Stardust, could provide pro-
is clear that they formed at extremely high temperature. The Wild 2 foundly improved insight into the nature of the nebular dust and small
samples include a rich diversity of anhydrous silicates, sulfides, and rocks that played important roles in the formation of the Solar System.
metal phases (FIG. 3). A remarkable fi nding is the presence of LIME
More information about the Wild 2 samples can be found in the April
(low-iron, high-manganese) forsterites that have 16O-rich compositions
2012 Meteoritics and Planetary Science issue, which resulted from a
and are likely to be condensates.
meeting that was held at Timber Cove, California, and was dedicated
Even though the collected sample was limited in mass and largely made to Frank Stadermann, a Stardust pioneer who, along with his wife
of grains smaller than 100 µm, it contains a remarkable mix of high- Christine Floss, discovered the fi rst presolar grain in a comet.
temperature nebular materials. The most direct conclusion from this
D. E. Brownlee, University of Washington

REFERENCES Cuzzi JN, Hogan RC, Shariff K (2008) Toward Nakamura T and 11 coauthors (2008)
planetesimals: Dense chondrule clumps in the Chondrulelike objects in short-period Comet
Bockelée-Morvan D, Gautier D, Hersant F, Huré protoplanetary nebula. The Astrophysical Journal 81P/Wild 2. Science 321: 1664
J-M, Robert F (2002) Turbulent radial mixing 687: 1432-1447
in the solar nebula as the source of crystalline Nakamura-Messenger K, Keller LP, Clemett SJ,
silicates in comets. Astronomy and Astrophysics Hewins RH, Radomsky PM (1990) Temperature Messenger S, Ito M (2011) Nanometer-scale
384: 1107-1118 conditions for chondrule formation. Meteoritics anatomy of entire Stardust tracks. Meteoritics
25: 309-318 and Planetary Science 46: 1033-1051
Boss AP (2012) Mixing and transport of isotopic
heterogeneity in the early Solar System. Annual Leitner J, Hoppe P, Heck PR (2010) First discovery Shu FH, Shang H, Gounelle M, Glassgold AE, Lee T
Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 40: 23-43 of presolar material of possible supernova origin (2001) The origin of chondrules and refrac-
in impact residues from Comet 81P/Wild 2. tory inclusions in chondritic meteorites. The
Bridges JC, Changela HG, Nayakshin S, Starkey NA, Lunar and Planetary Institute Science Conference Astrophysical Journal 548: 1029-1050
Franchi IA (2012) Chondrule fragments from Abstracts 41: 1607
Comet Wild 2: Evidence for high temperature Simon SB and 11 coauthors (2008) A refractory
processing in the outer Solar System. Earth and Leitner J, Heck PR, Hoppe P, Huth J (2012) The C-, inclusion returned by Stardust from comet 81P/
Planetary Science Letters 341-344: 186-194 N-, and O-isotopic composition of cometary dust Wild 2. Meteoritics and Planetary Science 43:
from Comet 81P/Wild 2. Lunar and Planetary 1861-1877
Ciesla FJ (2010) The distributions and ages of Institute Science Conference Abstracts 43:
refractory objects in the solar nebula. Icarus 1839-1839
208: 455-467

E LEMENTS 328 O C TOBER 2012

 Anton R. Chakhmouradian earned his master’s (1993) are focused on the geochemistry of hydrothermal systems and the genesis of
and doctoral (1997) degrees in geology and mineralogy mineral deposits, and he has published on Irish-type Pb–Zn deposits; intru-
at St. Petersburg State University, Russia. Following post- sion-related W–Sn–Mo, Cu, PGE–Cu, and rare-element deposits; diagenetic
doctoral studies at Lakehead University, he accepted an systems; and fluid inclusions.
academic position at the University of Manitoba,
Martin P. Smith is a principal lecturer in geology at
Canada, where he has been teaching since 2001. His
the University of Brighton, UK, where he has worked
research is focused on the petrology, mineralogy, and
since 2001. He gained his PhD from the University of
geochemistry of carbonatites, alkaline rocks, and associ-
Leeds in 1995 and carried out postdoctoral research
ated rare-metal deposits. He is an associate editor of American Mineralogist and
there and at the Natural History Museum, London. His
Mineralogy & Petrology, and a recipient of the Young Scientist Award of the
research interests include hydrothermal geochemistry,
Mineralogical Association of Canada (2005) and the W. W. Hutchison Medal
the origin of ore deposits, and hydrogeology. Alongside
of the Geological Association of Canada (2011).
his work on the hydrothermal behavior of the REEs, he
Gareth P. Hatch is a Founding Principal of Technology has worked on the genesis of IOCG mineralization and the impacts of unsatu-
Metals Research and president of Innovation Metals rated zone flow on groundwater chemistry.
Corp. His work and analysis cover the entire rare earth
Frances Wall is an associate professor of applied min-
supply chain, from mineral exploration through to end-
eralogy and head of Camborne School of Mines, Exeter
use applications. A two-time graduate of the University
University, and scientific associate at the Natural
of Birmingham, UK, he has a BEng with Honours in
History Museum, London. After a geochemistry degree
materials science and technology, and a PhD in metal-
at Queen Mary College London, she joined the
lurgy and materials, focused on rare earth magnet
Mineralogy Department at the Natural History
alloys. He is based in the suburbs of Chicago, Illinois. For several years Gareth
Museum, London, earning a PhD from London
was director of technology at Dexter Magnetic Technologies. He holds five
University. She has a long-standing interest in carbon-
US patents on a variety of magnetic devices.
atites and ore deposits, editing books on rare earth minerals and carbonatites
Jindrich Kynicky completed his graduate degree in in 1996 and 2004. Frances moved to Camborne School of Mines in 2007 and
mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry at Masaryk now also works on responsible-mining topics. She is an officer of the
University (Brno, Czech Republic) in 2003. For his doc- International Mineralogical Association and a member of the Mineralogical
toral degree (2006), he chose to work on carbonatites Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
and associated rare earth deposits of central East Asia.
Anthony E. (Willy) Williams-Jones is a professor in
In 2007, he was appointed associate professor of geology
economic geology and geochemistry at McGill
at Mendel University in Brno. During the past decade,
University, Canada. He received his early education in
he has organized and led many geological expeditions
South Africa, completing BSc and MSc degrees at the
to Mongolia, China, and Siberia. In addition to his primary area of expertise
University of Natal, and then emigrated to Canada
in the evolution of carbonatites, alkaline rocks, and associated critical-metal
where he earned a PhD at Queen’s University and
deposits, he has contributed to environmental and soil science research.
worked for several years as an exploration geologist. His
Anthony N. Mariano and Anthony Mariano research, which combines field-based and experimental
Jr. are mineral exploration geologists. They work approaches, focuses on the behavior of metals in crustal fluids and the genesis
as a team and specialize in the geology and min- of hydrothermal ore deposits. He is an associate editor of several journals and
eralogy of rare elements on a world level. They a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada.
have worked extensively in the field and in the
Cheng Xu obtained his doctoral degree in 2004 from
laboratory for more than 50 years and in more
the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Between 2003 and
than 50 countries. Their emphasis is on the eco-
2010, he worked at the Institute of Geochemistry
nomic evaluation and ranking of REE deposits and mineral processing evalu-
(Chinese Academy of Sciences). In 2010, he was
ation in close collaboration with mineral processing specialists. The mineral
appointed professor at the School of Earth and Space
marianoite was named after Anthony N. Mariano in recognition of his lifetime
Sciences, Peking University. His primary areas of
of contributions to mineralogy and mineral exploration.
interest are igneous geochemistry, the petrogenesis of
Artashes A. Migdisov is a research scientist at McGill carbonatite–alkalic rock complexes, and the implica-
University, Canada, where he runs the laboratory in tions of magma evolution for metallogeny. His current research focuses on
experimental hydrothermal geochemistry. He received carbonatitic magmatism in East and Central Asia and associated rare-metal
his PhD in geology and mineralogy in 1995 from (REE, Nb, Mo) deposits.
Moscow State University, Russia, and then held a post-
Anatoly N. Zaitsev is a professor of mineralogy at St.
doctoral fellowship at McGill University. His research
Petersburg State University, Russia, and scientific asso-
interests are in the fields of ore-forming processes and
ciate at the Natural History Museum, London, UK. He
fluid–mineral interaction, which he studies through
received a diploma in geology, geochemistry, and min-
laboratory experiments designed to produce thermodynamic data for mod-
eralogy from Leningrad State University, and candidate
eling equilibria in aqueous fluids and gas mixtures. His current research activi-
of sciences (PhD) and doctor of sciences (habilitation)
ties are in the fields of the behavior of the REEs in hydrothermal systems and
degrees from St. Petersburg State University. His past
the vapor transport of metals.
research focused on the mineralogy, geochemistry, and
Iain M. Samson is currently professor and head of the petrology of carbonatites and alkaline rocks from the Kola Peninsula, Russia.
Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences at Recently, he has worked on volcanic rocks from the Gregory rift and Crater
the University of Windsor and past president of the Highlands in Tanzania, including active carbonatite volcanism at Oldoinyo
Mineralogical Association of Canada. He obtained BSc Lengai. He has been awarded the prestigious Alexander von Humboldt,
and PhD degrees from the University of Strathclyde in Marie Curie, and Fulbright fellowships and the A. P. Karpinsky Medal.
1979 and 1983, respectively, and then spent three years
as a postdoc at McGill University. His research interests

E LEMENTS 330 O C TOBER 2012

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 Rare Earth Elements:
Minerals, Mines, Magnets
(and More) Exploration geologists
searching for rare earth
minerals in drill core at
Anton R. Chakhmouradian1 and Frances Wall2 the Lofdal carbonatite
complex, Namibia

1811-5209/12/0008-0333$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.8.5.333

T
he rare earth elements (REEs) are all around us, not only in nature but
in our everyday lives. They are in every car, computer, smartphone,
energy-efficient fluorescent lamp, and color TV, as well as in lasers,
lenses, ceramics, and more. Scientific applications of these elements range
from tracing the provenance of magmas and sediments to studying body
structures with magnetic resonance imaging. The realization that we need
rare earths for so many applications, but that their supply is effectively
restricted to several mining districts in China, has brought these elements
to the headlines and created a critical-metals agenda. Here we introduce the
REE family: their properties, minerals, practical uses, and deposits. Potential
sources of these elements are diverse and abundant if we can overcome the
technical challenges of rare earth mining and extraction in an environmen-
tally and socially responsible way.
KEYWORDS : rare earth elements, lanthanides, yttrium,
rare earth deposits, critical metals

MEET THE RARE EARTHS

The “Great Element Hunt”
When Carl Axel Arrhenius (1757–1824), a thirty-year-old
Swedish artillery officer and an amateur mineralogist,
stumbled across heavy black masses of an unknown
mineral on one of his rockhounding trips to the Ytterby
feldspar mine on the tiny island of Resarö, just northeast of
Stockholm (FIG. 1), little did he know that his discovery
would keep chemists perplexed and busy for decades to
come (A PPENDIX 1 – SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL AVAILABLE ONLINE AT
WWW. ELEMENTSMAGAZINE . ORG ). It would take the Finnish
chemist Johan Gadolin (1760–1852) only a few years to
recognize that the new mineral, subsequently named gado-
linite in his honor, contained a new “earth” and publish
the results of his analytical experiments (Gadolin 1794).
But it would take another 34 years before the fi rst rare earth
element (yttrium) was isolated from Gadolin’s “earth” in a
relatively pure form (Wöhler 1828) and eight more decades
before the last terrestrially occurring member of the rare
earth family (lutetium) was identified (Urbain 1908). The
fact that the Ytterby material studied by Gadolin contains
several thousand (!) parts per million of lutetium (i.e. about
two orders of magnitude higher than the content of gallium
in sphalerite, where the latter element was discovered
around the same time) attests to the challenges facing
nineteenth-century analysts attempting to separate indi-
vidual rare earths from one another.
FIGURE 1 Entrance to the former Ytterby feldspar quarry in
southern Sweden. This site is immortalized in the
names of four rare earth elements discovered here: yttrium, terbium,
1 Department of Geological Sciences
erbium and ytterbium. PHOTO : COURTESY OF CLINT COX. The inset shows
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
a 4 cm long crystal of gadolinite-(Y) from Ytterby, probably not
E-mail: chakhmou@cc.umanitoba.ca
unlike the one used by Gadolin to obtain a mixture of Y2O3
2 Camborne School of Mines and oxides of associated rare earths. In addition to this mineral,
University of Exeter, Cornwall, TR10 9EZ, UK Ytterby is the type locality for yttrotantalite (Y–Ta oxide) and
E-mail: F.Wall@exeter.ac.uk tengerite (Y carbonate). INSET PHOTO : COURTESY OF B ERTIL O TTER

E LEMENTS , V OL . 8, PP. 333–340 333 O C TOBER 2012

The “Great Element Hunt” of the 1800s produced more Rare Earth Family: What’s in the Name?
rare earths than could be accommodated in the periodic
According to recommendations by the International
table, but the majority of these “elements,” sporting
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the rare
fanciful names like junonium and dämonium, were not
earth family consists of 17 transition metals forming Group
supported by adequate analytical evidence and soon faded
3 (also referred to as IIIA in the old IUPAC classification) of
into obscurity (Spencer 1919). The fi nal chapter in this
the periodic table and comprising scandium (Sc), yttrium
great scientific quest was opened by Bohuslav Brauner, who
(Y), and the lanthanide (also called lanthanoid) series (La to
not only found the right place for the rare earths in the
Lu; FIG. 2). Earth scientists, however, have traditionally set
periodic table but also predicted that an element was
Sc aside, grouping either Y plus the lanthanides or just the
missing between neodymium and samarium (Brauner
latter into the REE family. The reason for the exclusion of
1902), effectively launching the “Great Promethium
Sc is its small ionic radius (FIG. 2 C); this element readily
Hunt” of the early 1900s. Today, the rare earth elements
substitutes for Mg, Fe 2+, Zr, and Sn. This geochemical
(REEs), also referred to as terrae rarae in some academic
“mimicry” explains why the bulk of recent Sc production
circles, are recognized as the largest group of elements
has come from large-scale mining operations in such
showing a coherent behavior in Earth systems, so much
diverse resource types as hydrothermal Sn–W ores (China,
so in fact that, in some geological materials, the concentra-
Russia, USA), igneous ilmenite and uraniferous alkali-
tion of any one of these elements can be estimated from
metasomatites (Ukraine), bauxite (Russia), and biogenic
those of other REEs by interpolation or extrapolation.
phosphate deposits (Kazakhstan). A maverick among the
Although this coherence makes the REEs an invaluable
REEs, Sc clearly deserves a thematic issue of Elements all
tracer of geochemical, biochemical, and planetary
its own. Promethium (Pm) does not form stable
processes, it is ultimately responsible for their notorious
isotopes; out of the five radioactive nuclides with a reason-
inseparability, their high price—often disproportionate to
ably long half-life, only 147Pm is generated in natural fission
their abundance (FIG. 2A)—and various methodological and
processes in “appreciable” quantity, albeit still amounting
instrumental difficulties involved in their detection, anal-
to less than 600 g in the entire crust (Belli et al. 2007)!
ysis, and commercial extraction. Although coherent and
Such infi nitesimal concentration levels make Pm virtually
“inseparable,” REEs actually do fractionate in many Earth
undetectable in, and impractical to extract from, geological
processes, providing further insight into the physical and
materials.
chemical parameters of the process.
The low–atomic number lanthanides (La–Eu) are conven-
tionally termed light REEs (LREEs), whereas their heavier
counterparts (Gd–Lu) are referred to as heavy REEs (HREEs).
Yttrium is grouped with the HREEs because its ionic radius
is nearly identical to that of Ho. These terms are somewhat
A arbitrary: some authors classify Eu as heavy, and the name
mid-REE is sometimes applied to intermediate members of
the series (e.g. Hatch 2012 this issue).

REES IN NATURE
How Rare Are Rare Earths?
Experts delight in educating their audience that the term
rare earth elements is a misnomer because these elements
are not at all rare in the Earth’s crust. Cerium and Y, for
B
example, are the 25th and 30 th most abundant elements by
mass, respectively, far exceeding in concentration Sn, Hg,
Mo, and all precious metals (Rudnick and Gao 2003).
However, the crustal abundances of many other REEs,
including those of great practical value, are exceedingly
small, especially if recalculated to atomic concentrations.
Atoms of terbium (Tb) and thulium (Tm), for instance, are
two and five times (respectively) less abundant in the conti-
C nental crust than Mo and two orders of magnitude rarer
than Cu. It is also noteworthy that in the Solar System,
most lanthanides with an odd atomic number are actually
lower in abundance than 94% of the remaining elements,
including Au, Pt, and other precious metals (Anders and
Grevesse 1989), proving once and for good that rare earths
are rare—certainly, on the cosmic scale!

Rare Earth Distribution Patterns

The distribution of REEs in terrestrial and extraterrestrial
FIGURE 2 Rare earth elements in a nutshell: (A) prices (from HEFA materials follows a characteristic “jigsaw” pattern (FIG. 2B),
Rare Earth: www.baotou-rareearth.com), (B) abun- which reflects the greater abundance of even-numbered
dances in the Earth’s primitive mantle (McDonough and Sun 1995)
elements relative to their odd-numbered neighbors. This
and continental crust (Rudnick and Gao 2003), (C) effective ionic
radii (in angstroms) of trivalent cations (purple diamonds), Ce 4+, principle, known as the Oddo-Harkins rule, is rooted in
and Eu2+, all in an eight-fold coordination (Shannon 1976). Shown the different binding energies and, hence, relative stabili-
from left to right are: Scandium, Yttrium, Lanthanum, Cerium, ties of nuclei with paired and unpaired nucleons. “Jigsaw”
Praseodymium, Neodymium, Promethium, Samarium, Europium,
patterns are difficult to use in comparative analysis, but
Gadolinium, Terbium, Dysprosium, Holmium, Erbium, Thulium,
Ytterbium, and Lutetium. Selected data for silver (Ag) and tin (Sn) they can be easily smoothed out by “normalizing” the
are given for comparison Z = atomic number measured concentrations of REEs to some reference REE

E LEMENTS 334 O C TOBER 2012

values (FIG. 3). What is chosen as the basis for normaliza- In the geological environment, the REEs typically occur
tion depends entirely on the scientific or practical task at in the oxidation state 3+; however, a stable electron config-
hand. For example, evolutionary processes in mantle- uration can, in some cases, be attained with two or four
derived magmas and their source characteristics can be electrons lost to ionization (e.g. s2 in Eu 2+ and s2 d1f 1 in
tracked using REE abundances normalized to the primitive- Ce4+). Despite their similar radii, Y and Ho show different
mantle values of McDonough and Sun (1995). Other partitioning behavior in aqueous solutions, which has been
commonly used reference data sets represent CI chondritic attributed to the involvement of f or s electrons in metal–
meteorites, believed to approach the solar nebula in compo- ligand bonding (i.e. greater covalency of Ho relative to Y;
sition (Anders and Grevesse 1989); shales, used as a proxy Choppin 2002) or to stereochemical changes during the
for the upper continental crust (Taylor and McLennan transition from a solute to a solid (Tanaka et al. 2008).
1985); and various seawater reservoirs (Nozaki et al. 1999). These differences in radius, oxidation state, and bonding
These graphs, normally plotted on a logarithmic scale, are drive fractionation of REEs in natural systems and enable
used so routinely that care is now needed to ensure that their industrial separation. A few examples are decou-
they are indeed the most appropriate form of data presenta- pling of Y from Ho during precipitation of calcite from
tion. The log scale can sometimes fail to reflect the true seawater (Tanaka et al. 2008), preferential removal of Eu2+
magnitude of variation among individual elements in from low-fO2 melts by feldspars (Weill et al. 1974), and
REE-rich materials. It may be advantageous to normalize selective reduction of Eu in a chloride solution for indus-
to a “custom” data set in certain cases, where relative varia- trial purposes (Gupta and Krishnamurthy 2005).
tions in REE budget within a suite of genetically related
samples need to be visualized (e.g. metasomatic rocks MINERALOGY OF THE RARE EARTHS
versus their protolith).
At the time of writing, ca 270 minerals (i.e. about 6% of
the total number of valid species) are known to contain
Y or lanthanides as an essential component of their crystal
structure and chemical formula; five or six new REE
minerals are typically discovered every year. Most common,
both in terms of the number of species and the number of
natural occurrences, are silicates (~43% of all REE minerals),
followed by carbonates (23%), oxides (14%), and phos-
phates and related oxysalts (14%). Least common are
sulfates, represented by the single species sejkoraite-(Y),
not found outside its type locality. The parenthesized
element symbols in the name of this and other minerals
indicate the predominant REE in their composition
(Levinson 1966). As can be expected from the abun-
dances of these elements (FIG. 2), the rare earth budget of
the overwhelming majority of REE minerals (96%) is domi-
nated by Ce, Y, La, or Nd, and the few remaining species
all have an even-numbered lanthanide in their Levinson
modifier.

In addition to REE species sensu stricto, many minerals

contain high levels of these elements substituting for other
FIGURE 3 REE abundances in the depleted mantle (Workman cations of comparable radius and charge (FIG. 2). For instance,
and Hart 2005) and continental crust (Rudnick and mosandrite [(Ca,Na) 3-x (Ca,REE) 4Ti(Si 2 O7 ) 2 (OH,F,H 2 O) 4
Gao 2003) normalized to the composition of the primitive mantle
(McDonough and Sun 1995). Bulk rock–melt partition coefficients •H2O], apatite [(Ca,REE,Sr,Na)5(P,Si)3O12 (F,OH,Cl)], ewaldite
– [Ba(Ca,Na,REE)(CO3) 2•nH2O], and perovskite [(Ca,Na,REE)
(D), calculated for a typical mantle peridotite, are given below the
respective REEs. Note the gradual increase in compatibility from La (Ti,Nb,Fe)O3] commonly incorporate 1–2 × 105 ppm REE in
to Lu (i.e. the decreasing tendency to partition into a melt). the Ca sites in their structure. Numerous other minerals
may exhibit enrichment in REEs depending on their crystal-
What Drives REE Fractionation lization conditions; a few notable examples discussed further
in the Geological Environment? in this issue include titanite (CaTiSiO4O), zircon (ZrSiO4),
As can be seen in FIGURE 2 C, one notable characteristic of eudialyte (Na–Ca–Mn–Fe–Zr cyclosilicate), pyrochlore
the REEs is a significant reduction in ionic radius from La [(Ca,Na) 2-x(Nb,Ti) 2O6 (F,OH)], and members of the crandal-
to Lu (dubbed the “lanthanide contraction” by Goldschmidt lite group [(Ca,Sr,Ba,Pb)(Al,Fe)3 (PO4) 2 (OH) 5]. Probably the
1925). This trend arises from the increasing attraction most remarkable rare earth hosts are the so-called ion-
between the nuclei and 6s electrons of the lanthanides owing adsorption (or “ionic”) clays. In this material, up to 70% of
to the poor shielding properties of 4f electrons. Due to the the total REE content (0.05–0.2 wt%) is in the form of
lanthanide contraction, REEs exhibit systematic variations cations adsorbed to the surface of Al phyllosilicates (predom-
in partitioning between melts and crystals, coexisting inantly kaolinite and halloysite), but the mechanisms of
liquids of different composition, and so on. For example, ion–clay interaction are poorly understood.
the tendency of REEs to partition into a melt under upper- Depending on various structural constraints (cation coor-
mantle conditions decreases with decreasing ionic radius dination, cation–ligand distances, etc.) and on the relative
(i.e. the HREEs are generally more compatible with respect availability of specific REEs in the crystallization environ-
to mantle peridotite). The Earth’s upper mantle, tapped by ment, different minerals and even samples of the same
basaltic magmatism over billions of years, has developed mineral from different rock types may exhibit significant
a positively sloping normalized profi le depleted in LREEs, variations in their REE distribution patterns (FIG. 4).
whereas the continental crust shows complementary Because the prices of REEs can vary by two orders of magni-
enrichment in these elements (FIG. 3). tude (FIG. 2), these variations have important economic
implications. For example, fluorocarbonates may show rela-
tive enrichment in either LREEs or HREEs [cf synchysite-(Ce)

E LEMENTS 335 O C TOBER 2012

 and synchysite-(Y)], and although the latter are far less
common, they would generally be more valuable owing to
a higher content of Y and other critical metals in
their composition.

Although appreciable quantities of REEs are found in

hundreds of minerals, only a few of these minerals are
amenable to processing to yield a marketable product
(e.g. oxides of individual elements) and occur in tonnages
sufficient for mechanized mining. To date, rare earths have
been produced from fewer than 20 minerals, and just
several of them (bastnäsite, monazite, Al clays, xenotime,
loparite, and parisite, listed approximately in order of
decreasing importance) account for the bulk of historic
production (TABLE 1). Cracking the rare earth “extraction
code” for other minerals that form large-tonnage deposits
(such as apatite or eudialyte) would revolutionize the
resource market, and many companies around the world
are investing heavily in this research. Meanwhile, the
amenability of these alternative ore types to profitable
extraction of REEs on a commercial scale remains to
be demonstrated.

Chondrite-normalized REE profiles of selected minerals

RARE EARTH DEPOSITS
FIGURE 4
(Chakhmouradian and Reguir, unpublished data), A number of geological processes can lead to concentra-
including some typical constituents of REE ores and minerals that tion of rare earth minerals in specific types of rock or sedi-
are currently investigated as potential industrial sources of rare
earths (abbreviations as in TABLE 1; chondrite values from Anders ment and to enrichment in either LREEs or HREEs by
and Grevesse 1989) fractionation within the REE series (FIG. 5). The bulk of
early production came from secondary deposits such as

TABLE 1 MAJOR RARE EARTH MINERALS

Mineral namea Relevant rare elements Examples (past, present,

Major deposit type(s) c
Formula (range or max. value) and potential producers) c

Bastnäsite 53–79 wt% ∑REO; CRB; HMD Bastnäs, SW; Mountain Pass, USA;
REECO3 (F,OH) ≤2.8 wt% ThO2 Maoniuping, Weishan, and Bayan Obo, CH;
Karonge Gakara, Burundi

Parisite 58–63 wt% ∑REO; CRB; HMD Mountain Pass, USA; Weishan and
CaREE 2 (CO3)3 (F,OH) 2 ≤4.0 wt% ThO2 Bayan Obo, CH

Synchysite 48–52 wt% ∑REO; CRB; HMD associated with CRB Barra do Itapirapuã, BR; Lugiin Gol, MN;
CaREE(CO3) 2 (F,OH) ≤5.0 wt% ThO2 and granites Kutessay, KR
Ba–REE fluorocarbonatesb 22–40 wt% ∑REO; HMD; CRB Bayan Obo, CH
BaxREEy (CO3) x+yFy ≤0.7 wt% ThO2
Monazite 38–71 wt% ∑REO; CRB; HMD; granitic pegmatites; Kangankunde, ML; Bayan Obo, CH;
(REE,Th,Ca,Sr)(P,Si,S)O 4 ≤27 wt% ThO2; Fe oxide–phosphate rocks; Steenkampskraal, SA; Mt. Weld, AU; Tomtor,
solid solution to cheralite ≤0.8 wt% UO2 laterites; placers RU; Tamil Nadu and Kerala, IN; Buena, BR;
(Ca,Th,REE)PO 4 Nolans Bore and Eneabba, AU; Perak, MA
Xenotime 43–65 wt% ∑REO; Granites and pegmatites; HMD Kutessay, KR; Pitinga, BR; Tomtor, RU; Mt.
(REE,Zr)(P,Si)O 4 ≤8.4 wt% ThO2; associated with granites; Weld, AU; Kinta and Selangor, MA
≤5.8 wt% UO2 laterites; placers; rarely CRB Lofdal, Namibia
Churchite 43–56 wt% ∑REO; Laterites Mt. Weld, AU; Chuktukon, RU
REEPO 4•2H2O ≤0.3 wt% ThO2
Fergusonite 43–52 wt% ∑REO; Granites and pegmatites; HMD Bayan Obo, CH; Nechalacho, CA
REENbO 4 ≤8.0 wt% ThO2; associated with peralkaline rocks
≤2.4 wt% UO2
Loparite 28–38 wt% ∑REO; Peralkaline feldspathoidal rocks Lovozero, RU
(Na,REE,Ca)(Ti,Nb)O3 ≤1.6 wt% ThO2

a
A number of other REE minerals have been mined on a Na3REE(CO3) 3•3H2O. Some of the minerals listed here may
small scale (typically, from pegmatites and other vein predominantly contain either LREEs or HREEs (e.g. bastnäsite,
deposits) or proposed as potential ore minerals. However, their fergusonite, allanite, gadolinite), while others show preference
economic value at present is uncertain. Examples discussed for a specific group (e.g. monazite, loparite, and cerite for
further in the present issue include (listed alphabetically): LREEs; xenotime, churchite, and euxenite for HREEs).
aeschynite, REE(Ti,Nb) 2O6 ; allanite, CaREEAl2Fe2+ (SiO4) b
(Si2O7)O(OH); ancylite, (Sr,Ca)REE(CO3) 2 (OH) • H2O; Include huanghoite (x = y = 1), zhonghuacerite (x = 2, y = 1), and
britholite, Ca 2REE 3 (SiO4) 3 (F,OH); cerianite, CeO2 ; cerite, cebaite (x = 3, y = 2)
REE9Fe3+ (SiO4) 6 (SiO3OH)(OH) 3; euxenite, REE(Nb,Ta,Ti) 2O6 ; c
Abbreviations: CRB = carbonatites, HMD = hydrothermal-
ferriallanite, CaREEAlFe3+ Fe2+ (SiO4)(Si2O7)O(OH); gadolinite, metasomatic deposits; AU = Australia, BR = Brazil, CA = Canada,
REE 2Fe2+ Be2Si2O10 ; gagarinite, NaCaREEF6 ; gerenite, CH = China, IN = India, KR = Kyrgyzstan, MA = Malaysia, ML =
NaCaREE 3 (Si6O18) •2H2O; kainosite, Ca 2REE 2 (Si4O12) Malawi, MN = Mongolia, RU = Russia, SA = South Africa, SW =
(CO3) • H2O; nioboaeschynite, REE(Nb,Ti) 2O6 ; shomiokite Sweden; REE = rare earth element(s), REO = rare earth oxide(s)

E LEMENTS 336 O C TOBER 2012

 Major REE deposit types in a tectonic context. Rock Ion-adsorption clays formed by intense chemical weath-
FIGURE 5
types are given in the legend; processes are shown in ering of granites coupled with a three- to fivefold enrich-
capital letters; and past, present, and potential producers are in ment of the laterite in REEs are another important type of
italics (KZ = Kazakhstan; for other abbreviations, see TABLE 1).
surficial deposit, fi rst recognized in southern China in the
Bayan Obo, although the world’s largest REE deposit, is one of the
least well understood (Kynicky et al. 2012) and is not indicated on 1970s and since identified in Madagascar, Laos, and other
this diagram. (sub)tropical countries. Although these “ionic clays” have
low grades (≤0.3 wt% REO), their amenability to open-cast
monazite-bearing placers (see below). Although the total mining and easy processing and the high proportion of
amount of REEs extracted prior to 1950 did not exceed valuable HREEs in their composition make this deposit
100 kt (kt = kilotonne = 1000 tonnes = 106 kg), i.e. less type attractive to exploration. Looking further ahead, it
than what is produced annually today, there has recently may even be possible that future demand for REEs will
been renewed exploration interest in placers and paleopla- justify harvesting seafloor mud enriched in REEs (500–
cers, particularly those enriched in xenotime and thus 2200 ppm) and constituting a virtually inexhaustible
containing a higher proportion of valuable HREEs. The resource (Kato et al. 2011).
advantages of (paleo)placer deposits are their common Many REE deposits, including several of industrial or
proximity to waterways, ubiquitous association of REE historical significance (e.g. Bastnäs in Sweden,
minerals with other industrial minerals (e.g. zircon, Steenkampskraal in South Africa, and Bayan Obo in
ilmenite, rutile, cassiterite, U ores), and low start-up and China), owe their origin to fluids of uncertain provenance.
processing costs because the need for crushing is reduced. These deposits range from simple injection or replacement
However, because placer xenotime and monazite contain veins to breccias and complexly zoned metasomatic bodies
high levels of Th and U (TABLE 1), the commercial success of showing evidence of multiple mineralization stages.
any of these projects will depend on their ability to solve Typical ore minerals are monazite(–cheralite), apatite, alla-
the problem of safe handling and disposal of radioactive nite, bastnäsite, and other LREE fluorocarbonates. There
wastes. Rare earths were also extracted as by-products of seems little doubt that mineralizing fluids in these systems
uranium mining from conglomerates at Elliot Lake may have a multiplicity of sources (from proximal, unex-
(Canada) and bioclastic phosphorites in Mangyshlak posed intrusions to metasomatized mantle) and derive their
(Kazakhstan). metal potential from both their primary source and wall
Igneous REE deposits are associated with carbonatites and rocks encountered en route (FIG. 5). Although, in some
peralkaline silicate rocks; subeconomic mineralization is cases, REE minerals are associated with Fe and Cu ores, the
also known from pegmatites associated with metalumi- interpretation of Bastnäs and similar deposits as “IOCG-
nous granites and from Fe oxide–phosphate rocks type” (iron oxide–copper–gold) is unwarranted.
(Chakhmouradian and Zaitsev 2012 this issue). In many
of these deposits, high levels of REEs cannot be explained RARE EARTH MINING AND PRODUCTION:
by magmatic processes alone and require a source enriched A RETROSPECT
in incompatible elements and, in some cases, late-stage
Historically, the mining and production of REEs have gone
remobilization of these elements by fluids (Williams-Jones
hand in hand with technological progress and develop-
et al. 2012 this issue). Weathering is another powerful
ments in applied chemistry and physics. Prior to the 1890s,
mechanism for concentrating REEs and other rare metals
there was no commercial market for these elements. Small
showing limited mobility in surface waters. Laterites devel-
amounts of REE ore extracted principally from metasomatic
oped at the expense of carbonatites and further affected
rocks of the Bastnäs ore field in southern Sweden (Williams-
by epigenetic reworking under reducing conditions show
Jones et al. 2012) served as a feedstock for numerous
as much as an order of magnitude enrichment in REEs rela-
research laboratories. This situation changed when the
tive to the fresh rock (Kravchenko and Pokrovsky 1995).
Austrian chemist Carl Auer von Welsbach made a series of
The discovery of spectacular deposits [>1 Mt of ore at
inventions that would light up the world (literally) and
4–12 wt% total REE oxide (REO)] in weathered carbonatites
pave the way for the rare earth industry. Although his fi rst
at Araxá (Brazil), Tomtor (Russia), and Mt. Weld (Australia)
patented invention, an incandescent mantle for street gas
has galvanized interest in this resource type. Mt. Weld is
lights utilizing candoluminescence of La 2 O3 and Y2 O3
currently mined for REE phosphates that will be processed
(1885), found only limited use, his improved ThO2 –CeO2
at a separation plant in Malaysia to yield 22 kt REO begin- design patented six years later was an instant commercial
ning in 2013. success. The rapidly expanding gas-mantle business and

E LEMENTS 337 O C TOBER 2012

Welsbach’s discovery of pyrophoric REE–Fe alloys ideal for Fe–REE–Nb deposit at Bayan Obo (Kynicky et al. 2012 this
fl ints and other sparking devices (1903) necessitated issue). The other sources are minor and, in addition to the
securing a cheap and plentiful source of Th and rare earths. Mountain Pass bastnäsite and Russian loparite deposits,
Such a source was found in the mineral monazite, include placers, where monazite and xenotime are extracted
which occurs in many placer deposits around the world as by-products from ilmenite–zircon sands (India, Brazil,
and is commonly enriched in Th (TABLE 1). By the time Malaysia). Since 2003, none of these sources have contrib-
incandescent mantles finally gave way to electrical lighting uted more than 3.5 kt REO (i.e. <3% of global output).
in the 1930s, about 100 kt of monazite concentrate had
Maps and data presented elsewhere (British Geological
been produced (Overstreet 1967), predominantly in Brazil
Survey 2011; USGS 2012; articles in this issue) illustrate
(~70%, from mines in operation since the 1880s), India
well the point that there could be a plentiful supply of
(~20%, since 1911), and the Carolinas, USA (~6%, 1887–
REEs from a diversity of geographical and geological
1917). During this early period of REE mining, bedrock
sources. In the past decade, numerous companies have
deposits did not contribute significantly to global produc-
been involved in rare earth exploration around the globe,
tion; the few known examples were all pegmatites associ-
pursuing >400 projects outside China. Their ultimate goals
ated with granitic and alkaline rocks.
are to restore balance in the REE-supply market and to
The nuclear arms race in the 1940s and 1950s provided a protect the high-tech industry from politically driven
powerful impetus for rare earth production and research. restrictions on the availability of these metals and, espe-
The chemistry of lanthanides was thought to be the key cially, critical REEs (Hatch 2012). Some of the manufac-
to the metallurgy of actinides, and the understanding of turing companies that rely on REEs are already buying into
the nuclear properties of REEs was essential to harnessing promising exploration projects in order to secure their
the process of fi ssion. Rare earth separation techniques future supplies.
developed in the 1800s (i.e. fractional crystallization and
precipitation) were laborious and did not provide the INDUSTRIAL USES OF RARE EARTHS
degree of interelement partitioning required to produce
The character of the rare earths in technological applica-
large amounts of high-purity material relatively inexpen-
tions is rather similar to their geological distribution: small
sively and fast. For example, it took Charles James (1911)
quantities of REEs are disseminated in products all around
15,000 experimental steps to obtain Tm devoid of any
us, in every computer, smartphone, DVD player, TV set,
spectroscopically detectable impurities! The need for high-
etc. (FIG. 6). They are popularly viewed as “green metals”
purity REEs and actinides stimulated the advent of ion
because a significant share of the REE market is taken up
exchange and solvent extraction techniques that almost
by magnets (~25%) used in wind turbines, hybrid electric
immediately found practical application (Gupta and
vehicles, e-bikes and maglev trains; by automotive catalytic
Krishnamurthy 2005).
converters (~7%), which minimize toxic emissions into the
Another important outcome of that early work was that by atmosphere; and by phosphors (~6%), whose numerous
the 1960s, research-grade REEs were readily available in applications include energy-efficient fluorescent lighting
sufficient quantities and at reasonable prices to anyone (Gibson and Parkinson 2011). An important difference
studying the optical, magnetic, or other properties of these between technology and nature is that, while nature tends
elements and their potential industrial applications. In the to gently fractionate HREEs from LREEs, or vice versa,
next few years, a great number of such applications were leaving almost all minerals with a mixture of both, many
identified and commercialized. Many of those early, technological applications require that each element be
advanced technologies are still around today: just think of isolated from the others before it can be put to practical
Sm–Co magnets used in various aerospace and communica- use, as illustrated by the examples below (see also
tion devices, or Nd-doped Y3Al5O12 lasers employed for Hatch 2012).
trace element analysis, metal cutting, treatment of glau-
coma, and other medical applications. To meet the growing
demand for REEs, several new deposits were discovered and
put into production. The opening of the Steenkampskraal
mine in South Africa, Mountain Pass in California, and
Karnasurt (Lovozero) in the Russian Arctic in the early
1950s heralded the beginning of a new era: rare earths
were now valuable enough to move mining from placers
into bedrock (see cover of this issue). The latter two deposits
also reflect diversification of REE production into resource
types other than monazite (bastnäsite and loparite,
respectively).

From the mid-1960s to 1985, the carbonatite-hosted

Mountain Pass deposit was the world’s main source of REEs,
producing over 20 kt REO at its zenith (Castor and Hedrick
2006). In the face of fierce competition from China and
environmental problems, the mine closed down in 2002,
but it has now been resurrected with new technology and
is ramping up production (Mariano and Mariano 2012 this
issue). The same factors (in addition to a slew of social and
economic problems) contributed to a decline of the Russian
production, from 26 kt of loparite concentrate (equivalent
to ~8 kt REO) in 1990 to ≤9 kt in the 2000s.

Today, almost all (~97%, or 120–130 kt REO in 2006–2010;

USGS 2012) of the world’s REE supply comes from China, FIGURE 6 A display in the Rare Earth Museum in Baotou (Inner
with 40–50% of this production contributed by the giant Mongolia, China), showcasing some REE applications
in alloys, ceramics, and glasses

E LEMENTS 338 O C TOBER 2012

The strongest permanent magnet ever made has the targeting and mine-detection systems (lasers), radars,
composition Nd2Fe14B and was invented in the early 1980s. sonars, and radiation and chemical detectors (signal
The magnetic properties of REE 3+ compounds arise from amplifiers).
a potentially large number of electrons with aligned spins
in the 4f orbital and their localized nature; magnetic alloys REEcycling
similar to Nd 2Fe14B can be made with most of the other It is estimated that <1% of used rare earths were recycled
REEs, but none are as strongly magnetic as the Nd alloy in 2010, but the rising prices and supply problems are
(Kaltsoyannis and Scott 1999). “Neo” magnets, as they are encouraging more effort in this area. Some materials, like
known in the trade, enable miniaturization of electronic phosphor powders, are easier to “REEcycle,” and some
components and appliances, but their weakness is that they countries, like Japan, have been proactive in seeking
do not work well above about 200 oC. Minor Dy and Tb commercially viable ways of doing so. Given that Japan
are incorporated in Nd 2Fe14 B magnets to expand their alone has accumulated some 300 kt of REO in used elec-
working range, but even these improved materials have to tronics, recycling of these and other materials could be a
be replaced with more resilient Sm–Co alloys in high-T worthwhile endeavor. However, its commercial success has
(300–550 oC) applications. The development of a proof- so far been hampered by a number of issues, including the
of-concept refrigerator utilizing the giant magnetocaloric long lifetimes (≥10 years) of products incorporating signifi-
effect of Gd–Si–Ge alloys (Pecharsky and Gschneider 1999) cant quantities of REEs (e.g. hybrid cars and wind turbines),
may signal the arrival of a new era in commercial refrigera- very low potential yield from REE components used in
tion, replacing the 150-year-old vapor-compression tech- most other applications (e.g. <<0.1 wt% for mobile phones
nology with more energy-efficient and environmentally and other electronics), and the tendency of REEs to parti-
friendly machinery. tion into the slag during conventional pyrometallurgical
recovery of metals from automotive catalysts. A salient
The electronic confi guration of REEs, with f electrons
statistic is an estimate that 20–30% of Nd-magnet material
shielded from crystal-field effects by outer orbitals, also
is scrapped because it is not economic to reprocess (Moss
gives rise to the many valuable optical properties of these
et al. 2011). Clearly, the future of these programs
elements. The red color in your TV and computer screen,
depends on price dynamics (i.e. the economic feasibility of
for example, comes from sharp emission lines at
competing with virgin metal supply) and on the ability of
610–630 nm in Eu 3+ phosphors (substances that lumi-
governments to promote research and development in the
nesce), whereas higher-frequency (450 nm) electron transi-
field of “REEcycling” and provide fi nancial incentives for
tions in Eu 2+ produce a blue radiance. The two forms are
up-and-coming producers.
used together with Tb-activated green phosphors to give
the white glow of a triband compact fluorescent tube. Euro
banknotes have an antiforgery mark that will glow red in ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS
UV light—and what phosphor does it contain? Europium, of AND RESPONSIBLE SOURCING
course! The toxicity of the REEs is thought to be low, but some
health problems have been documented (Wall 2013). For
SUPPLY VERSUS DEMAND example, prolonged use of Ce polishing powder has been
associated with lung pathologies, whereas ingestion of high
Critical and Strategic Metals Explained levels of this element has been linked to heart problems
Critical is a relatively new term referring to economically in some monazite-producing areas of India. Although Ce
important resources subject to high supply risk. The is common in many products, the exposure from most
European Union defi ned 14 critical materials and counted applications, such as catalytic converters in cars and decol-
the entire REE family as one of these fourteen. The REEs orizers in glass and dental porcelain, is low and there is
are the exemplar of critical metals: they hit the headlines no evidence of harmful effects. The use of Gd in magnetic
in 2010, when China drastically cut its export quota and resonance imaging led to small quantities of this metal
the world realized that (1) these elements were essential fi nding their way into sewage, resulting in anomalously
for “all kinds of useful things” and (2) the supply of REEs high Gd abundances in rivers flowing through heavily
was virtually monopolized by China. A plaque from 1992 populated, industrialized areas in Europe (Bau and Dulski
in the REE-producing town of Baotou quotes China’s 1996). Again, these Gd anomalies have not been correlated
legendary reformer Deng Xiaoping, “The Middle East with any adverse health effects. In China, REEs have long
has oil, China has rare earth.” As the Chinese rare earth been used as additives in fertilizers and fed to livestock as
industry is working hard to keep these metals in the a growth promoter. The long-term effects of such uncon-
country by vertically integrating their business from bast- trolled discharge of REE-based chemicals into the environ-
näsite and clay ore to “Neo” magnets and other value- ment remain to be determined.
added products, the rest of the world is scrambling to fi nd
alternative and secure supplies (e.g. Mariano and Mariano The main environmental concern regarding rare earth
2012). The term critical rare earths is used to specify the mining is not usually the REEs themselves but their
elements for which demand is most likely to exceed supply common association with Th and U. These elements occur
in the near future. Some analysts predict that even with both in the structure of REE minerals and as discrete phases
new producers coming on stream in the next few years, associated with the mineralization. The issue of by-product
the supply shortfall of Nd, Eu, Tb, Dy, and Y is likely to actinides has been increasingly on the public radar
persist through at least 2014. The term strategic is often lately owing to some reports by the media and environ-
used interchangeably with critical but has traditionally had mental groups that link high levels of radiation (i.e. >20
a military connotation. Although the defence market for millisieverts per year) in areas of monazite mining and
REEs is small (e.g. <10% of the domestic consumption in storage to various health problems among the population
the US; Grasso 2011), REE-based materials have now (e.g. Padmanabhan 2002). Epidemiological studies are
become irreplaceable in such applications as precision- inconclusive, and further work based on coordinated inter-
guided munitions and aircraft (magnets), dazzlers, national efforts is desirable (Hendry et al. 2009).

E LEMENTS 339 O C TOBER 2012

Beyond radiation, the need for a wide array of processing issuance of new mining licenses, capping production, and
chemicals creates many other problems around mine sites clamping down on illegal operations and smuggling (Hatch
and REE-separation facilities in China and elsewhere. 2012). Clearly, as new mines and processing facilities
Practically every news agency has by now explored the come on stream, both manufacturers and consumers of
not-so-friendly side of the “green metals,” telling stories of REE products need to make informed and responsible
toxic waste lakes, acrid air, and high cancer rates in the choices regarding the sourcing of REEs.
Bayan Obo area. The environmental impact of clay opera-
tions is also considered significant because chemicals used ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
to liberate the adsorbed REEs have been allowed to escape
We thank the contributing authors, Principal Editor
into the surrounding countryside. It is a sobering thought
Georges Calas, and Managing Editor Pierrette Tremblay for
that everyone who has benefited from REE-based technolo-
their expertise, help, and (most of all!) patience in bringing
gies (and that must be all of us reading this issue) is using
this issue together. Clint Cox and Bertil Otter are gratefully
metals that come at such a high cost to the environment.
acknowledged for providing some of the imagery. This
The Chinese government has recently imposed much
contribution benefited from insightful reviews by two
stricter regulations on the REE industry, suspending the
anonymous referees and Georges Calas.

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Zeitschrift für anorganische Chemie mud in the Pacific Ocean as a potential Tanaka K, Takahashi Y, Shimizu H (2008)
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Castor SB, Hedrick JB (2006) Rare earth Kynicky J, Smith MP, Xu C (2012) Evolution. Blackwell, Oxford, 312 pp
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Gupta CK, Krishnamurthy N (2005)

Extractive Metallurgy of Rare Earths.
CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 484 pp

E LEMENTS 340 O C TOBER 2012

 Dynamics in the Global Market
for Rare Earths
Magnetic resonance
image of the brain,
taken with the aid
Gareth P. Hatch* of Gd-based
contrast agents.
COURTESY OF
1811-5209/12/0008-0341$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.8.5.341 BMJ PUBLISHING

T
he long-term growth of numerous industries will depend on the ability
to secure stable and diverse sources of rare earths. Recent years have
seen unprecedented volatility in this sector, with the rare earths being quantities within commercially
processed LREE-rich minerals such
increasingly considered as strategic and critical to a wide range of technolo-
as monazite and bastnäsite. HREE-
gies. During the next few years, demand for some of the rare earths is enriched minerals and deposits that
expected to exceed supply. Chinese export-quota policies have had a severe have been processed commercially
impact on the market. Worldwide exploration efforts are now leading to the include xenotime-(Y), ion-adsorp-
tion clays, and synchysite-(Y). New
deployment of a rare earth supply chain based outside China. potential sources of HREEs outside
KEYWORDS : rare earths, rare earth oxide, neodymium, dysprosium, critical metals China tend to be contained in
minerals such as eudialyte, which
have not been processed commer-
cially before.
INTRODUCTION
The rare earth elements (REEs) are a unique group of chem- END USES OF RARE EARTHS
ical elements that exhibit a range of special electronic, REEs have a variety of end uses (FIG. 1). Applications for
magnetic, optical, and catalytic properties. These elements REEs can be divided into two broad categories: process
are enablers: their use in components manufactured from enablers and technology building blocks.
a wide range of alloys and compounds can have a profound
effect on the performance of complex engineered systems. Rare Earths as Process Enablers
The REEs are usually defined as the 15 lanthanoid elements In a number of applications, REEs are used in the lifecycle
(lanthanum to lutetium), plus scandium and yttrium of other materials and components but do not stay with
(Connelly et al. 2005). Promethium is radioactive and has the processed material. In general, simple REE compounds
no stable isotopes; it is thus present in the Earth’s crust in are utilized, such as rare earth oxides (REOs). Examples
vanishingly small quantities. Scandium exhibits a number include:
of properties that are similar to those of other REEs, but is
ƒ Fluid-cracking catalysts (FCCs). These are materials used
seldom found in the same minerals as the other REEs; it
in the petroleum-refi ning industry. La and Ce are added
does not selectively combine with the common ore-forming
to the catalytic compounds (up to 8 wt%) to provide
anions (Hedrick 2000). It should be noted that the other
zeolite stability during the cracking process, which in
REEs are chemically very similar to each other and tend
turn yields high catalytic activity and process selectivity.
to occur together within minerals in varying quantities.
This interaction aids in the transformation of crude oil
Their chemical similarities make them difficult to separate
into gasoline and other useful and valuable petroleum
from each other, once liberated from the minerals in which
products.
they are found.
ƒ Automotive catalytic converters. Modern vehicles use cata-
Flow-sheet designers and process engineers divide the REEs
lytic converters to reduce the emission of pollutants that
into three subgroups on the basis of initial segmentation
result from the internal combustion process. CeO2 is the
during the separation process. Lanthanum (La), cerium
primary rare earth compound in such converters and is
(Ce), and neodymium (Nd) are the light REEs (LREEs);
used in a wash coat in conjunction with zirconium (Zr)
samarium (Sm), europium (Eu), and gadolinium (Gd) are
and platinum-group metals. The wash coat can contain
the medium REEs (MREEs), and terbium (Tb), dysprosium
up to 30 wt% CeO2 . The associated redox reaction aids
(Dy), holmium (Ho), erbium (Er), thulium (Tm), ytterbium
in the conversion of NOx, CO, and unburned hydrocar-
(Yb), lutetium (Lu), and yttrium (Y) are the heavy REEs
bons into less harmful compounds.
(HREEs) (see also Chakhmouradian and Wall 2012 this
issue). HREEs are much rarer than LREEs or MREEs, partly ƒ Polishing media. Significant amounts of CeO2 are utilized
due to their lower crustal abundances. They occur in small in the polishing of glass, mirrors, TV screens, computer
displays, and the wafers used to produce silicon chips.
When used in fi ne-powder form, the CeO2 reacts with
the surface of the glass to form a softer layer (the so-called
* Technology Metals Research LLC, 180 S. Western Ave #150 “mechanochemical” effect), thus making it easier to
Carpentersville, Illinois 60110, USA polish the surface to a high-quality fi nish.
Innovation Metals Corp, Suite 1801, 1 Yonge Street
Toronto, ON M5E 1W7, Canada
E-mail: ghatch@techmetalsresearch.com

E LEMENTS , V OL . 8, PP. 341–346 341 O C TOBER 2012

A B and size, and the ability of these magnets to resist demag-
netization can be an order of magnitude greater than
that of ferrite magnets.

ƒ Energy storage. Compounds of La and nickel (Ni) are used

to produce battery cells for energy storage. The presence
of La enables the absorption of hydrogen in the cell, and
the ease of reversal of this electrochemical process makes
La–Ni–H compounds particularly suitable for recharge-
able-battery applications.

ƒ Phosphors. Phosphor materials emit light after being

exposed to electrons or ultraviolet (UV) radiation. Liquid
crystal displays (LCDs), plasma screen displays, light-
emitting diodes (LEDs), and compact fluorescent lamps
C
(CFLs) all utilize such materials. Compounds containing
Eu, Y, and Tb are frequently used to produce phosphors
and are fi ne-tuned for particular color outputs. Since
much more of the electrical energy is converted into
light than in conventional light sources, phosphor mate-
rials are significantly more energy efficient than older
technologies, requiring a lot less electricity to produce
the same outputs. This energy efficiency is the key driver
for government-mandated replacement of conventional
incandescent light bulbs with CFLs in numerous jurisdic-
tions around the world.

RARE EARTH DEMAND

In 2011, the estimated global demand was 105 kt of total
REOs (TREOs) equivalent; this demand is expected to grow
FIGURE 1 (A) Direct-drive wind turbines contain approximately to 160 kt of TREOs by 2016 (Kingsnorth 2012). A hefty
150–200 kg of Nd and 20–30 kg of Dy per megawatt
of generating capacity. I MAGE COURTESY OF SIEMENS AG two-thirds of the demand in 2011 came from China alone,
(B) Energy-efficient compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) use phosphor rising to 84% with Japan and Southeast Asia included
materials containing critical REEs such as Eu, Tb, and Y. (TABLE 1). Little change to this pattern is projected up to
IMAGE COURTESY OF GE L IGHTING
2016 (TABLE 2).
(C) Yttrium is an essential component of the thermal-barrier
coatings used in jet engines. IMAGE COURTESY OF JOYANDJON.COM Tables 1 and 2 also provide a breakdown of the estimated
2011 and projected 2016 demands, respectively, for TREOs
used in a variety of end-use applications, in REO equiva-
Rare Earths as Technology Building Blocks lents, by region (Kingsnorth 2012). The market demand is
REEs can be incorporated into alloys and compounds for clearly dominated by permanent magnets and metal alloys.
use in engineered components that, in turn, might be used
to produce a complex engineered product or device.
Relatively small amounts of REEs can be critical for the
RARE EARTH SUPPLY
ultimate functionality of the end product. There are In 2011, the estimated global TREO supply was approxi-
numerous such applications of REEs, for example: mately 113 kt; this amount is forecasted to grow to 195 kt
of TREOs by 2016 (Kingsnorth 2012). At present over 95%
ƒ Permanent magnets. The use of REEs in magnetic alloys of global supply originates from China. This is projected
(containing 30–35 wt% REEs) has made it possible to
produce magnet materials that generate very strong
magnetic fields and that strongly resist being demagnet- ESTIMATED GLOBAL RARE EARTH DEMAND IN 2011
TABLE 1 (in tonnes of TREO ± 15%)
ized. The LREEs present in these alloys—Nd, Pr, and
Sm—effectively help to “channel” the inherent ferro- Japan &
End Use China USA Others Total
magnetism of transition metals such as iron (Fe) and SE Asia
cobalt (Co). The addition of the HREEs Dy and Tb (typi- Permanent
16,500 500 3500 500 21,000
cally totaling 2–4 wt%) further enhances the ability of magnets
Nd-based magnet materials to resist demagnetization Metal alloys 15,000 1000 4000 1000 21,000
caused by stray fields or increased temperatures.
Catalysts 11,000 5000 2000 2000 20,000
These characteristics have revolutionized magnetics
design in recent years, most notably in high-performance Polishing powders 10,500 750 2000 750 14,000
electric motors and generators. Such machines are used
Phosphors 5000 500 2000 500 8000
in, for example, Prius-class hybrid electric vehicles
(HEVs) and in megawatt-scale, direct-drive wind turbines. Glass additives 5500 750 1000 750 8000

In addition to making electrical machines more efficient Ceramics 3000 1500 2000 500 7000
and to enhance performance, rare earth magnet mate-
rials have made it possible to miniaturize motors, loud- Other 3500 500 1500 500 6000
speakers, hard-disk drives, and other applications that
Total demand 70,000 10,500 18,000 6500 105,000
use permanent magnets to operate. The magnetic field
strength of rare earth magnets can be several times Market share 68% 10% 16% 6% 100%
greater than that of ferrite magnets of the same shape
Source: Kingsnorth (2012)

E LEMENTS 342 O C TOBER 2012

 to decrease to around two-thirds by 2016, as new non- July 2010, the MOC announced a significant reduction in
Chinese sources of supply come on-stream. In 2011, the export quotas, bringing the total for 2010 to 30 kt.
supply of REOs for rare earth magnets was broadly in line Representing a 40% reduction over 2009 levels, this
with demand. measure caused considerable consternation in the rare
earth industry and led to significant price increases for
Mining of Rare Earths in China exported LREOs, in some cases by over 1500% in the space
The Chinese Ministry of Land and Resources (MLR) allo- of just a few months!
cates rare earth mining quotas to provinces and regions
The announcement at the end of December 2010 of an
each year. Historically, the actual amount of rare earths
export quota of 15 kt for the fi rst part of 2011 did little to
mined has been significantly higher than the quotas allo-
quell concerns. However, the announcement for the second
cated. In 2010, the estimated TREO production was 119 kt,
half of 2011 brought the quotas to around the same level
compared to a mining quota of 89 kt; initial estimates for
as in 2010, and from their peak in July–August 2011, prices
2011 indicate production of 107 kt of TREOs, compared to
started to fall (as discussed below).
a mining quota of 94 kt (Hatch 2011). In 2012, the MLR
did not publish a list of allocations; instead, it issued the 2012 Rare Earth Export Quotas
quota allocations in two tranches, giving themselves the
In December 2011, the MOC announced the fi rst round of
freedom to potentially adjust the overall production for
rare earth export quotas for 2012. The approach taken in
2012 later in the year. Individual provinces and regions
this announcement was in contrast with previous years in
then acknowledged the receipt of a fi rst batch of alloca-
three ways:
tions, typically 50% of the total 2011 levels. Two of the
nine REE-mining provinces, Sichuan and Shandong, did 1 The MOC issued separate quota allocations for light rare
not make any such acknowledgments, though they may earth and medium and heavy rare earth products (a
have received allocations from the MLR. range of compounds that include REE salts, oxides,
metals, and some alloys), and not just for rare earths as
CHINESE RARE EARTH EXPORT QUOTAS a whole. While such an approach had been anticipated
In recent years the Chinese Ministry of Commerce (MOC) for some time, 2012 marked the fi rst time that separate
has imposed restrictions on the export of rare earths from allocations were implemented, possibly in anticipation
China. Reasons suggested by Western observers include of the complaints ultimately fi led at the World Trade
the government’s desire to encourage downstream users to Organization (WTO) in March 2012 (and discussed
relocate to China and recent initiatives to shut down and below).
close inefficient and polluting mines in order to allow for 2 In addition, for the fi rst time, the MOC clearly tele-
environmental remediation. China also has ongoing issues graphed the intended total export quotas for the entire
relating to uncontrolled and illegal operations, which some year, instead of waiting until the second half of 2012 to
observers estimate supply up to 15–20% of the world’s REE announce the fi nal total for the year.
demand. It should be noted that the export quotas do not
apply to semifi nished or fi nished goods, such as magnets 3 The MOC divided individual Chinese producing compa-
or magnet alloys, produced in China. At present they apply nies into two groups, based on progress towards the
only to the raw-material forms of REEs and simple implementation of new pollution controls. Compliant
REE-based compounds, along with some ferroalloys. companies received confi rmed quota allocations, while
the second group received only provisional allocations.
Effects of Rare Earth Export Quotas Companies in the latter group would only have their
Despite the imposition of export quotas over the past quotas confi rmed if they met the prescribed require-
decade, until the past 18–24 months they presented few ments by July 2012. Companies failing to meet the
supply problems because REE demand was generally requirements would have their quotas reallocated to
matched by supply. Significant end users also held substan- other companies. In May 2012, the MOC updated the
tial buffer stocks of materials, in some cases up to 24 list of companies in each group, reflecting the progress
months of inventory, to ensure continuity of supply. In made by a number of these companies towards compli-
ance with the new pollution controls (Hatch 2012a).

TABLE 2 FORECASTED GLOBAL RARE EARTH DEMAND IN 2016 In August 2012, the MOC published the quota allocations
(in tonnes of TREO ± 20%) for the remainder of 2012, with all but one of the compa-
Japan & nies that received provisional quotas passing the required
End Use China USA Others Total
SE Asia inspections, thus receiving confi rmed quotas. The fi nal
Permanent magnets 28,000 2000 4500 1500 36,000 total of allocations for 2012 was 31 kt, slightly higher than
for 2011 (Hatch 2012b).
Metal alloys 23,000 2000 3000 2000 30,000

Catalysts 15,500 5500 2500 1500 25,000 RARE EARTH PRICING

Export-control policies from China have had a dramatic
Polishing powders 13,000 2000 2000 1000 18,000
effect on prices for rare earths. The fi rst important inflec-
Phosphors 8500 750 2000 750 12,000 tion point occurred in July 2010, following the announce-
ment of second-half 2010 quota allocations that indicated
Glass additives 7000 1000 1000 1000 10,000 a 40% reduction in quotas for 2010 compared to the
previous year. This led to significant price increases for
Ceramics 4000 2250 2500 1250 10,000
exported materials, particularly for LREEs and their oxides.
Other 5000 8000 4000 2000 19,000 The root cause of this was the imposition of an unofficial
quota “surcharge” by traders and producers in China. This
Total demand 104,000 23,500 21,500 11,000 160,000 surcharge essentially assigned monetary value to each
Market share 65% 15% 14% 7% 100%
tonne of quota available, in addition to the value of the
particular rare earth material itself, as a means of gener-
Source: Kingsnorth (2012) ating significant windfall profits for those involved.

E LEMENTS 343 O C TOBER 2012

In the latter half of 2010, increases in this surcharge led Producers and end users of rare earth magnets were
to dramatic price increases for La-, Ce-, and other LREE- impacted by the price increases of raw materials. This led
based compounds and to a disconnect between internal to major efforts in 2011 and 2012 to reduce magnet usage,
prices and those of exported materials. FIGURE 2 illustrates in electrical machines for example. Some design changes
the impact of these measures on the pricing of Nd and Dy increased the complexity and cost of manufacturing, but
metals between June 2009 and June 2012. these factors were more than offset by the cost savings
realized by reducing the quantities of rare earth magnets
September 2010 saw a diplomatic incident between China required in each assembly.
and Japan involving the collision of a Japanese patrol vessel
with a Chinese fishing trawler near disputed islands in the Some magnetic-design engineers successfully replaced rare
East China Sea (Agence France-Presse 2010). Shortly after earth magnets with cheaper (though less powerful) ferrite
the arrest of the trawler captain, China was accused of magnets. Furthermore, for higher-performance grades of
imposing a rare earth embargo against Japan (Bradsher Nd–Fe–B magnet materials containing higher quantities
2010). There was actually little conclusive evidence of such of Dy and/or Tb, switching to usually more expensive Sm–
an embargo, despite the stories reported in the mainstream Co magnets saved money too. Of course there are always
media at the time. Nevertheless, the incident created new trade-offs with such changes, most notably the increased
impetus for the establishment of new sources of supply size and mass of the devices containing the magnets. The
outside China, with security of supply now seen as of at alternative of retaining Nd–Fe–B magnets but using mate-
least equal importance to pricing. rial grades with reduced Dy and/or Tb content was also
adopted, through redesign efforts focused on coping with
Price Peaks of 2011 the lower maximum working temperature of the magnets
Another key inflection point occurred around February made from these grades.
2011, when prices for rare earths used within China also
Other end users, such as phosphor producers, had little
started to increase. This was possibly the result of increased
choice but to weather the price increases because of the
speculation and stockpiling of materials inside China.
lack of suitable substitutes or other options.
There is also some evidence to suggest an increase in the
amount of materials being illegally siphoned off for export, Although current prices are significantly lower than the
as a means of capitalizing on the arbitrage between internal peak prices of 2011, many REE end users remain wary of
and external spot prices for these materials. relying on REE-based compounds and components for their
devices and applications, given the volatility of raw-material
Prices for most rare earth materials peaked in mid-2011,
prices. This means that demand projections for the next
and all rare earth prices have declined since then. The
couple of years may not be as robust or as certain as once
official export channels saw a significant reduction in
thought.
volumes of materials shipped from China, indicating some
degree of demand destruction, particularly for La- and
Ce-based materials, which typically constitute 60–70% of WTO RARE EARTH TRADE DISPUTE
export volumes. In March 2012 the United States, the European Union, and
Japan filed simultaneous complaints with the WTO against
Consequences on Producers and End Users China, relating to restrictions on exports of REEs, tungsten,
of REE-Based Compounds and molybdenum. The three complainants requested
Confronted with escalating prices, some end users of REEs, consultations with China on these matters. Materials
such as those in the fluid-cracking catalyst and glass- covered under the complaints included rare earth ores,
polishing industries, made successful efforts to reduce or metals, oxides, carbonates, chlorides, fluorides, and other
replace these elements, and this was reflected in reduced compounds, as well as phosphorescent powders, ferroal-
export volumes. loys, and various magnetic powders and alloys that contain
rare earths. The complainants alleged that China engaged
in unfair treatment of foreign entities via export restrictions,

A B

FIGURE 2 Spot prices (in US$) for Nd metal (A)

and Dy metal (B). DATA FROM METAL- PAGES.COM

E LEMENTS 344 O C TOBER 2012

combined with discriminatory commercial operating rules of them are REEs, specifically Nd, Eu, Tb, Dy, and Y. In
within China. The complainants further alleged that the August 2011, an analysis of REE supply and demand by
Chinese authorities set unofficial minimum export prices Technology Metals Research (TMR) confi rmed the five
(artificially increasing the price of exported goods) and critical REEs as having the greatest exposure to potential
that there was an overall lack of transparency concerning supply issues (Hatch 2011).
the implementation of restrictive measures.
Surpluses and Deficits
In June 2012 the Information Office of the State Council
Unfortunately, the demand profile for REEs does not match
(equivalent to China’s cabinet) published a wide-ranging
their collective natural occurrence. For example, the
white paper on the rare earth industry (China Daily 2012).
typical ratio of Dy to (Nd + Pr) in Nd-based sintered rare
While not officially linked to the WTO action, the paper
earth magnets ranges from 1:50 to 1:2, whereas the same
related the Chinese government’s concerns regarding pollu-
ratio in typical LREE-rich minerals is 1:100 to 1:50, and to
tion control, the protection of dwindling resources, and
date there has been negligible recovery of HREEs from
issues raised with respect to fair trade practices. The
them. This imbalance, coupled with new applications of
comments in this white paper might be interpreted in
HREEs in phosphors and energy-efficient lighting, is a
terms of allowable exceptions embodied within the General
driver in the pursuit of HREE-rich mineral deposits, despite
Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which forms part
the greater mineral-processing challenges. Because of the
of the WTO framework. Such exceptions to the normal
overall mismatch between demand and occurrence (closely
rules are allowed under GATT, so long as they are not “a
linked to supply), and because even HREE-rich minerals
disguised restriction on international trade” (GATT 1947).
contain significant quantities of La and Ce, some REEs will
be in surplus while others will be in deficit (see TABLE 3).
Potential Chinese Response
As strongly alluded to in the recent Chinese government
white paper, China is likely to cite at least two exceptions TABLE 3 FORECASTED GLOBAL SUPPLY AND DEMAND FOR
in the GATT—specifically, measures “necessary to protect SELECTED RARE EARTHS IN 2016
human, animal or plant life or health,” and measures “relating Demand @ Supply @
to the conservation of exhaustible natural resources if such REO
150–170 kt/y TREO 180–210 kt/y TREO
measures are made effective in conjunction with restrictions on
CeO2 60–70 kt 75–85 kt
domestic production or consumption” (GATT 1947). The fi rst
of these obviously relates to the ongoing issues of pollution Nd2O3 25–30 kt 30–35 kt
control and mitigation in the Chinese rare earth sector.
Eu2O3 625–725 t 450–550 t
With regard to the second exception, while the LREE
deposits of northern China are commonly cited to have Tb 4O7 450–550 t 300–400 t
projected mine lives of hundreds of years (despite asser- Dy2O3 1.5–1.8 kt 1.3–1.6 kt
tions to the contrary in the Chinese white paper), much
has been made of projected mine lives of only 10–20 years Y2O3 12–14 kt 9–11 kt
for the HREE deposits in southern China. The second Source: Kingsnorth (2012)
exception may well be deemed to apply to the HREEs in
China, which could be a reason why the Chinese authori-
ties split the export quotas in 2012, for the fi rst time, FUTURE SOURCES OF RARE EARTHS
between light and medium/heavy rare earths.
The increased attention given to REEs over the past few
Potential Outcome of the Dispute years has caused an explosion of exploration activity for
REE-bearing mineral deposits, particularly in North
A similar case was recently settled at the WTO concerning
America and Australia. As of August 2012, 441 different
export restrictions on bauxite, coke, and other materials
exploration projects, run by 269 different companies in 37
from China. It was finally concluded in February 2012 after
different countries outside China, were active. Clearly not
an appeal, and China lost the case (WTO 2012).
all projects are equal; some are being developed on the
basis of initial grab samples whereas others have defi ned
OTHER SUPPLY AND DEMAND ISSUES mineral resources and reserves. Most of these projects are
Government Reports in the early stages and are highly unlikely to succeed, as
is the nature of the junior mining and exploration
The European Commission’s Directorate-General for
business.
Enterprise and Industry published a study in June 2010 on
raw materials critical to the European Union (European TMR maintains a comparative index of REE projects with
Commission 2010). Of the 41 metals and materials exam- defi ned mineral resources, that is, resource estimates that
ined, REEs as a group were found to be exposed to the comply with internationally recognized standards such as
highest risk of disruption to supply. Canada’s NI 43-101 or Australia’s JORC code. As of August
2012, there were 43 such projects actively under develop-
In December 2010 the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
ment (Hatch 2012c). These and significant existing mines
released a report on its critical materials strategy; the report
are shown in FIGURE 3. Canada and Australia are particularly
was updated in December 2011 (Bauer et al. 2011). DOE
well resourced with new rare earth projects in advanced
conducted a comprehensive analysis of several metals,
stages of exploration and development.
including their criticality to clean technology. Criticality
was defi ned in two ways: the fi rst was the importance of
Potential Bottlenecks
a given metal to the functionality of particular technolo-
gies, such as electric vehicles, photovoltaic cells, wind Accordingly, numerous potential new sources of REEs are
turbines, and the like; the second measured the risk of on the horizon. A key issue is that many development
disruption of supply for each of the metals. Five metals companies plan to produce only an intermediate REE
were deemed to be critical to clean technology on the basis concentrate. End users require fi nished oxides, metals, and
of the two factors, in both the short and the long term; all other REE products, and so the key challenge in progressing

E LEMENTS 345 O C TOBER 2012

 FIGURE 3 Current and potential future sources of rare earths CONCLUDING REMARKS
In the medium and long term, it is highly likely that the
beyond this stage will be to determine the logistics of sepa- world will successfully reduce its reliance on China as a
rating the concentrates into finished REE-based compounds. source of REEs, thus increasing security of supply and
Commercial-scale separation of this type is usually under- reducing price volatility. This makes the use of REE-based
taken via solvent extraction (SX), a particularly intensive, compounds an attractive proposition for the growth of
time-consuming process. It is possible that technological existing applications and the development of new ones.
advances to improve the separation of REEs via SX (such as The ability of many end users to respond effectively to the
the formulation and use of new reagents) will help to reduce 2011 price increases via technological innovation bodes
costs and cycle times. well for the downstream portion of the supply chain, as
the supply chain deals with the shorter-term uncertainty
At present there are few rare earth separation facilities outside of supply and pricing.
China, and those that do exist are not independent. Sending
concentrates to China for processing would result in the
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
finished REE-based compounds being subject to the export
quotas and other restrictions mentioned earlier. There is also The author wishes to thank Jack Lifton (Technology Metals
the additional challenge of handling the separation of HREEs, Research), Patrick Wong (Innovation Metals Corp.), Dudley
which require more intensive processing than LREEs. One Kingsnorth (IMCOA and Curtin University), Clint Cox
solution to this issue is the creation of independent, central- (The Anchor House), and Tony Mariano Sr. for useful
ized separation facilities designed to handle multiple sources discussions on the topics included in the present article.
of feedstocks, such as the facility being developed by Reviews by Linda Campbell, Jock Harmer, and Paul Lusty
Innovation Metals Corp. in Québec, Canada. helped to improve the manuscript.

REFERENCES
Agence France-Presse (2010) High-seas Inorganic Chemistry: IUPAC Hatch GP (2012b) The Final Chinese
collisions trigger Japan-China spat. AFP, Recommendations 2005. RSC Rare-Earth Export-Quota Allocations
7 September 2011, http://bit.ly/9jgnTq Publishing, Cambridge, p 51 for 2012. Technology Metals Research,
23 August 2012, http://bit.ly/Rzx3se
Bauer D, Diamond D, Li J, McKittrick M, European Commission (2010) Critical
Sandalow MD, Telleen P (2011) Critical Raw Materials for the EU: Report of the Hatch GP (2012c) TMR Advanced Rare-
Materials Strategy. U.S. Department of Ad-hoc Working Group on Defi ning Earth Projects Index. Technology Metal
Energy, Washington, DC, DOE/PI-0009, Critical Raw Materials. European Research, 10 August 2012,
189 pp Commission, Brussels www.rareearths.org
Bradsher K (2010) Amid tension, China GATT (1947) Article XX: General Hedrick JB (2000) Minerals Yearbook:
blocks crucial exports to Japan. New Exceptions. World Trade Organization, Volume I – Metals and Minerals, USGS,
York Times, 23 September 2010, http:// http://bit.ly/LJuZMq Reston, p 62.1
nyti.ms/dtKZh7
Hatch GP (2011) Critical Rare Earths: Kingsnorth DJ (2012) Rare earths supply
Chakhmouradian AR, Wall F (2012) Rare Global Supply & Demand Projections security: Dream or possibility.
earth elements: Minerals, mines, and the Leading Contenders for New 4th Freiberg Innovations Symposium,
magnets (and more). Elements 8: Sources of Supply. Technology Metals Freiberg, Germany, oral presentation
333-340 Research, www.criticalrareearthsreport.
com, 75 pp WTO (2012) China – Measures Related
China Daily (2012) Policies of China’s to the Exportation of Various Raw
rare earth industry. China Daily, Hatch GP (2012a) 2012 Chinese Rare- Materials. World Trade Organization,
20 June 2012, http://bit.ly/LCHAO2 Earth Export-Quota Allocations – An 22 February 2012, http://bit.ly/LJv8PR
Update. Technology Metals Research,
Connelly G, Damhus T, Hartshorn RM, 17 May 2012, http://tmrne.ws/LhyMQL
Hutton AT (2005) Nomenclature of

E LEMENTS 346 O C TOBER 2012

 Rare Earth Mineralization
in Igneous Rocks:
Sources and Processes Mines at Khibiny (north-
western Russia) have
produced over 620
Anton R. Chakhmouradian1 and Anatoly N. Zaitsev2, 3 million tonnes of apatite
concentrate since 1929.
Historically, REEs have
1811-5209/12/0008-0347$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.8.5.347 not been recovered
from this concentrate,
and 50,000–60,000

D
eposits of rare earth elements (REEs) in igneous rocks have played an tonnes of REEs wind up
in fertilizer-plant tailings
instrumental role in meeting the growing industrial demand for these annually. The current
elements since the 1960s. Among the many different igneous rocks market situation has
stimulated interest in
containing appreciable concentrations of REEs, carbonatites and peralkaline the Russian mining
industry to develop a
silicate rocks are the most important sources of these elements, both histori- commercially viable
cally and for meeting the anticipated growth in REE demand. The contrasting technology for
extracting REEs
geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of REE mineralization in from the Khibiny ore.
carbonatites, peralkaline feldspathoid rocks, and peralkaline granites reflect
different sources and evolutionary pathways of their parental magmas, as
well as differences in the extent of postmagmatic reworking of primary REE
minerals by hydrothermal fl uids.
KEYWORDS : rare earth elements, lanthanides, yttrium, mineral deposits,
carbonatites, nepheline syenites, granites

INTRODUCTION place emphasis on the fi rst three categories because they

are far more important from a practical standpoint. To
Out of some 50 advanced rare earth exploration projects
complement the information provided elsewhere in this
currently active outside China, 20 target carbonate igneous
issue by Kynicky et al. (2012), Mariano and Mariano (2012),
rocks (carbonatites) or their weathering products, whereas
and Williams-Jones et al. (2012), we will focus on localities
at least 13 other projects are focused on various alkaline
outside China and North America.
silicate rocks. These statistics reflect the importance of
igneous deposits in the economics of rare earth elements
(REEs). Indeed, between the 1960s and 1995, these deposits TECTONIC SETTINGS, SOURCES,
accounted for over 50% of the global REE production. In AND EVOLUTION OF REE-RICH MAGMAS
the early 1990s, 30–35% of the total production of ca The majority of igneous REE deposits occur in intraconti-
50,000 tonnes of total rare earth oxides (REOs) came from nental, anorogenic, extensional settings formed by pull-
the carbonatite-hosted Mountain Pass deposit in California, apart tectonics or asthenospheric upwelling. Here, thinning
USA, 5–10% from Chinese carbonatites, and 10–15% from of the continental lithosphere facilitates decompressional
loparite mines in nepheline syenites at Lovozero, Russia. melting of the mantle and emplacement of a wide spectrum
The present paper introduces the most significant types of of magmas, including alkali-rich, silica-undersaturated
igneous REE deposits and provides an overview of their types relevant to the present discussion (carbonatite, neph-
sources, their evolution, and their geological, geochemical, elinite, and phonolite). These magmas often form extensive
and mineralogical characteristics. igneous provinces associated with rifts, grabens, crustal
lineaments, and transcurrent fault systems (see Figure 5 in
Rare earth deposits in igneous rocks can be grouped into
Chakhmouradian and Wall 2012 this issue). In some cases,
five distinct categories differing in the provenance and
these structures were activated episodically, giving rise to
evolution of the magma and in the rock types hosting
deposits of very different age within the same province;
mineralization: (1) carbonatites, (2) peralkaline silica-
for example, the western branch of the East African Rift
undersaturated rocks, (3) peralkaline granites and pegma-
comprises carbonatite-hosted deposits of Mesoproterozoic,
tites, (4) pegmatites associated with sub- to metaluminous
Ediacaran, and Cretaceous age (Woolley 2001).
granites, and (5) Fe oxide–phosphate deposits. We will
Comparison with oceanic basalts (FIG. 1) shows that silica-
undersaturated rocks from extensional settings are signifi-
cantly enriched in light lanthanides and characterized by
1 Department of Geological Sciences, University of Manitoba
Winnipeg, Manitoba R3T 2N2, Canada a greater degree of light REE (LREE) –heavy REE (HREE)
E-mail: chakhmou@cc.umanitoba.ca fractionation [(La/Yb) N ≥20, as compared to ≤20 in basalts,
2 Department of Mineralogy, St. Petersburg State University where values are normalized to primitive mantle], implying
St. Petersburg 199034, Russia that their parental magmas were derived by very low-
degree (<1%) partial melting of the subcontinental upper
3 CERCAMS, Department of Earth Sciences
Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road mantle. Element-partitioning models show that the
London SW7 5BD, UK geochemical characteristics of anorogenic magmas require
E-mail: burbankite@gmail.com

E LEMENTS , V OL . 8, PP. 347–353 347 O C TOBER 2012

 elements will modify the rare earth budget of the derivative
melt, causing changes in its normalized pattern; for
example, the slope will increase if LREEs are fractionated
from HREEs, and a negative Eu anomaly will appear if
feldspars crystallize and are segregated out. This process
of fractional crystallization can yield evolved melts showing
a large increase in REE content relative to the original
magma and capable of producing rare earth mineralization.
The level of REE enrichment required for this to occur
depends on the composition of the melt and physical
parameters. For example, the solubility of monazite in
silicic melts increases with decreasing alumina saturation
index and increasing temperature (Wolf and London 1995),
but remains low (<1 wt% LREE) in comparison with the
solubility of LREE(OH) 3 in carbonate systems (≥20%;
Wyllie et al. 1996).

Separation of a homogeneous melt into two or more liquids

of different composition, structure, and rheology can also
contribute to the concentration of REEs in igneous systems.
If one of the liquids (melt or fluid, L1) has a lower affi nity
for REEs than its conjugate phase, L2 (i.e. L1/L2 D REE < 1),
FIGURE 1 Average compositions of various anorogenic magmas
(see online supplementary data at www.elementsmaga- the REEs will concentrate in the latter. In liquid immiscibility
zine.org for data sources) compared with the data for oceanic basalts experiments (Veksler et al. 2012), the partitioning behavior
(normalized to the primitive mantle of McDonough and Sun 1995). of REEs ranges from strongly in favor of the nonsilicate
To demarcate the “comfort zone” for desirable grades in igneous REE fraction in fluoride–silicate and phosphate–silicate systems
deposits (yellow field), we used the average compositions of ore
(with a cutoff grade of 1 wt% REO) from Bear Lodge (Wyoming) and ( L1/L2 D REE >> 1 and > 100 for some elements) to completely
Strange Lake (Québec), both of which are North American deposits the opposite in carbonate–silicate systems (F IG . 2).
with recognized economic potential (Mariano and Mariano 2012). Carbonate–silicate immiscibility is also more effective in
The data are derived from assessment reports posted at www. separating LREEs from HREEs because the latter are less
questrareminerals.com/strangelakeproject.php and www.rareelemen-
tresources.com/s/Home.asp. REO = rare earth oxide compatible in the carbonate melt.

sources metasomatically enriched in incompatible elements

(including REEs) relative to “run-of-the-mill” mantle peri-
dotites that produce mid-ocean ridge basalt, for example
(Arzamastsev et al. 2001). At present, it is not clear whether
the REE budget of these enriched sources is controlled by
such common silicate constituents of metasomatized
mantle as amphibole (Arzamastsev et al. 2001) or by
ephemeral phosphate and Ti oxide phases capable of incor-
porating high levels of incompatible elements (e.g. Ionov
et al. 2006).

The origin of anorogenic (A-type, sensu lato) granitic

rocks and their relation to geodynamics are a matter
of considerable debate, which is reflected in the diverse
terminology applied to these rocks by different authors.
Their parental magmas may descend from a more primitive
basaltic precursor, or they may form by partial melting of
a subcrustal mafic underplate and deep crustal sources,
possibly metasomatized by mantle-derived fluids (see
Bonin 2007; Nardi and Bitencourt 2009 for discussion
and references). Petrographically similar (but geochemi-
cally distinct) carbonate and silicate igneous rocks also
occur in the (post)orogenic environment, where their
emplacement is controlled by transtensional pull-apart
tectonics. However, only carbonatites emplaced in such
settings are known to host economic REE mineralization
(Hou et al. 2009).

Regardless of their provenance, none of the magma types FIGURE 2 Effect of fractional crystallization and liquid immisci-
mentioned above are sufficiently rich in REEs to form a bility (for different partition coefficients) on REE abun-
dances in magmas. Melt L becomes progressively enriched in REEs
deposit if they reach the surface and erupt; some sort of
because it precipitates crystals with a very low S/L D value (≈D LREE in
evolutionary process is always required to generate the clinopyroxenes and feldspathoids). Melt L undergoes depletion
levels of enrichment observed in igneous REE deposits because S/L D is high (≈D Eu in feldspars or D HREE in garnet). Melt L
(FIG. 1). For example, precipitation of a mineral S with a represents an intermediate case (≈D HREE in clinopyroxenes or amphi-
boles). If Melt L unmixes to produce two fractions, one of which
lower REE content than its parental magma, L
(L1) has much lower affinity for REEs than the other (L2), the
(i.e. S/L D REE < 1, where D is the partition coefficient), will resulting trends would replicate the effect of carbonate–silicate
drive the residual liquid toward enrichment in REEs immiscibility on most REEs (where L1 = carbonate and L2 = silicate).
(FIG. 2). Differences in partition coefficient among these FRCR = fractional crystallization

E LEMENTS 348 O C TOBER 2012

 Khibiny 2 cm
Brb

Partomchorr

pipes
A
hornfels xenoliths
Ap-Ne rocks
melteigites- urtites
poikilitic Ne syenites Oleniy Ruchei D C
Kirovskiy
Ne syenites Lovchorritovy murmanite lujavrites
Rasvumchorr Eastern
fine-grained Ne syenites (Niorkpakhk) eudialyte lujavrites
alkali-ultramafic rocks Central Eastern (Koashva) Karnasurt & Ne syenites and urtites
Kedykvyrpakhk
PR metavolcanic rocks poikilitic Ne syenites
5 km
Umbozero
AR granite gneisses F (sub)alkaline volcanics
AR granite gneisses

E
E
Ttn

Lovozero 5 km

Ozerny B
UKRAINE R U S S I A
Ne

Ap CHINA
MONGOLIA
Apatite mine, active faults
Apatite mine, under construction Brb
Recent sdiments Ne syenites
Mosandrite mine (1933-1939), abandoned
Loparite mine, active dolomite-ankerite carbonatites ijolites
Loparite mine (1984-2004), abandoned calcite-dolomite carbonatites clinopyroxenites
2 cm
REE carbonate mineralization, subeconomic calcite carbonatites PR sedimentary rocks

FIGURE 3 Schematic maps of the Khibiny, Ozerny, and Lovozero majority of carbonatites occur in association with broadly
REE deposits of Russia, showing their location, coeval ultramafic and alkaline silicate rocks (FIG. 3), which
geology, and mineralization (neighboring countries with active REE
exploration programs are indicated in capital letters). Hand-
is commonly interpreted to indicate a genetic relationship
specimen photos show (in the order they are discussed): (A) primary between them. Carbonate melts may evolve from alkali-
burbankite (Brb) in calcite carbonatite, (B) complex carbocernaite– rich carbonate–silicate magma of mantle provenance by
bastnäsite–calcite–monazite pseudomorphs after primary either liquid immiscibility or fractional crystallization (Lee
burbankite (Brb) in dolomite carbonatite, (C) loparite-bearing
urtite, (D) eudialyte lujavrite (pink = eudialyte), (E) apatite (Ap) –
and Wyllie 1998), which has implications for the origin of
nepheline (Ne) rock with titanite (Ttn), and (F) aggregate of REE mineralization (see below).
shomiokite crystals (pinkish orange) from a low-temperature hydro-
thermal vein. Geological maps are from Bussen and Sakharov Carbonatites are characteristically enriched in REEs relative
(1972), Epshtein et al. (1972), and Yakovenchuk et al. (2005). AR = to other igneous rocks; about 90% of the published anal-
Archean; PR = Proterozoic yses fall in the 250–8000 ppm range (cf ≤1600 ppm in
alkaline volcanics rocks; FIG. 1). However, these values can
REE MINERALIZATION IN IGNEOUS ROCKS: fluctuate wildly even within a single carbonatite intrusion
KEY EXAMPLES (e.g. from <0.2 to 20.4 wt% REO at Khibiny, Kola; Zaitsev
et al. 1998). Typically, carbonatites show strong enrichment
Carbonatites in LREEs relative to HREEs (FIG. 1); the chondrite-normal-
By defi nition, carbonatites are igneous rocks containing ized (La/Yb) CN ratio ranges from 20 to 1200, reaching 9500
>50% of primary carbonate minerals. However, most at some localities (e.g. Sallanlatvi, Kola). Despite the highly
carbonatites are actually polygenetic and show evidence of fractionated nature of their parental magmas, a few carbon-
hydrothermal and metasomatic reworking; that is, they atites host minor HREE mineralization; examples include
comprise early magmatic phases and products of crystal- late-magmatic xenotime at Lofdal in Namibia (Wall et al.
lization from orthomagmatic and externally derived fluids. 20 08) and carbohydrothermal parageneses with
The most abundant carbonates in these rocks are calcite mckelveyite-group carbonates in Kola (Wall and Zaitsev
and dolomite, whereas ankerite, siderite, magnesite, and 2004). A significant share of the rare earth budget of
rhodochrosite are relatively rare. Other typical rock- carbonatites is dispersed among their major constituent
forming constituents include apatite, magnetite, and ferro- minerals (principally calcite, dolomite, apatite, and amphi-
magnesian silicates. bole-group minerals; e.g. Reguir et al. 2012), whereas the
remainder is incorporated in a plethora of REE-rich
The current view of carbonatite petrogenesis, supported carbonate, phosphate, oxide, and silicate phases.
by voluminous isotopic evidence, is that their parental
magmas ultimately come from lithospheric and astheno- Carbonatites with appreciable REE mineralization have
spheric mantle sources. Relatively few carbonatites crystal- been reported at Khibiny and Vuoriyarvi (Kola, Russia),
lize directly from mantle-derived melts generated by Ozerny and Arshan (Siberia, Russia), Fen (Norway),
low-degree melting of metasomatized peridotite. The Khanneshin (Afghanistan), Amba Dongar (India), Barra

E LEMENTS 349 O C TOBER 2012

A B C

D E F

FIGURE 4 Typical REE host phases in carbonatites. (A) Primary developed at the expense of plutonic carbonatites (e.g.
burbankite decorating a contact between clinopyrox- Tomtor and Chuktukon in Siberia, Mt. Weld in Australia).
enite and calcite carbonatite, (B) prismatic bastnäsite in calcite
carbonatite, (C) syntactic intergrowths of REE fluorocarbonates, However, the market competitiveness of supergene ores,
(D) partial replacement of primary burbankite by ancylite and which comprise a very fi ne-grained mixture of clays and
strontianite, (E) monazite-rich hydrothermal paragenesis, (F) zoned secondary REE phosphates (monazite, xenotime, churchite,
apatite in calcite carbonatite, with strong REE enrichment (up to rhabdophane, and crandallite-group minerals), remains to
8.5 wt% REO) in the oscillatory-zoned rim. (A), (B), (D), and
(E) = micrographs (crossed polars); (C) and (F) = false-color back- be demonstrated.
scattered electron images. PHOTO E COURTESY OF HARALD D ILL
Assuming carbonatitic magmas originate in the same
enriched parts of the mantle as other undersaturated sili-
do Itapirapuã (Brazil), Tundulu and Kangankunde (Malawi), cate rocks shown in FIGURE 1, how can we explain the
and Wigu Hill (Tanzania), among many others. The most extraordinary geochemical signature of carbonatites? In
important REE hosts at these localities are carbonates and the context of the preceding discussion, is it plausible that
phosphates (FIG. 4), some containing very high levels of their REE enrichment results from immiscible separation
REEs and readily amenable to processing (TABLE 1 in of hybrid carbonate–silicate melts tapping metasomatized
Chakhmouradian and Wall 2012). peridotites? Or do these rocks represent highly evolved
melts derived by fractional crystallization? Experimental
Three distinct assemblages of REE minerals have been evidence (FIG. 2) argues against liquid immiscibility as the
recognized in carbonatites: (1) primary magmatic, (2) driving force behind the REE enrichment (Veksler et al.
subsolidus hydrothermal–metasomatic, and (3) supergene. 2012). However, D REE values are very high in systems
Where present, magmatic mineralization may constitute involving salt melts rich in P and F. The highest partition
a viable resource (e.g. Mountain Pass; Mariano and Mariano coefficients (215 for La and 94 for Lu) were observed for a
2012). The earliest phases to crystallize are Na–Ca–Sr–Ba– fluoride–silicate system, implying that an immiscible
REE carbonates of the burbankite group, forming crystals carbonate melt strongly enriched in F, for example, may
up to several centimeters in size (FIGS . 3, 4 A) and small be capable of scavenging REEs from its source magma. A
drop-like inclusions in rock-forming carbonates, and more straightforward mechanism of REE enrichment is
REE(±Ca) fluorocarbonates, occurring as single crystals and fractional crystallization of REE-poor oxide and silicate
syntactic intergrowths (FIG. 4B, C). Isotopic data (Zaitsev et minerals (forsterite, phlogopite, diopside, magnetite, and
al. 2002) indicate that the primary REE minerals and their ilmenite); this mechanism is supported by the common
host rocks are cogenetic and derived from the same mantle association of carbonatites with cumulate clinopyroxene–
sources. Burbankite-group phases are commonly replaced magnetite and olivine–magnetite rocks. The fl ip side to
by complex intergrowths of REE, Sr, and Ba minerals, such fractional crystallization is that at high activities of F and
as carbocernaite, ancylite, synchysite, bastnäsite, stronti- P2O5, carbonatitic magma will precipitate copious amounts
anite, and barite (FIGS. 3, 4D). These pseudomorphs result of apatite, which has a gargantuan appetite for REEs
from hydrothermal and metasomatic reworking involving (FIG. 4F), but no demonstrated practical value as a source
low- to medium-temperature fluids of different provenance of these elements (e.g. Xu et al. 2010).
and chemistry (Wall and Mariano 1996; Wall and Zaitsev
2004). Although hydrothermally overprinted carbonatites Peralkaline Undersaturated Rocks
are very common, they rarely host REE mineralization of
These rocks are undoubtedly the most mineralogically
potential economic interest (FIG. 4E). During intense chem-
exotic and challenging to study among all products of
ical weathering, rare earths are concentrated to weight-
anorogenic magmatism. For example, Yakovenchuk et al.
percent levels in thick saprolitic and lateritic profi les
(2005) list 45 (!) rare earth minerals (not including those

E LEMENTS 350 O C TOBER 2012

A B C

Selected REE host minerals in peralkaline rocks. of much debate (Arzamastsev et al. 2001; Yakovenchuk et
FIGURE 5
(A) Loparite in nepheline syenite (crossed polars), al. 2005). The urtites host economically important apatite
(B) eudialyte in eudialyte lujavrite (plane polarized light), (C) cathodo- deposits (FIG. 3; see below).
luminescence image of xenotime and associated minerals in peralka-
line granite. PHOTO C COURTESY OF ANTHONY N. MARIANO In contrast to Khibiny, the smaller Lovozero complex is a
layered intrusion whose lower part (~80% of the estimated
where REEs substitute for other cations) distributed volume) consists of a rhythmic sequence of nepheline
throughout some 40 different rock types in the Khibiny (± sodalite) syenite, subordinate urtite, and modally tran-
alkaline complex (FIG. 3). Anyone interested in working sitional layers of variable thickness. Here, meso- to mela-
with these unusual rocks will fi rst need to learn a new nocratic trachytoid nepheline syenite (lujavrite) is the most
language, because names like lujavrite, melteigite, and volumetrically significant (~36%) rock type. The upper part
ijolite would probably perplex even a seasoned petrogra- of the Lovozero pluton is a crudely stratified package of
pher (and their correct pronunciation, an experienced eudialyte lujavrites reaching a thickness of 700 m and
linguist!). Khibiny, Lovozero (FIG. 3), and similar large covering 44% of the pluton's exposed area (Bussen and
composite plutons are products of the protracted evolution Sakharov 1972).
of alkali-rich and silica-undersaturated basic melts tapping In contrast to carbonatites, primary magmatic parageneses
a colossal volume of metasomatized mantle (e.g. on the in peralkaline feldspathoid rocks lack monazite or REE
order of several million cubic kilometers beneath Kola; carbonates (but see below). The bulk of their rare earth
Arzamastsev et al. 2001). content is distributed between apatite-group phosphates
The structural and petrologic complexity of these complexes and accessory zircono- and titanosilicates (e.g. eudialyte-
owes much to the differentiation of several compositionally and rinkite-group minerals); early crystallizing perovskite-
distinct batches of magma emplaced in spatial and temporal and pyrochlore-group phases are much less common
proximity to one another (e.g. 377–362 Ma for Khibiny; (Veksler and Teptelev 1990; Chakhmouradian and Mitchell
Kramm and Sindern 2004). Some intrusions (e.g. Ilímaussaq 2002). Cumulate rocks containing large concentrations of
in Greenland) offer compelling geochemical and geophys- REE-rich minerals form by gravity settling from extremely
ical evidence for a transient, deep-seated magma chamber evolved magmas probably derived by fractional crystalliza-
where initial differentiation occurred (Sørensen 2006), tion of feldspathoids, feldspars, and other minerals char-
whereas in other cases (e.g. Lovozero), geochemical data acterized by low S/L D REE (e.g. Dawson et al. 2008). For
are at odds with geophysical models (cf Arzamastsev et al. example, the Na–REE–Ti–Nb oxide loparite (FIG. 5A) is a
2001; Féménias et al. 2005). Plutonic feldspathoid syenites characteristic accessory constituent of many of the
and their (sub)volcanic counterparts, phonolites, are the Lovozero rocks, but it is concentrated (2–4 vol%) in urtites
most voluminous products of magma evolution. Depending and feldspar-bearing rocks transitional to lujavrites
on the volatile content of the parental magma and the (Kogarko et al. 2002). Several of these loparite-rich units
magma's ability to retain it, the predominant feldspathoid have been mined by underground methods since 1951
constituent may be nepheline or, less commonly, sodalite- (FIG. 3 and cover of this issue). Loparite was the major
group minerals. Abundant sodic clinopyroxenes and source of LREE, Nb, and Ta for Soviet industry but is
amphiboles (FIG. 5A, B) reflect the peralkalinity of these rocks, currently facing fierce competition from cheaper and
i.e. a surplus of Na + K over Al (in atomic terms) in their easier-to-process ore types available in the global market.
composition. Common “by-products” of the crystallization A potential alternative to loparite is the REE-bearing
of such magmas are feldspar-poor rocks composed essen- zirconosilicate eudialyte, which makes up >10 vol% (locally,
tially of nepheline and ferromagnesian silicates; these rocks up to 80 vol%) of eudialyte lujavrites and related rocks at
are typically referred to as the melteigite–ijolite–urtite Lovozero (FIGS. 3, 5B). Although the REE content of this
series (with urtites being the most nepheline-rich members eudialyte (~2.0–2.5 wt% REO) is lower than at some North
of the series). American localities (Mariano and Mariano 2012), the
Lovozero deposit is far superior to its potential rivals in
There is a great deal of variation in the relative volumetric tonnage and accessibility.
contribution and emplacement mode of individual rock
types. The Khibiny pluton, for example, is a ring complex Other notable examples of REE-rich products of the
consisting predominantly (~60% by volume) of modally protracted differentiation of peralkaline undersaturated
and texturally diverse nepheline syenites, some of which magma include steenstrupine-bearing amphibole lujavrite
contain xenoliths of older alkali-ultramafic rocks. The at Ilímaussaq (Sørensen et al. 2011) and apatite–nepheline
syenite core and outer “ring” (FIG. 3) are separated by melt- rocks at Khibiny (Kogarko et al. 1984). The apatite, mined
eigite–ijolite–urtite series rocks whose temporal and struc- for phosphate since 1929 (FIG. 3), contains ca 0.9 wt% REO
tural relations with respect to the other units are a subject with an appreciable proportion of HREEs (Samonov 2008).
If these elements were extracted, the currently active mines
could supply about 40% of the global rare earth demand.

E LEMENTS 351 O C TOBER 2012

Although some of the Russian apatite producers have Granitic Pegmatites
expressed their interest in developing a REE separation
In addition to peralkaline granites (see above), their sub- to
technology at their chemical plants, it remains to be seen
metaluminous counterparts in post- or anorogenic settings
whether these efforts will materialize into a marketable
may be associated with pegmatites containing appreciable
and competitive product (see photo on p. 347).
LREE (allanite–monazite subtype) or HREE (gadolinite
Peralkaline feldspathoid rocks are commonly subjected to subtype) mineralization (Černý 1997). Although pegmatites
hydrothermal reworking and autometasomatism, whose were the fi rst bedrock source of REEs exploited in the fi rst
effects are most conspicuous in pegmatites (e.g. half of the 1900s to meet an increasing demand for Ce, Y,
Yakovenchuk et al. 2005). Such late-stage parageneses have and actinides, these operations were small and short-lived.
been reported to contain HREE carbonate mineralization Apart from small tonnages, another handicap of these
(e.g. shomiokite, mckelveyite, and related minerals; FIG. 3) deposits is their “difficult” mineralogy, which incorporates
arising from the decomposition of eudialyte and other a spectacular variety of REE hosts but is characterized by
primary minerals in extremely Na-rich carbothermal fluids fairly low concentrations of minerals amenable to easy
(Pekov 2002). Although a mere mineralogical curiosity at metal recovery. Interested readers are referred to Linnen
present, this type of mineralization could be of practical et al. (2012) for further information.
interest if found in sufficient tonnages.
Iron Oxide–Phosphate Deposits
Peralkaline Granites Iron oxide–phosphate (± Ti) deposits are associated with a
Granitic rocks differing in alumina, alkali, and Ca contents wide spectrum of igneous rocks (including anorthosites,
contain distinct, albeit overlapping, assemblages of acces- gabbroids, felsic volcanics, alkaline-ultramafic intrusions,
sory REE minerals, which account for 70–80% of the and carbonatites) and undoubtedly have a multiplicity of
whole-rock rare earth budget in amphibole-rich metalu- origins. Their REE budget is dominated by apatite (typi-
minous granites and >90% in peraluminous and peralka- cally, ≤1 wt% REOs, but rarely up to 10 wt%) and, at some
line types (Bea 1996). The highest concentrations of REEs localities, small (10–150 μm) inclusions of monazite and
(commonly, in the 300–800 ppm range) are found in xenotime formed during postmagmatic reequilibration of
anorogenic peralkaline granites and associated pegmatites; the apatite with a fluid (Harlov et al. 2002). With the
there does not appear to be any consistent correlation possible exception of Mineville in the USA (Mariano and
between the REE geochemistry of these rocks and their Mariano 2012), these deposits are not economic to develop
different proposed modes of origin (see above). Extremely exclusively for their rare earth content but may serve as a
evolved systems attain much higher levels of enrichment source of by-product REEs in large-scale iron ore or apatite
through a combination of fractional crystallization and mining operations.
concentration of REEs in F-rich residual melts (e.g. Strange
Lake, Canada; Boily and Williams-Jones 1994). One PARTING THOUGHTS
remarkable characteristic of peralkaline granites, which Our current understanding of REE deposits is too fragmen-
makes them an attractive exploration target, is their enrich- tary and too “crustal” (i.e. lacking in depth) for the devel-
ment in HREEs relative to other igneous rocks (FIG. 1); for opment of an integrated metallogenic model in any
example, (La/Yb) N = 2–10 and Y/Nd ≥ 1. This peculiar foreseeable future. We are just beginning to appreciate the
element distribution is usually interpreted in terms of the scale and significance of the mantle processes responsible
low solubility of monazite in silicic melts (see above), for rare-element transport and enrichment in parts of the
resulting either in retention of LREEs in their monazite- lower continental crust and subcontinental lithosphere.
bearing crustal source or in early removal of LREEs from Another highly speculative area is the behavior of rare
the magma. The HREE enrichment of evolved granites is earths in those natural systems whose complexity has thus
likely enhanced by fractional crystallization of feldspars far thwarted all experimental and thermodynamic attempts
( S/L D LREE >> S/L D HREE ; e.g. Dawson et al. 2008), which is at modeling their evolutionary pathways. For example, we
also responsible for the conspicuous negative Eu anomaly still know next to nothing about the relative stability of
(Eu/Eu* ≤ 0.6) in their normalized patterns (FIG. 1).* It is different REE–Nb–Ta oxides in silicate magmas and REE
not surprising, therefore, that in addition to monazite and partitioning between carbonate minerals and melts.
allanite, which are typical LREE hosts in most granitoids, Equally obscure (and underappreciated) is the fate of Y and
peralkaline varieties contain such HREE minerals as xeno- lanthanides in synemplacement contact metasomatism,
time (FIG. 5C), fergusonite, samarskite, and gagarinite (Bea postmagmatic deformation, and metamorphism. Needless
1996; Bastos Neto et al. 2009). Other notable rare earth to say, work in any of these or other knowledge-gap areas
hosts include primary zirconosilicates (ranging from zircon will offer great intellectual rewards to researchers willing
to eudialyte and elpidite, depending on the activity of Na to embrace the challenge.
and silica in the system) and pyrochlore. Hydrothermally
modified deposits also contain an assortment of exotic
silicate, fluorocarbonate, and mixed-radical phases whose ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
precipitation is controlled by the relative mobility of REEs This contribution has benefited from reviews by Kathryn
in fluids of different chemistry and by fluid–rock interac- Goodenough, Frances Wall, and an anonymous referee, as
tions (Williams-Jones et al. 2012). If proven competitive well as many stimulating discussions with our friends and
relative to low-cost “ionic clay” operations in China colleagues. Tony Mariano and Harald Dill are thanked for
(Kynicky et al. 2012), REE recovery from the mineralogi- contributing some of the imagery. Georges Calas and
cally complex Strange Lake ore and from xenotime-bearing Pierrette Tremblay are thanked for their encouragement
tailings of the Pitinga Sn–Nb–Ta mine in Brazil will hope- and editorial patience. We would also like to acknowledge
fully pave the way for the development of other granite- support from the Natural Sciences and Engineering
based polymetallic projects. Research Council of Canada, the Alexander von Humboldt
Foundation, the Russian Federal Grant-in-Aid Program
"Human Capital" (8313), and industrial sources.

* The Eu/Eu* ratio stands for the normalized Eu concentration

divided by the value interpolated from the abundances of its
neighboring elements; i.e., Eu/Eu* = EuN/(0.5SmN + 0.5GdN).

E LEMENTS 352 O C TOBER 2012

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cyclic unit II-7 from the Lovozero alka- tion of rare-earth products in Russia. the Miaoya deposit, China. Lithos 118:
line massif (Kola Peninsula, Russia). Proceedings of the 2008 Meeting of the 145-155
Lithos 83: 371-393 Russian Mineralogical Society, pp 134-138 Yakovenchuk V, Ivanyuk G, Pakhomovsky
(in Russian) Y, Men’shikov Y (2005) Khibiny.
Harlov DE, Andersson UB, Förster H-J,
Nyström JO, Dulski P, Broman C (2002) Sørensen H (2006) The Ilímaussaq Alkaline Laplandia Minerals, Apatity, Russia,
Apatite–monazite relations in the Complex, South Greenland – An 468 pp
Kiirunavaara magnetite–apatite ore, Overview of 200 Years of Research and an Zaitsev AN, Wall F, Le Bas MJ (1998) REE–
northern Sweden. Chemical Geology 191: Outlook. Meddelelser om Grønland Sr–Ba minerals from the Khibina carbon-
47-72 Geoscience 45, Copenhagen, 70 pp atites, Kola peninsula, Russia: their
Hou Z and 10 coauthors (2009) The Sørensen H, Bailey JC, Rose-Hansen J mineralogy, paragenesis and evolution.
Himalayan Mianning–Dechang REE belt (2011) The emplacement and crystalliza- Mineralogical Magazine 62: 225-250
associated with carbonatite–alkaline tion of the U-Th-REE-rich agpaitic and Zaitsev AN, Demény A, Sindern S, Wall F
complexes, eastern Indo-Asian collision hyperagpaitic lujavrites at Kvanefjeld, (2002) Burbankite group minerals and
zone, SW China. Ore Geology Reviews Ilímaussaq alkaline complex, South their alteration in rare earth carbon-
36: 65-89 Greenland. Bulletin of the Geological atites—source of elements and fluids
Society of Denmark 59: 69-92 (evidence from C–O and Sr–Nd isotopic
Ionov DA, Hofmann AW, Merlet C,
Gurenko AA, Hellebrand E, Montagnac G, Sun S-s, McDonough WF (1989) Chemical data). Lithos 62: 15-33
Gillet P, Prikhodko VS (2006) Discovery and isotopic systematics of oceanic
of whitlockite in mantle xenoliths: basalts: implications for mantle composi-

E LEMENTS 353 O C TOBER 2012

 Ultrafast. Contextural. Quantitative.
SEM-based Petrographic Analyzers

Image courtesy of Prof. Frances Wall & Dr Gavyn Rollinson, Camborne School of Mines, University of Exeter, UK

across the globe, natural resource companies, service providers, and research
organizations are utilizing automated mineralogy and petrography to image and quantify
features of commercial interest. Our SEM-based automated solutions, QEMSCAN®
and MLA, are essential technologies for mineralogists, geologists, and metallurgists
interested in ultrafast, contextual and quantitative analysis of rocks.

The image shows synchysite/parisite (blue), barite (yellow-green), quartz (pink) and iron and
manganese oxides/carbonates (black and purple) replacing bastnäsite-(Ce) (orange) in a rare
earth ore from Mountain Pass, California, USA.

www.fei-natural-resources.com
 Hydrothermal Mobilisation
of the Rare Earth Elements –
a Tale of “Ceria” and “Yttria”
Carl Gustaf Mosander
holding a blow-torch
next to a bust of his
Anthony E. Williams-Jones,1 Artashes A. Migdisov1 mentor Jöns Berzelius.
and Iain M. Samson2 COURTESY OF THE
SWEDISH M USEUM OF
1811-5209/12/0008-0355$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.8.5.355 NATURAL H ISTORY

A
lthough the rare earth elements have been thought by many to be Significantly for our story, the REEs
immobile in hydrothermal fl uids, we have known since the fi rst at Bastnäs owe their concentration
to hydrothermal processes. They
attempts to separate them in the early nineteenth century that they are restricted to a narrow zone of
are soluble in aqueous solutions. Driven by a need to isolate individual REEs dolomitic marble in which the
for industrial applications, and more recently to explore for them, we have carbonate has been replaced by
magnetite, tremolite, talc, and the
started to develop an understanding of their solubility and speciation in REE minerals cerite-(Ce) and ferri-
hydrothermal fluids. This knowledge is allowing us to understand the processes allanite- (Ce) (Holtstam and
that promote their transport in the Earth’s crust, their concentration, and Andersson 2007). In contrast to
Bastnäs, the REE mineralisation at
their fractionation.
Ytterby occurs in a granitic pegma-
KEYWORDS : REE, hydrothermal, solubility, speciation, ore formation tite as gadolinite-(Y), fergusonite-
(Y), allanite-(Ce) and xenotime-(Y).
In another contrast to Bastnäs,
except for allanite-(Ce), these are
INTRODUCTION all HREE-rich minerals.
Our story of the hydrothermal mobility of the rare earth
elements (REEs) has its origins in the 650-year-old Bastnäs THE AQUEOUS SEPARATION OF THE REES
base metal mining district of Sweden, where a dense reddish The fi rst indication that understanding the behaviour of
mineral, referred to as Bastnäs tungsten (heavy stone), was the REEs in water would be important came in 1839 when
found in the 1740s. Nothing came of this discovery, however, Carl Mosander (a student of Berzelius) established that the
until 1794 when an unusual black mineral (later named “ceria” separated by Hisinger and Berzelius from Bastnäs
gadolinite), found some years earlier in a feldspar mine at tungsten was actually a mixture. Mosander observed that
Ytterby, near Stockholm, was shown by “nitric acid diluted with 75 to 100 parts
the Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin to
contain 38% by mass of a new “earth”.
“These elements [the rare of water...leaves the greater part of the

This prompted Wilhelm Hisinger, a earths] perplex us in our red-brown oxide (‘ceria’) undissolved,
and from the solution thus obtained, the
wealthy foundry proprietor, to speculate researches, baffle us in our oxide of lanthanium was derived”; he
over whether the same earth might also speculations and haunt us precipitated it using potassium hydroxide
be present in Bastnäs tungsten, which he
had seen, and been intrigued by, as a in our very dreams. They (Mosander 1843). Mosander had discov-
ered that lanthanum (Greek, to lie
teenager. By 1804, he and Jöns Berzelius, stretch like an unknown hidden) oxide is more soluble in dilute
the famous Swedish chemist, had demon- sea before us, mocking, acids than cerium oxide. A year later,
strated that this earth and a second new
earth were, indeed, present in the Bastnäs
mystifying and murmuring Mosander realised that even his
lanthanum oxide was not pure, and,
mineral (later named cerite to celebrate strange revelations using the same differential solubility of
the discovery of the dwarf planet Ceres; and possibilities.” the lanthanum oxide in dilute acids that
FIG. 1). The two earths became known as he had seen with cerium oxide, he was
“yttria” and “ceria”. During the next 100 —Sir William Crookes, able to separate a new, more soluble,
years, through careful and painstaking in an address to the British earth, which he named didymium oxide
separation techniques, they would be Association, February 16, 1887 (twinned with lanthanum). Didymium
shown to be mixtures of oxides and, oxide also turned out to be a mixture,
between them, to contain 16 of the 17 REEs, with the heavy and was eventually separated into oxides of samarium
REEs (corresponding to europium and lanthanides of higher (1879), praseodymium (1885), neodymium (1885) and
atomic number, plus yttrium and scandium; HREEs) concen- europium (1896).
trated mainly in “yttria” and the light REEs (LREEs)
in “ceria”. Having shown that “ceria” was a mixture of rare earths,
Mosander turned his attention to “yttria” and, using the
same approach as he had with “ceria”, separated “yttria”
into yttrium, erbium and terbium oxides; he did this by
1 Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences, McGill University
3450 University Street, Montréal, Québec H3A 2A7, Canada
fractionally precipitating them from a hydrochloric acid
solution using ammonium hydroxide. In so doing, he
2 Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences showed yttrium to be the most soluble of these earths,
University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
E-mail of corresponding author: anthony.williams-jones@mcgill.ca followed by erbium and terbium (Mosander 1843). As with

E LEMENTS , V OL . 8, PP. 355–360 355 O C TOBER 2012

 different complexes as measured by their formation
constants, and very few of the research groups publishing
these studies have investigated the REEs systematically as
a group or considered multiple ligands (Wood 1990a).

Important insight into the stability of aqueous REE

complexes can be gained using Pearson’s rules (Pearson
1963), which state that hard (not polarisable) cations will
bond preferentially with hard anions (ionically) and soft
(polarisable) cations will bond preferentially with soft
anions (covalently). Because REE ions have a preferred
charge of +3 (Ce and Eu can also be quadrivalent and diva-
lent, respectively) and their ionic radii are relatively small,
they are hard cations. Thus, if we restrict the list to inor-
ganic ligands, the order of monovalent ligands with which
the REEs should form their most stable aqueous complexes
is F - > OH- > NO3 - > Cl- > Br- (Pearson 1963). For complexes
involving divalent ligands, the order should be CO32- >
FIGURE 1 Layers of Bastnäs tungsten (red), later named cerite- SO42- > P2O52-. Although, as noted above, all the REEs are
(Ce), bounded by black ferriallanite-(Ce) in tremolite hard, Ce4+ is the hardest, with a charge/radius ratio in
from the Sankt Göransgruvan mine, Bastnäs, Sweden.
PHOTO BY DAN HOLTSTAM octahedral coordination of 3.96, and Eu 2+ is the softest,
with a charge/radius ratio of 1.53. The charge/radius ratios
of the trivalent lanthanides increase with atomic number,
“ceria”, his “erbium” and “terbium” proved to be mixtures, from 2.56 for La3+ to 3.00 for Lu3+; Y3+ has a charge/radius
and it took other chemists until the beginning of the 20 th ratio of 2.88, almost identical to that of Ho3+, and Sc3+ has
century to isolate the remaining six naturally occurring a charge/radius ratio of 3.39. Thus, based on Pearson’s rules,
rare earths. the stability of complexes of the trivalent REEs involving
Although Mosander had demonstrated that the rare earths a hard ligand like F- or CO32- is predicted to increase system-
vary in their solubility in aqueous fluids, it was not until atically along the lanthanide series from La to Lu, with Y
nearly 60 years later that the fi rst quantitative experiments occupying a place between Ho and Er and Sc situated
investigating this solubility were conducted. These experi- beyond Lu.
ments, which involved dissolving REE oxides in an aqueous Since the mid-1990s, research groups led by R. Byrne and
ammonium oxalate solution, showed that solubility J. Schijf at the University of Florida and F. Millero and Y.
increased in the sequence La2O3, Pr2O3, Nd2O3, Ce2O3, Y2O3 Luo at the University of Miami have investigated the
and that the solubility of Y2O3 is an order of magnitude aqueous speciation of the REEs systematically for a large
greater than that of the next most soluble rare earth oxide, number of ligands. We consider the data reported by these
Ce2O3 (Brauner 1898). By the mid-1920s, the serial behav- groups to be the most consistent and accurate available on
iour of the REEs had been established, driven by the need the stability of the REEs at ambient temperature. Moreover,
to separate them for industrial applications. The solubility the order of stability of the complexes is consistent with
of the lanthanides had been shown to increase with atomic the predictions of Pearson’s rules. The stability of REE
number [trivalent cerium salts were found to have lower complexes with hard ligands such as F - and CO32- is an
solubility than measured by Brauner (1898), that is, their order of magnitude greater than with ligands of interme-
solubility was between that of the salts of lanthanum and diate hardness, like Cl-, and the stability for a particular
praseodymium], and the salts of yttrium were shown to ligand increases with the hardness of the REE (Schijf and
have a solubility between that of the salts of dysprosium Byrne 1999; Luo and Byrne 2001). Significantly, however,
and holmium, corresponding to the position of yttrium in the stability of complexes of the REEs with SO42-, which
the REE series based on ionic radius (Williams et al. 1925). ranks behind F- and CO32- in terms of hardness, varies little
At this time, researchers were also observing that the solu- with the hardness of the corresponding REE, and complexes
bility of the REEs varied considerably with the nature of with the borderline ligand Cl- decrease in stability with
the salt. Thus, consistent with Pearson’s rules (see below), increasing REE hardness (Luo and Byrne 2001).
Crew et al. (1925) observed that YCl3 is more soluble in
water than YBr3, and that Y(NO3) 3 is more soluble in water
than both these salts. They had, in effect, demonstrated
BEHAVIOUR OF THE REES AT HIGH
that the stability of complexes involving yttrium increases TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
with the nature of the ligand, in the sequence Br, Despite a long history of experimental investigations
Cl and NO3. showing that the rare earth elements form stable aqueous
complexes with a variety of ligands at ambient tempera-
AQUEOUS COMPLEXATION OF THE REES ture, geochemists were long divided over whether the REEs
AT AMBIENT TEMPERATURE are mobile or immobile during fluid–rock interaction.
Indeed, REE abundance patterns have been used routinely
Investigations of the stability of aqueous REE complexes to characterise geological processes related to the formation
date back to the early part of the 20 th century (e.g. Noyes of igneous and sedimentary rocks, even where such rocks
and Johnston 1909), but it was not until the 1950s that have been subjected to hydrothermal alteration (e.g.
the thermodynamic properties needed to quantitatively Herrmann et al. 1974). The occurrence of REE deposits of
evaluate this stability were measured (e.g. Izatt et al. 1955). indisputable hydrothermal origin, however, including the
Since then, a large number of studies, employing a variety giant Bayan Obo REE deposit in China (Chao et al. 1992;
of methods, have determined these properties at ambient Smith and Henderson 2000), leaves little doubt that, at
temperature for all the REEs, except promethium, with the least in some geological environments, the REEs are highly
ligands commonly found in nature. However, until recently, mobile.
there has been little agreement on the stability of the

E LEMENTS 356 O C TOBER 2012

 Information on the stability of REE complexes at high hard–soft predictions of Pearson’s rules, experimental
temperature and pressure was initially limited to theo- determinations show that LREEF2+ species are more stable
retical estimates based on extrapolations of thermody- than HREEF2+ species at elevated temperature (Migdisov
namic data available at 25 ºC (Wood 1990b; Haas et al. et al. 2009). This change in the relative stability of LREEF2+
1995). These estimates reproduced the stability relation- and HREEF2+, from that at ambient temperature, occurs at
ships discussed above for REE species at ambient tempera- approximately 150 ºC.
ture, predicting that the REEs will form their strongest
Experimental determinations of the formation constants
bonds with ligands like F- and that complexes of the HREEs
of REE chloride species show that they behave similarly to
will be more stable than those of the LREEs. They also
REE fluoride species, that is, above 150 ºC their stability
served as a source of data with which to model the hydro-
decreases along the lanthanide series from Ce to Lu (there
thermal behaviour of the REEs in ore-forming environ-
are no data for yttrium chloride species), and this effect
ments and, among other things, they led to the conclusion
increases with increasing temperature (FIG. 2B). Consistent
that in environments in which the REEs are concentrated
with the classification of Cl- as a borderline base, the data
to economic or potentially economic levels, they are invari-
of Haas et al. (1995) predict relatively little variation in
ably transported as REE fluoride complexes.
stability from LREE to HREE. Consequently, they under-
During the past 15 years, a research group at McGill estimate the stability of the LREEs and overestimate the
University, led by Migdisov and Williams-Jones, has stability of the HREEs (Migdisov et al. 2009). Experimentally
systematically investigated the speciation of the REEs determined stability data for REE sulfate complexes are
experimentally in fluoride- and chloride-bearing aqueous limited to Nd, Sm and Er. These data show, in contrast to
solutions at temperatures up to 300 ºC and pressures up to the data for REE fluoride and REE chloride complexes, that
100 bar. Some experimental data have also been gathered all the REE sulfate complexes have relatively similar
for REE sulfate species, but none for REE carbonate or REE stability, in agreement with theoretical predictions
phosphate species, which are predicted to be relatively (Migdisov and Williams-Jones 2008). However, the forma-
stable. These studies have shown that the high-temperature tion constants are somewhat lower than predicted
behaviour of the REEs differs in important respects from theoretically.
that inferred from theoretical models.
The reason that the stability of REE complexes involving
The theoretical models significantly overestimate the halogens is opposite to that predicted by Pearson’s rules is
stability of REE fluoride species at elevated temperature, the very large decrease in the dielectric constant of water
and this difference increases with increasing temperature. with temperature. Under ambient conditions, the high
Moreover, the difference is much greater for the HREEs dielectric constant and resulting hydrogen bonding lead
than the LREEs (FIG. 2A). Thus, contrary to the theoretical to strong shielding of aqueous ions and inhibition of elec-
models (e.g. Haas et al. 1995), which conform with the tron transfer. At higher temperature, however, the decrease
in the dielectric constant reduces resistance to electron
transfer, promoting “softening” of ions (Cárdenas et al.
A 2011). The overall hardness of the REEs therefore decreases
with increasing temperature, but their relative hardness is
unaffected. By contrast, the “softening” of the ligands does
affect the relative stability of the corresponding REE
complexes. As discussed earlier, the stability of REE species
involving the hard anion F - increases with the hardness of
the REEs at 25 ºC (from LREEs to HREEs), consistent with
the “hard cation prefers hard anion” Pearson’s rule, whereas
the stability of REE complexes involving the borderline
chloride ion decreases with increasing REE hardness. At
higher temperature, the chloride ion is softer than at 25 ºC,
and therefore the decrease in REE chloride stability with
increasing REE hardness should be even greater than at
25 ºC. This is precisely what is observed experimentally.
Similarly, the increase in REE fluoride stability with
increasing REE hardness should be smaller or even reversed
at higher temperature. The latter is observed experimen-
B
tally. Unfortunately, we cannot explain why the stability
of REE sulfate species is independent of REE hardness at
both low and high temperature, but we suspect that the
answer lies in the more complex nature of the sulfate
species and a different behaviour in the presence of water
than that of simple anions.

REE ORE DEPOSITS

Our best insights into the hydrothermal mobility of the
REEs come from ore deposits that have been affected by
hydrothermal processes or are of hydrothermal origin.
These deposits are genetically associated with carbonatites
and peralkaline silicate rocks, and typically contain the
REEs in weight percent concentrations. Commonly they
FIGURE 2 Values of the first formation (stability) constant, log β1, contain fluid inclusions, and in many cases, the inclusions
of REE fluoride complexes (A) and REE chloride are solid-bearing. Some even contain REE minerals (FIG. 3).
complexes (B) at various temperatures. The solid lines represent
experimental data from Migdisov et al. (2009) and the dashed lines
theoretical estimates from Haas et al. (1995).

E LEMENTS 357 O C TOBER 2012

 A B secondary zircon, allanite-(Ce), bastnäsite-(Ce) and mona-
zite-(Ce). The HREEs were deposited proximal to the
precursor minerals, whereas the LREEs were mobilised on
a scale of metres and perhaps tens of metres. At Strange
Lake, the REE mineralisation is hosted by rare-metal
pegmatites in a peralkaline granite pluton and was the
product of end-stage crystallisation of a fluorine-rich
magma that was highly enriched in incompatible elements,
including the REEs. Hydrothermal fluids remobilised REEs
contained in primary pyrochlore, zircon (~4 wt% REE 2O3)
and monazite-(Ce), and redeposited them largely within
the confi nes of the pegmatites as allanite-(Ce), gadolinite-
(Y) and kainosite-(Y). Fluid inclusion analyses indicate that
the remobilisation took place at temperatures ranging from
350 ºC to <150 ºC and involved interaction of sodic
magmatic brines with lower-temperature calcic brines
A secondary electron image (A) and a backscattered (Salvi and Williams-Jones 1996). For some other descrip-
FIGURE 3
electron image (B) of a solid-rich fluid inclusion from tions of the hydrothermal mobility of the REEs in ore
the Tamazeght Complex, Morocco. The upper of the two bright systems or systems that may be potentially ore-forming,
crystals at the bottom of the inclusion in (B) is parasite-(Ce) or
synchysite-(Ce). IMAGES COURTESY OF STEFANO SALVI
readers are referred to Ngwenya (1994), Gieré (1996), Oliver
et al. (1999) and Rankin (2005).

HYDROTHERMAL TRANSPORT
The largest of these deposits is Bayan Obo, China, which AND DEPOSITION OF REE MINERALS
is currently responsible for 45% of global REE production In the preceding sections, we established that the REEs are
and has reserves of 135 million tonnes grading 6 wt% readily concentrated by hydrothermal processes, that the
REE 2O3. The REE mineralisation is hosted by a dolomitic LREEs are more mobile hydrothermally than the HREEs,
unit (most agree that this unit is sedimentary), and is LREE- that the REEs form stable complexes with fluoride and
enriched, epigenetic, and hydrothermal in origin. There chloride ions at high temperature (and likely sulfate,
are two principal orebodies, Main and East. These comprise: carbonate and phosphate), and that the LREE complexes
(1) an early, marginal disseminated monazite-(Ce) stringer with these ligands are more stable than their HREE coun-
facies containing 3 to 6 wt% REE 2O3 ; (2) an inner, layered terparts. Our review of REE deposits, above, showed that
facies containing 6 to 12 wt% REE 2O3, in which dolomite the fluids involved in REE transport and deposition
was replaced by monazite-(Ce), bastnäsite-(Ce), fluorite, commonly have a high chloride and possibly fluoride
apatite, aegirine, magnetite and hematite; and (3) a massive activity (there is commonly a close association between
central iron oxide facies containing <3 wt% REE 2O3 (Chao hydrothermal REE mineralisation and fluorite).
et al. 1992). Based on minimum trapping temperatures of
fluid inclusions, the ores are interpreted to have formed We begin our analysis of hydrothermal REE transport and
between 300 and 400 ºC from brines containing 7 to deposition by using the available thermodynamic data for
10 wt% NaCl equivalent (Smith and Henderson 2000). REE fluoride and REE chloride complexes to evaluate the
Other examples of REE deposits that are of indisputable speciation of the REEs as a function of pH and temperature.
hydrothermal origin are the Gallinas Mountains deposit, Unfortunately, although the chlorinity of REE-depositing
New Mexico, in which a fluorite–bastnäsite-(Ce) assem- hydrothermal systems is well known, the fluorinity is
blage cemented quartz syenite and sandstone breccias poorly known. The only measurements of the concentra-
(Williams-Jones et al. 2000), and the Karonge deposits in tion of fluorine in hydrothermal fluids that have precipi-
Burundi, which occur as centimetre- to decimetre-thick tated REE minerals are those of Banks et al. (1994) for
bastnäsite-(Ce) veins and stockworks in granitic gneiss magmatic–hydrothermal fluid inclusions from veins in the
(Lehmann et al. 1994). The Gallinas Mountains deposit is Capitan Pluton, New Mexico. This study also analysed the
interpreted to have formed between 300 and 400 ºC from REE content of the fluid. If we assume that the ore fluid
brines containing 12 to 18 wt% NaCl equivalent, and contained 10 wt% NaCl (see above), 500 ppm F and
preliminary data for the Karonge deposits suggest that they 200 ppm Nd (Banks et al. 1994) and is undersaturated with
formed at >420 ºC from a brine containing >25 wt% NaCl respect to solids, the data of Migdisov et al. (2009) predict
equivalent. The hydrothermal REE deposits described that at 200 °C, NdF2+ is the dominant dissolved species for
above and others of which we are aware are all pH values above 3 and that NdCl2+ becomes important at
LREE-enriched. this pH at higher temperature. At 400 °C, NdCl2+ is the
dominant species for pH values below 7. From this analysis,
Major deposits in which the REEs were concentrated by a it might appear that both fluoride and chloride species play
combination of magmatic and hydrothermal processes a role in REE transport, depending on the temperature and
include the Nechalacho deposit, Northwest Territories, pH. However, whereas REE chloride minerals are relatively
Canada, with an indicated resource of 88 million tonnes soluble at ambient and higher temperature, REE fluorides
grading 1.53 wt% REE 2O3, and the Strange Lake deposit in are extremely insoluble even at high temperature, which
Québec-Labrador, Canada, with an indicated resource of places an upper limit on the amount of REEs that can be
66 million tonnes grading 1.52 wt% REE 2O3. Both deposits transported as REE fluoride complexes. At a pH of 3 and a
are characterised by high proportions of HREEs. The temperature of 400 °C, the concentration of dissolved Nd
Nechalacho deposit is hosted by a layered, silica-undersat- is 200 ppm, mainly as NdCl2+ (FIG. 4A). Increasing the pH
urated alkaline complex in which the primary magmatic to 5, however, reduces the solubility to <1ppm, because of
REE mineralisation formed as a result of gravity settling HF dissociation and resultant NdF3 [fluocerite-(Nd)] satura-
of eudialyte (a complex zirconosilicate containing ~7 wt% tion; more fluoride ions are available to bind with the REEs
REE 2O3) and zircon (containing ~3 wt% REE 2O3) (Sheard and precipitate fluocerite. Decreasing temperature has the
et al. 2012). Hydrothermal fluids subsequently dissolved same effect: HF dissociates, reducing NdF3 solubility
these minerals and reprecipitated the REEs as fergusonite-(Y),

E LEMENTS 358 O C TOBER 2012

 (FIG. 4B). Thus, although the high stability of REE fluoride when brought into contact with a source of calcium.
complexes has led many to assume that these species Hydrothermal REE deposits do not, however, form invari-
control the transport of REEs in ore-forming hydrothermal ably through reaction with dolomite and limestone, and
systems, this is unlikely to be the case. Instead, fluoride for hosts with low Ca content, it is attractive to call on
acts a binding ligand that promotes precipitation of REE mixing of the ore fluid with formational waters of higher
minerals such as fluocerite-(Ce) and, more importantly, pH, lower temperature and elevated activity of calcium
bastnäsite-(Ce), the main REE ore mineral. The very low (and bicarbonate ions in the case of bastnäsite) to explain
solubility of monazite-(Ce) allows the same conclusions to coincident fluorite and REE-mineral deposition, for
be drawn for phosphate. It thus seems probable that chlo- example, at Gallinas Mountains.
ride species transport the REEs in most hydrothermal
Although it is important to provide depositional models
systems.
that satisfactorily explain the formation of deposits like
The deposition of the REEs as bastnäsite-(Ce) can be Bayan Obo, which we have argued are hydrothermal in
described by the reaction: origin, it is equally important to explain the hydrothermal
REECl2+ + HF + HCO3 - = REECO3F + 2H + + Cl-, mobilisation of the REEs in deposits like Nechalacho,
which formed initially through magmatic concentration.
where REECO3F is bastnäsite-(Ce), and thus any mecha- A feature of these deposits, which was commented upon
nism that leads to an increase in pH and/or HCO3 - activity above, is that the LREEs were preferentially mobilised to
or a decrease in Cl- activity will lead to deposition of bast- significantly greater distances from their magmatic source
näsite-(Ce). At Bayan Obo, the host for the REE mineralisa- than the HREEs. We have modelled this scenario using a
tion is a dolomite. Reaction of the ore fluid with this system in which aliquots of REE-bearing fluid (equal
lithology provides a very effective mechanism for ore depo- proportions of each REE) pass through and react with a
sition because of the reaction: phosphorus-bearing (100 ppm P) nepheline syenite, depos-
2H + + CaMg(CO3) 2 = Ca 2+ + Mg2+ + 2HCO3 -, iting monazite. The NaCl content of the fluid was assumed
to be 10 wt% NaCl and the pH 4.5. Thermodynamic data
which leads to sharp increases in both pH and HCO3 - for monazite were taken from Popa et al. (2007) and for
activity. The mechanism also elegantly explains the inti- the REE species from Migdisov et al. (2009). The fluid was
mate association of bastnäsite-(Ce) with fluorite in the assumed to cool from 400 to 200 ºC at 500 bar (FIG. 5A).
deposit and in other deposits similar to it. Like the REE
fluoride and fluorocarbonate minerals, fluorite is extremely At the start of the reaction, monazite, containing equal
insoluble, and thus any free fluoride will deposit as fluorite proportions of each REE, precipitated. With progressive
fluid–rock interaction, the pH buffering capacity of the
rock decreased. Consequently, the LREEs were leached and
A reprecipitated farther along the unit at lower temperature
(FIG. 5B). Early monazite was thus replaced by monazite
containing progressively heavier REEs, and the REEs were

B B

FIGURE 5 (A) Progressive interaction of 1 kg of nepheline syenite

containing 100 ppm phosphorus with successive 1 kg
Concentration of aqueous Nd species (log molality), aliquots of fluid containing 10 wt% NaCl, 500 ppm F and 50 ppm
FIGURE 4 each of La, Ce, Nd, Sm and Gd. The initial pH was 4.5 and the fluid
as a function of pH at a temperature of 400 °C (A),
and as a function of temperature at a pH of 3 (B). The fluid cooled from 400 to 200 °C at 500 bar. (B) Fractionation of the REEs
contained 10 wt% NaCl, 500 ppm fluorine and 200 ppm Nd. after interaction of the rock with five aliquots of fluid. The enrich-
ment factor is defined as (REE/ΣREE) Rock/(REE/ΣREE) Initial solution.

E LEMENTS 359 O C TOBER 2012

gradually fractionated along the fluid path; HREEs were probably also carbonate, sulfate and phosphate complexes.
restricted to the high-temperature input zone, and LREEs However, it seems that only chloride complexes can
migrated from it. The model demonstrates convincingly mobilise the REEs in appreciable quantities. We therefore
that interaction of a flux of saline hydrothermal fluid with conclude that hydrothermal concentration of REEs occurs
primary magmatic REE mineralisation will lead to the pref- mainly when fluids containing these complexes interact
erential mobilisation of LREEs and their transport to loca- with cooler, pH-neutralising rocks, or mix with cooler,
tions distal from that mineralisation. pH-neutralising fluids. In so doing, these processes have
helped create strategic resources for a society increasingly
CONCLUDING REMARKS dependent on new technologies.
Although the rare earth elements continue to “perplex us
in our researches,” as they did Sir William Crookes over ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
125 years ago, they have also continued “murmuring The manuscript benefitted from critical reviews by Stefano
strange revelations and possibilities.” If we are interpreting Salvi and an anonymous referee and comments from
them correctly, they have started to show us how the REEs Frances Wall, Anton Chakhmouradian, Tom Clark, and
are mobilised by hydrothermal processes and concentrated Pierrette Tremblay. Funding for the research was provided
to exploitable levels. We have learned that the REEs form by NSERC discovery grants to AEW-J and IMS.
stable aqueous fluoride and chloride complexes, and

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59: 235-237

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 Diversity of Rare Earth Deposits:
The Key Example of China
Banded ore of the
Bayan Obo deposit

Jindrich Kynicky1, Martin P. Smith2 and Cheng Xu3

1811-5209/12/0008-0361$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.8.5.361

A
s a source of strategic commodities for high technologies, the deposits DIVERSITY OF REE
of rare earth elements (REEs) in China are a world-class phenomenon. DEPOSITS IN CHINA
The combination of the world’s largest accumulation of REEs in the Rare earth deposits in China show
a wide spatial distribution and are
Bayan Obo deposit and the low cost of mining the extremely valuable heavy
associated with rocks of carbon-
REEs from residual deposits makes China almost a monopoly producer. atitic affi nity or with weathered
Research on a range of Chinese deposits shows that not only hypogene but granitic rocks (F IG. 1). Current
mining activities are focused on
also secondary processes create economic REE deposits. These deposits have
three main deposit types:
characteristic REE distribution patterns, which range from primary light REE
1 Proterozoic dolomitic marbles
enrichment in carbonatites from the Himalayan Mianning–Dechang orogenic affected by fluids of carbonatitic
belt and in metamorphosed carbonatite and polyphase mineralization at affi nity (Bayan Obo) in northern
China
Bayan Obo, through unusual flat REE patterns in carbonatites from the Qinling
2 Deeply weathered residual
orogenic belt, to strong secondary heavy REE enrichment in residual clays
deposits (ion-adsorption clays) in
from southern China. southern China
KEYWORDS : rare earth deposits, Bayan Obo, ion-adsorption clays, 3 Carbonatites in the Mianning–
carbonatites, China Dechang and Qinling orogenic
belts
INTRODUCTION The distribution of these deposits is controlled by the large-
Since the mid-1980s, China has been the dominant scale tectonic structure of southeastern Asia, as well as by
producer of rare earth elements (REEs). It currently the distribution of climatic zones in the case of the ion-
accounts for over 90% of the world’s output and hosts adsorption deposits. Bayan Obo is situated in the northern
approximately 50% of the known global reserves (Tse margin of the Proterozoic North China craton, close to a
2011). This dominance of the global market is related to zone marking the inferred site of Caledonian subduction
the discovery, in 1927, of the Bayan Obo deposit in Inner (Chao et al. 1997). The carbonatites of the Qinling orogenic
Mongolia. Other significant deposits occur associated with belt in central China are associated with Late Mesozoic rift
carbonatites in the Himalayan Mianning–Dechang belt basins, modified by Cenozoic thrusting. The ion-adsorp-
and the Qinling orogenic belt; still others are associated tion deposits are associated with weathered rocks (mainly
with lateritic ion-adsorption clay deposits in southern granites) in a range of geological settings across southern
China (TABLE 1). The lateritic deposits are important because China and other regions of Southeast Asia.
of their higher relative proportions of the heavy REEs
(HREEs), which are industrially and economically the most The REE contents of the Bayan Obo rocks and the majority
significant. Thirty years of weakly regulated REE mining of carbonatites are comparable to global averages for
in China have also left a legacy of environmentally carbonatites. However, the unusually sulfide-rich deposits
damaging accidents and contamination, which are at Huanglongpu and Huayangchuan in the Qinling belt
currently being addressed through significantly tightened (FIG. 1A– D) are significantly enriched in HREEs and Y rela-
environmental standards in mining and ore processing. In tive to typical carbonatites (FIG. 2A). The bulk composition
this paper, we review the main REE deposit types in China of the deeply weathered residual (lateritic) ores is essentially
(TABLE 1; FIG. 1) and document the geological reasons for that of their granitic protoliths, but the REE content of the
China’s impressive REE endowment. clays has been modified by the weathering process, leading
to relative enrichment in the HREEs and the development
of anomalously low Ce levels (FIG. 2B). Today, REEs are
being mined at Bayan Obo and a number of small- to
medium-sized lateritic deposits in southern China.
1 Department of Geology and Pedology
Mendel University in Brno, Zemedelska 3 Extraction of REEs as a by-product of Nb–Ta mining is
613 00 Brno, Czech Republic planned for the near future at the Miaoya deposit in the
E-mail: jindrak@email.cz Qinling belt. The deposits of the Mianning–Dechang REE
2 School of the Environment and Technology belt were mined in the past, and those deposits are currently
University of Brighton, Brighton, BN2 4GJ, UK of strategic significance.
E-mail: martin.smith@brighton.ac.uk
3 Laboratory of Orogenic Belts and Crustal Evolution
School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University
Beijing 100871, China
E-mail: xucheng1999@hotmail.com

E LEMENTS , V OL . 8, PP. 361–367 361 O C TOBER 2012

A B E F

C D G H

I J M N

K L O P

E LEMENTS 362 O C TOBER 2012

A B

Representative chondrite-normalized plots showing and Ho. (A) Bulk-rock composition of carbonatites and related ores.
FIGURE 2
the distribution of REEs in the deposits discussed in The grey field shows the global range for carbonatites, from
the text. Yttrium is plotted as a pseudo-lanthanide between Dy Woolley and Kempe (1989). (B) Bulk-rock and mineralogical
composition of ion-adsorption (lateritic) ores

BAYAN OBO – THE WORLD’S LARGEST later vug fi lls of calcite, fluorite, barite, and Nb–Ti and REE
REE DEPOSIT phases. The multistage evolution is also reflected in
microscale textures (FIGS. 1G, H AND 3). Geochemically, these
Geology rocks are comparable to carbonatites (FIG. 2A), and true
The Bayan Obo deposit (FIG. 1E , F ) contains world-class carbonatites do occur in the area (Tao et al. 1998) as dikes
reserves of Fe and REEs associated with a low-grade reserve crosscutting the Archaean Wu Tai gneiss to the north of
of Nb, which is extracted as a by-product (TABLE 1). This the ore bodies, as well as the Bayan Obo Group rocks.
deposit is largely responsible for China’s preeminence in
the global REE market. The deposit is hosted in dolomitic Origin of the Bayan Obo Ores
marble, which forms part of a sequence of Proterozoic The ores were unequivocally formed by hydrothermal
metasedimentary rocks (the Bayan Obo Group) dominated replacement, producing an alteration assemblage that is
by sandstones and slates. The deposit is composed of three both alkali- and F-rich (Chao et al. 1997; Smith and
main ore bodies, which are situated at the contact with Henderson 2000). Despite the apparent affi nity with
overlying slate in the core of a synform. Numerous smaller carbonatites, the origin of both the host dolomite and the
bodies and disseminated mineralization occur throughout ore bodies is controversial due to confl icting geochrono-
the marble unit. The REE resource is dominated by light logical and isotopic evidence (Wang et al. 1994). Thorium–
REEs (LREEs) (FIG. 2A), which are primarily hosted in bast- Pb isotope analyses of monazite gave ages dominantly in
näsite and monazite, with lesser amounts of Ca–REE and the range of 430–420 Ma, and initial Nd isotope ratios at
Ba–REE fluorocarbonates; Nb is hosted in disseminated this time indicate crustal sources for the REEs (FIG. 4).
rutile, columbite, aeschynite, and pyrochlore. However, other radiometric techniques yielded Proterozoic
formation ages, and Ar–Ar analyses of amphibole from the
The genesis of the deposit is complex, comprising at least
deposit and host rocks gave ages ranging from 1260 Ma to
eleven stages. These began with carbonate deposition and
343 Ma, with the youngest age of 225 ± 7 Ma coming from
proceeded through metamorphism and mineralization to
K–Ar dating of K-feldspar from pegmatite dykes cross-
the intrusion of Hercynian granitoids to the south of the
cutting biotite schists in the Bayan Obo Group sediments
ore bodies (Chao et al. 1997). The complex evolution of
(Chao et al. 1997). SHRIMP dating of single zircon crystals
the ores is clearly marked by metasomatic banding
from coarse-grained dolomitic marble in the main marble
enhanced by deformation, centimeter- to decimeter-scale
unit indicated Proterozoic ages (1370–1257 Ma) for igneous-
folding, boudinage and cross-cutting undeformed veins.
derived zircon cores and Caledonian ages (455 Ma) for
Massive pods of sodic pyroxene and amphibole also show
metamorphic or hydrothermal rims (Campbell et al. 2000).

bearing carbonatite; (K) photomicrograph of typical coarse-grained

< FIGURE 1 Simplified geological map of China showing the loca-
tions of key REE-producing areas, images of selected bastnäsite- and monazite-bearing carbonatite; (L) BSE image of
deposits, and photomicrographs and backscattered electron (BSE) large bastnäsite-(Ce) crystal associated with aegirine. (M–P)
images illustrating characteristic microtextures. (A–D) Huanglongpu: Residual REE-clays: (M) the most productive second unit of residual
(A) Huanglongpu Dashigou open pit; (B) representative specimen REE-clays; (N) detailed image of clay with a few relict quartz grains,
of carbonatite rich in sulfide–fluorocarbonate mineralization; from the second unit; (O) photomicrograph of clay minerals and
(C) photomicrograph of a typical Mo–REE mineral association; relict quartz bands with pyrochlore; (P) BSE image of clay minerals
(D) BSE image of molybdenite–HREE mineralization. (E–H) Bayan in bands, with relict quartz and apatite, and newly formed crandal-
Obo: (E) satellite image of the Bayan Obo open pits; (F) the newly lite-group phosphate minerals.
mined western orebody and associated waste piles; (G) banded Abbreviations: Aeg = aegirine; All = Allanite; Ap = apatite; Bst =
ore, highly deformed but economically the most important ore bastnäsite; Brt = barite; Cc = calcite; Dol = dolomite; Fl = fluorite;
type; (H) photomicrograph of banded ore under partially crossed Mgt = magnetite; Mo = molybdenite; Mnz = monazite; Pcl = pyro-
polarizers. (I–L) Maoniuping: (I) Maoniuping deposit and waste chlore; Qtz = quartz; Sm = smectite; Y–Mg = unidentified Y–Mg
pile; (J) representative specimen of fluorite-, quartz- and aegirine- silicate; Xnt = xenotime

E LEMENTS 363 O C TOBER 2012

 TABLE 1 GENERAL INFORMATION ON THE MOST IMPORTANT REE DEPOSITS IN CHINA
(listed from LREE enriched to HREE enriched)

DEPOSIT RESERVES GRADE

AGE (Ma) KEY REE MINERALS
AND LOCATION (× 10 6 tonnes) (wt%)

Bayan Obo Multistage origin, main stages:

REE 2O3 : 48 6 REE fluorocarbonates (bastnäsite,
(Inner Mongolia) 1370–1200, 430–420, 343–225
Nb2O5 : 2.2 0.13 parisite, etc.), monazite
(Wang et al. 1994; Chao et al. 1997)
Maoniuping
(Himalayan Mianning– 1.45 0.5–8.16 40–30 (Yuan et al. 1995) Bastnäsite, monazite
Dechang REE belt)
Daluxiang
(Himalayan Mianning– 0.76 5 15–10 (Yang et al. 1998) Bastnäsite
Dechang REE belt)
Miaoya
1.21 1.72 235 (Xu et al., unpublished data) Bastnäsite, synchysite, monazite
(Qinling orogenic belt)
Huanglongpu Bastnäsite, synchysite,
Unavailable ? 220 (Du et al. 2004)
(Qinling orogenic belt) monazite, xenotime
Huayangchuan Bastnäsite, synchysite,
Unavailable ? 181 (Yu 1992)
(Qinling orogenic belt) xenotime, allanite
Ion-adsorption clays Ambiguous 195–130 (granitic rock) Clay minerals, weathered primary
0.05–0.2
(southern China) (up to 10) 2–0 (weathered crust) minerals (e.g. xenotime)

The carbonatite dikes show a similar age spectrum (Ren et DEEPLY WEATHERED RESIDUAL DEPOSITS
al. 1994; Zhang et al. 1994; FIG. 4). The simplest model that
accounts for the isotopic data and textural characteristics Ion-Adsorption Clays:
of the ore is intrusion of carbonatites into metasedimentary The Key Role of Weathering
marbles during the Proterozoic, and subsequent develop- These deposits, also known as residual REE-clays or South
ment of REE mineralization with Nd isotope ratios China clays, have been mined since the early 1970s and
comparable to enriched mantle (FIG. 4). The deposit was represent the world’s most important source of HREEs. The
subsequently metamorphosed between 555 and 420 Ma, largest of these deposits are located in the southern Chinese
and again from 343 Ma to 225 Ma, resulting in the current provinces of Jiangxi, Hunan, Fujian, Guangdong and
nature of the ore and the resetting of the various isotope Guangxi (FIG. 1). The currently mined deposits have
systems, including Ar loss from amphiboles, micas and combined estimated resources of at least 1 million tonnes
feldspars. This model is still oversimplified because alkali- (1 Mt) and possibly more than 10 Mt (Chi and Tian 2008).
and F-rich fluids infi ltrated the ore bodies both before and The clays (FIG. 1M, N ) formed by lateritic weathering of
after deformation. Fluids post-dating the main deformation predominantly felsic rocks containing accessory REE
stage may have been derived from subduction-related minerals (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006). The weathering
granitoids or may indicate a further phase of alkaline process resulted in alteration of the primary REE hosts and
magmatism. It is this extended history of magmatism, the complete disintegration of most rock-forming minerals,
metamorphism, and fluid flow that has resulted in the with the exception of quartz and some stable accessory
accumulation of the enormous REE reserves of the Bayan minerals (FIG. 1O, P). Although similar climatic conditions
Obo area. are prevalent across Southeast Asia, residual REE-clays
developed only in morphologically predisposed areas,
where erosion is minimal. The protolith must also contain
a significant proportion of accessory REE minerals suscep-
tible to chemical weathering, such as REE fluorocarbonates
(bastnäsite, parisite and synchysite), phosphates (monazite,
apatite and, rarely, xenotime), oxides (pyrochlore,
aeschynite and other Nb–Ti phases), and members of the
epidote group (especially allanite). Many of these minerals
partially outlast the extreme weathering and are found as
discrete irregular and weathered grains or as bands associ-
ated with clay minerals and relict quartz (Chi and Tian
2008).
In addition to the formation of secondary REE phases (fluo-
rocarbonates or crandallite-type phosphates, depending
on the acidity and nature of the weathering environment),
significant amounts of the released REEs are adsorbed onto
clay mineral surfaces (FIG. 2B). The two most important
adsorption phenomena in clays are cation exchange on
the layer surfaces and chemisorption of anions at the layer
edges. The REEs adsorbed on clay minerals are fractionated
and enriched during adsorption–desorption processes.
Adsorption processes are key to the concentration of the
HREEs because cations with higher charge/size ratios are
FIGURE 3 Textural evidence for multiple stages of fluid flow,
mineralization and metamorphism abounds at Bayan
preferentially sorbed (Bau 1991). Exchangeable REE cations
Obo. In this BSE image, euhedral monazite (Mnz) is replaced by a
corona of symplectitic basnäsite (Bst) and apatite (Ap)
(Smith et al. 1999).

E LEMENTS 364 O C TOBER 2012

 A well-developed kaolinization of potassium feldspar. Other
rock-forming and accessory minerals do not show evidence
of intensive alteration and disintegration. The protoliths
preserved below the weathering profi le are almost invari-
ably Mesozoic granitoids (Kanazawa and Kamitani 2006;
Chi and Tian 2008).
Although lateritic clay deposits contain low REE grades
B (0.05–0.2 wt% REE 2O3) in comparison with other deposit
types, they represent an attractive exploration target due
to their large areal distribution, their low operating costs,
and the low U and Th contents in the ore (Kanazawa and
Kamitani 2006). Residual REE-clays probably constitute
more than 80% of the world’s economic HREE resources
(Chi and Tian 2008).

C
CARBONATITES IN OROGENIC BELTS
Mianning–Dechang REE Belt
The Himalayan Mianning–Dechang orogenic belt (Panxi
region) is located between the cities of Panzhihua and
Xichang, Sichuan Province, along the western margin of
the South China block. This area underwent a complex
tectonic evolution, beginning with Proterozoic lithospheric
accretion, followed by a Paleozoic–Mesozoic continental-
margin stage, and culminating in Cenozoic collisional
orogeny. Eight high-grade REE deposits of strategic signifi-
cance are found here in association with carbonatite–
syenite intrusions (Pu 2001); these intrusions were
emplaced into Proterozoic basement rocks and Paleozoic–
Mesozoic sedimentary sequences along a 270 km long belt.
The Maoniuping deposit is located in the northern Panxi
region and represents the largest REE deposit in the belt
and the second largest in China. A variety of igneous rocks
occur in the area, including the Yanshanian granite,
Mesozoic rhyolite, and Himalayan alkalic syenites and
carbonatites. Ore occurs as pegmatitic barite and calcite
veins and stockworks (FIG. 1I, L), which are hosted mostly
by the carbonatite–syenite intrusions. Associated metaso-
matic processes include the development of biotite,
aegirine-augite, arfvedsonite and albite in the wallrock,
FIGURE 4 Summary of the geochronology of the Bayan Obo followed by the deposition of calcite, barite, fluorite and
deposit, based on sources given in the text. (A) Age–
frequency plot for Bayan Obo ore bodies. (B) Age–frequency plot
bastnäsite. In addition, some proportion of REEs is adsorbed
for Bayan Obo carbonatite dykes. (C) Multistage evolution model on the surface of Fe–Mn oxide minerals in soils formed
for the Nd isotope composition of the Bayan Obo ores based on the during supergene alteration. The hypogene REE mineral
data of Wang et al. (1994) and Philpotts et al. (1991). The model assemblages consist mainly of bastnäsite (76–92%), associ-
ages are the hypothetical time elapsed since Sm and Nd separated ated with minor chevkinite, parisite, allanite, aeschynite,
from a defined reservoir – either the chondritic uniform reservoir
(CHUR) or depleted mantle. The red and blue curves show the monazite and cerianite. Potassium–Ar dating of biotite and
cumulative probability of the model ages for the number of anal- magnesio-arfvedsonite from barite veins gave an age range
yses, incorporating the 2σ error. The data are consistent with the of 32–40 Ma.
derivation of primary carbonatite magmas and REE mineralization
via Proterozoic melting of enriched mantle, and subsequent modifi - The Daluxiang deposit in the middle Panxi region is the
cation of the ore by metamorphism and repeated episodes of second largest in the belt. Here, REE orebodies intrude
magmatism and fluid flow.
syenites, which are extensively altered at the contact with
ore veins to mineral assemblages containing aegirine-
adsorbed on clay minerals can be desorbed by cation augite, fluorite, carbonates and bastnäsite. The major ore
exchange with ammonium salts [e.g. (NH4) 2SO4], and then types are Sr-rich barite, Ba-rich celestine and “thread”
the REEs are recovered with oxalic acid. veins. Potassium–Ar dating of biotite from celestine veins
gave ages ranging from 9.8 to 10.6 Ma, and Rb–Sr isochron
Nature of Ion-Adsorption Clays dating of biotite, calcite and REE ores from “thread” veins
The residual REE-clay profi les can be subdivided strati- gave an age of 15.3 Ma (Pu 2001).
graphically into four units on the basis of their mineral The REE deposits at Maoniuping and Daluxiang are geneti-
assemblage. The uppermost unit consists of soil and collu- cally linked to carbonatite–syenite magmatism and ore-
vium, whilst the second, the most important unit, is a forming fluids derived from enriched mantle sources (Xu
deeply weathered zone ~5–10 m in thickness (FIG. 1M). et al. 2003; Hou et al. 2009). These fluids were dominantly
Within this layer, REE ions are adsorbed onto the surfaces aqueous and evolved over a large range of temperatures
of kaolinite, halloysite, and smectites, and are enriched up and salinities. Fluid–melt inclusions with homogenization
to five times in comparison with the igneous protolith. temperatures of >600 °C were found in fluorite associated
The third unit, up to 30 m in thickness, consists of less- with the mineralization (Pu 2001). The trace element
weathered parental rock with a high proportion of kaolinite. analysis of calcite from the carbonatites suggests that these
The fourth unit is incipiently weathered protolith with rocks are cumulates (Xu et al. 2008). Because REE partition

E LEMENTS 365 O C TOBER 2012

coefficients between rock-forming carbonate minerals and evolution of eastern China exhibits a typical basin-and-
melts are low, crystallization and fractionation of calcite range geology, and included development of deep sedimen-
caused REE enrichment in the F- - and SO42- -bearing ore- tary basins and calc-alkaline plutonic and volcanic activity
forming melt and, subsequently, in later, high-temperature, associated with crustal thinning and high heat flow.
orthomagmatic fluids. The fluids interacted with the wall-
rocks to produce the REE fluorocarbonate–fluorite-rich Overall, China has undergone an extremely mobile tectonic
mineralization. history (Zhang et al. 1984), with the potential for multiple
stages of mantle metasomatism and enrichment. The
world’s largest REE deposit, at Bayan Obo, may be an
Qinling Orogenic Belt outcome of continuous reactivation of such mantle sources,
The Qinling orogenic belt is divided into the North Qinling with repeated reworking by metamorphism and fluid flow.
and South Qinling, which are separated by the Shangdan Other sites of alkaline magmatism with the potential for
suture. The northern border of the North Qinling is marked tectonic reworking may be highly prospective for super-
by the Machaoying fault zone, which is a normal fault asso- large REE deposits. The Qinling orogenic belt was incor-
ciated with a Cenozoic rift basin to the north. The southern porated into Rodinia during the Grenvillian orogeny,
border of the South Qinling, separating it from the South which was followed by rifting, then subduction in the
China block, is the Mianlue suture; details on the tectonic Paleozoic and early Mesozoic, reactivation in the Cretaceous
evolution of this area can be found in Ratschbacher et al. to Palaeogene, and fi nally extension in the Neogene
(2003). (Ratschbacher et al. 2003). Again, the extended geological
The Miaoya deposit is the third largest REE deposit in China history may be responsible for the geochemically unusual
(TABLE 1). It is located in the southwestern margin of the carbonatite magmatism and REE mineralization of the area.
Wudang Terrane at the southern margin of the Qinling Circum-Pacific subduction and basin-and-range tectonics
orogenic belt. Many smaller deposits (e.g. Shaxiongdong) in the Triassic to Cretaceous also resulted in crustal recy-
occur in an 80 km long REE belt within the Wudang Terrane. cling and the generation of REE-enriched post-orogenic
At Miaoya, carbonatites and associated syenites are emplaced granitoids in southeastern China. The location of these
into Mesoproterozoic low-grade metavolcanic rocks and granitoids in a (sub)tropical climate is responsible for the
Paleozoic carbonaceous shale. Carbonatites hosting primary extreme weathering that elevated the bulk REE content to
magmatic REE mineralization intrude the syenites as stocks economically extractable levels. The development of such
and dikes covering a total area of <10 km2 at the current deposits by in situ weathering means that their preserva-
erosion level. Ore bodies are composed predominantly (>80 tion potential in the rock record is limited – they only
vol%) of medium- to fi ne-grained calcite. Minor phases occur as economic deposits because of processes that will
include biotite, alkali feldspar, magnetite, ilmenite and ultimately result in their destruction. Any other such
rutile. The major REE hosts in the ore bodies are REE-rich deposits preserved in pre-Mesozoic systems will be excep-
fluorapatite (up to 9 wt% REE2O3), monazite, bastnäsite and tional, but the potential for new discoveries in Mesozoic
synchysite. As commonly observed in carbonatites, fluor- and Cenozoic orogenic belts that have been subjected to
apatite and monazite are early liquidus phases that precipi- (sub)tropical weathering conditions is high.
tated prior to calcite and fluorocarbonates, whereas bastnäsite
and synchysite crystallized later to form syntaxial inter- Environmental Impact of REE Mining
growths (Xu et al. 2010). Less common REE-bearing acces- In China, a number of environmental issues are associated
sory phases include allanite, perovskite, nioboaeschynite, with REE production as a result of both ore characteristics
fergusonite (dominated by Nd) and ferrocolumbite. and the refi nement process. Most REE deposits, with the
exception of the lateritic deposits, are associated with
The Huanglongpu Pb –Mo –REE deposit and the significant concentrations of radioactive elements (U and
Huayangchuan Pb–Th–REE deposit are situated in central Th), and processing typically involves the use of sulfuric
China in the northern margin of the Qinling belt. The and hydrofluoric acid. Separation of individual REEs
Huanglongpu deposit comprises four ore fields currently produces ammonium-rich waste water (separation of one
being mined (Yuantou, Dashigou, Shijiawan and Taoyuan). tonne of 92% REE concentrate requires 1–1.2 tonnes of
Here, molybdenite and associated rare-metal mineralization NH4HCO3). Processing acids have the potential to contami-
occur in dikes of calcite carbonatite enriched in sulfide, REE nate both surface water and groundwater, and have been
fluorocarbonate and REE phosphate minerals (Xu et al. 2007; responsible for soil contamination in southern China.
Kynicky et al. 2011; FIG. 1A– D). The most important REE Individual deposits have been associated with specific
hosts are fluorocarbonates, monazite and xenotime. Minor issues. The Bayan Obo mines (FIG. 5) are situated in semi-
and accessory phases include microcline, aegirine-augite, arid steppe; strong winds from the Gobi Desert cause dust
arfvedsonite, phlogopite, quartz, celestine, barite, magnetite, and sand storms, which pick up, and become contaminated
thorite, brannerite, liandratite, pyrochlore, yttrobetafite, with, material from the mines (detected as far away as
allanite-(Y) and other HREE-rich phases; the presence of Beijing). Lateritic deposits are typically less problematic, as
these minerals is reflected in high whole-rock HREE levels they have minimal drilling or milling requirements and the
(up to 2550 ppm), unusual for carbonatites.

DISCUSSION
Origins of China’s REE Endowment
China is the second-largest country in the world by land
area; its sheer size and geological diversity account in a
significant way for the REE resources available for extrac-
tion. Tectonic accretion of Precambrian cratons from the
Paleozoic to the Cenozoic resulted in at least six stages of
orogeny before cratonization. Cenozoic collision of the
Eurasian and Indian plates produced the deformation and
uplift of the Himalayas, strongly influencing the tectonics
FIGURE 5 The main ore body at Bayan Obo, mined from a large
of western China. In contrast, the Mesozoic–Tertiary open pit

E LEMENTS 366 O C TOBER 2012

mined material is free from radioactive elements. They are, China has recently reduced export quotas to combat envi-
however, mined by in situ acid leaching, which may result ronmental problems associated with REE mining and to cope
in groundwater pollution. Ponding and in situ leaching have with its own growing demand. World demand for rare earth
now been banned, and future operations may make use of elements has tripled in the past decade, and observers are
hydrological barriers to reduce the environmental impact. now predicting a 10–30 kt supply shortfall by 2015 (Hatch
2012 this issue). Although several countries without current
CONCLUSIONS domestic production of REEs are actively exploring for new
REE deposits, China, in both the present and the future, will
Many types of REE deposits occur in China, but only a few dominate the market. The fact that this country already
of these are of significant economic importance. On a global controls many REE exploration projects outside its borders
scale, many of these deposits are unusually large. China has will undoubtedly help it retain and further its dominant
essentially monopolized the production of both LREEs (Bayan position.
Obo) and HREEs (ion-adsorption clays). Global production
of REEs in the last decade (2001–2011) has increased from
approximately 90 to 130 kt, of which some 97% has been ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
produced by China. The Bayan Obo superlarge deposit We thank P. Tremblay, A. R. Chakhmouradian, M. Meyer, K.
currently accounts for some 90% of the REE production and Moore, F. Wall, G. Calas, P. Henderson and A. R. Woolley P.
clays for merely 6–7%; however, the former mainly produces Henderson and A. R. Woolley for all material, comments and
the economically less attractive LREEs, while ion-adsorption constructive suggestions that led to improvement of the
clays produce both HREEs and LREEs. The rapid development manuscript. This work was supported by the Chinese National
of the REE market has led China to be more careful with its Science Foundation (nos. 40973040, 41173033) and CEITEC
phenomenal REE resources, especially given that some CZ.1.05/1.1.00/02.0068.
10–15% of its reserves have already been mined. In addition,

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Inner Mongolia, China: A Cornerstone heat events of ore-forming Bayan Obo Comparison of the Daluxiang and
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Science Publishers, New York, 308 pp Fe-REE-Nb deposit, Inner Mongolia, element modeling of the magmatic
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Hatch GP (2012) Dynamics in the global phosphates and fluorocarbonates. Sichuan Province. Open fi le of China
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90: 177-188

E LEMENTS 367 O C TOBER 2012

 Rare Earth Mining and
Exploration in North America
The Mountain Pass
deposit, California

Anthony N. Mariano1 and Anthony Mariano Jr.2

1811-5209/12/0008-0369$2.50 DOI: 10.2113/gselements.8.5.369

T
he occurrences of rare earth elements (REEs) in North America are ECONOMIC
abundant and diverse in mineralogy and geology. The Mountain Pass CONSIDERATIONS
carbonatite in California historically has been a major world source for OF REE MINERALOGY
Mineralogical, geochemical, and
the light REEs. Monazite sands have also been mined on a moderate level in
petrological characterizations are
the southeastern United States. Fluids released from the mining of uraninite a vital requirement in mineral
at Elliot Lake, Ontario, were intermittently a source for yttrium. Peralkaline exploration and are particularly
important in working with REE
igneous rocks in several areas of North America are currently under explora-
occurrences. However, the ability
tion for the entire REE spectrum, with emphasis on the heavy REEs. Although to put these data into the context
many REE occurrences contain a substantial tonnage of REEs, amenability to of economic evaluation requires a
long and sustained understanding
mineral processing and extraction of the REEs must be definitively established
and exposure to what constitutes
in each case. a viable mineral deposit for the
KEYWORDS : rare earth elements, deposits, economics, exploration, carbonatite, commodity in question. A keen
peralkaline igneous rocks understanding of the mineralogy
and its relationship to the geologic
environment is essential to the
INTRODUCTION exploration and beneficiation process. The mineralogy of
Interest in rare earth element (REE) exploration in North a deposit predicates the ease with which the REEs can be
America has surged in recent years, and a wide variety of processed in order to compete in the world market. This is
deposits with diverse geological settings and mineralogy best illustrated by the ion-adsorbed REE-clays in South
are currently being investigated. The continent’s only hard China, which control the world market for HREEs but have
rock past producer, Mountain Pass in California, is average total REE (ΣREE) grades running <0.1 wt% (Kynicky
proceeding rapidly towards resumption of production. et al. 2012 this issue).
Concentrations of REEs with real or potential economic
significance are found in a variety of geologic environ- ƒ Bastnäsite (REECO3F) occurs in both established and
ments, as independent REE minerals and substituent in potential economic quantities in carbonatites, where its
other mineral hosts (TABLE 1, FIG. 1). This article emphasizes composition is strongly dominated by the LREEs. Currently
the economic aspects of REE deposits and their exploita- and recently mined sources where bastnäsite is the main
tion. Many REE occurrences that are currently being REE ore mineral include Bayan Obo, Maoniuping, and a
explored have been considered to be attractive targets by few other carbonatite-related deposits in China, and the
companies and investors based on grade and tonnage. Mountain Pass mine in California. Mountain Pass was for
However, although tonnage is always of paramount impor- many years the world’s main REE provider, and it is sched-
tance, the grade of REEs that can be economically recovered uled to resume operations in the near future.
is less easily evaluated because the economics are totally Compositionally bastnäsite contains ~75 wt% rare earth
dependent on the nature of the mineralogy. oxides (REOs) and in the above-mentioned confi rmed ore
bodies, concentrates have been prepared, after physical
The choices made in defi ning light and heavy REEs (LREEs
processing, varying in grade from 45 wt% to approaching
and HREEs) are somewhat arbitrary (Chakhmouradian and
65 wt% REO. In some noncarbonatite environments,
Wall 2012 this issue). In economic studies, the defi nition
including peralkaline granites and syenites, Y- and HREE-
may be motivated by promotional interests because of the
rich bastnäsite is known to occur associated with other
current demand for the HREEs. The 14 lanthanides (La
largely HREE-dominant minerals, but bastnäsite-(Y) has
through Lu) can simply be divided into two groups, with
thus far not been confi rmed to occur in potential ore
La through Gd classified as LREEs and Tb through Lu as
quantities.
HREEs. This distinction is supported by the structural
difference in the two sets, where the orthophosphates ƒ Monazite (REEPO4) is a common accessory mineral in
LaPO 4 through GdPO 4 assume a monoclinic structure, granites and some metamorphic rocks. Monazite concen-
while TbPO4 through LuPO4 have the tetragonal zircon trations occur in beach sands and river placers in many
structure (Ni et al. 1995). parts of the world and are often processed as by-products
of ilmenite, zircon, and cassiterite mining. These monazites
are generally relatively high in Th, a substituent in the
1 48 Page Brook Road, Carlisle, MA 01741, USA monazite structure; its ThO2 content ranges from ~1 wt%
E-mail: reomariano@aol.com to as high as 27 wt%. Primary monazite may occur in
2 1134 North Road, Carlisle, MA 01741, USA substantial quantities in carbonatites (e.g. Kangankunde,
E-mail: marianomineralex@aol.com Malawi; Wicheeda Lake, British Columbia, Canada). This

E LEMENTS , V OL . 8, PP. 369–376 369 O C TOBER 2012

 solve the problems related to the
economic chemical processing of
eudialyte. In North America, eudia-
lyte mineralization with significant
tonnage and REE content occurs at
Kipawa (Québec), Pajarito (New
Mexico), and, to a lesser extent, Red
Wine (Labrador).
Allanite [(REE,Ca,Y)2(Al,Fe2+,Fe3+)3
(SiO4)3 (OH)] is a member of the
epidote group. The structure of alla-
nite can incorporate either LREEs or
HREEs, but in virtually all cases
where allanite occurs in near-
economic grade, it is LREE-dominant
(Mariano 1989). Occurrences in
which allanite preferentially incor-
porates LREEs in environments
where other cocrystallized REE
minerals show HREE enrichment
include the Nipissis granite-gneiss at
Kwyjibo River (Québec), Thor Lake
(Northwest Territories), Mineville
(New York), and a granitic pegmatite
near Timmins (Ontario). The
element distribution has significant
economic implications for allanite as
FIGURE 1 North American REE occurrences. See Table 1 for the a REE source. The REO content of
characteristics of the numbered deposits on this map. allanite rarely exceeds 15 wt%, and it is a refractory mineral
relatively resistant to chemical breakdown. Consequently,
monazite is relatively low in Th content, usually <1 wt%, allanite cannot compete with bastnäsite or monazite,
and in the aforementioned occurrences, it can be easily which have much higher REO contents and are readily
concentrated by physical means. Supergene monazite can susceptible to chemical cracking. As such, allanite is not
be found in large tonnages and with high grades in laterites competitive as an economic source for the LREEs, unless
derived from the chemical weathering of carbonatites. it contains exceptionally high values of Nd or if it occurs
Examples include Mt. Weld (Australia), Araxá and Catalão as allanite-(Y) in economic quantities.
I (Brazil), Mrima Hill (Kenya), Mabouni (Gabon), and
ƒ Zircon (ZrSiO4) is commonly the major heavy mineral
several other carbonatite laterites in the Amazon region of
in beach sands and river placers and is also a by-product
Brazil. There are no known laterite-derived REE occur-
of Sn, Ti, and Au mining. It is an important accessory
rences in carbonatites in North America. Monazite-(Nd)
mineral in carbonatites, granites, syenites, nepheline
from Lemhi Pass (Idaho–Montana) occurs in quartz–
syenites, and metamorphic rocks, and is locally enriched
biotite–hematite–thorite-bearing veins within metamor-
in some hydrothermal occurrences. The crystal chemistry
phic rock units.
of zircon strongly favors the substitution of the HREEs.
ƒ Xenotime (YPO4) is most often encountered as a trace The ∑REE content of zircon rarely exceeds 1 wt%, but in
accessory in granites and metamorphic rocks, and in such some North American occurrences, including Pajarito,
settings, it is usually inferior in quantity to monazite. Kipawa, Thor Lake, Strange Lake (Quebec–Labrador), and
Beach sands and placer deposits have been inconsistent Bokan Mountain (Alaska), secondary zircon occurring
sources of by-product xenotime, especially from ilmenite mostly as pseudomorphic replacements of earlier alkali
and cassiterite mining. The stoichiometric value of Y in zirconosilicates may contain in excess of 6 wt% HREEs.
the formula YPO4 is equivalent to 61.4 wt% Y2O3. However, This type of zircon is very fi ne grained and inextricably
in nature, the average Y2O3 content of xenotime is approxi- associated with other high-field-strength-element-bearing
mately 30 wt%, and the remainder of the Y site is occupied minerals and quartz. A recent publication on this type of
mostly by the HREEs Dy, Er, Yb, and Lu. As such, xenotime zircon from Thor Lake (Sheard et al. 2012) reported a
is one of the most ideal sources for these elements. ∑ REE 2O3 + Y2O3 value of 6.42 wt%. The strong refractory
nature of zircon and its resistance to chemical dissolution
ƒ Eud ia ly te [ Na 15 Ca 6 (Fe,Mn) 3 Z r 3 ( Si,N b)( Si 2 5 O 73 ) present a problem in chemical processing.
(O,OH,H2O) 3 (Cl,OH) 2 ] is a rock-forming mineral in several
localities worldwide, where its grade and tonnage can ƒ Apatite [Ca5 (PO4) 3 (F,Cl,OH)] can contain substantial
constitute a sustained mining source. Eudialyte can be a quantities of REEs substituting for Ca. The best economic
major source of ZrO2 and in addition, although not always grades of apatite, with as much as 6 wt% REE, are rare.
shown in the chemical formula, it almost invariably Examples are Mineville (USA), Nolan’s Bore (Australia),
contains a substantial amount of REEs. In some occur- and Mushgai Khudag (Mongolia). The Hoidas Lake
rences, the ∑REE content in eudialyte concentrates ranges (Saskatchewan) apatite contains as much as 5 wt% REE. In
between 4 and 7 wt%. The lanthanide distribution in all cases, with the exception of Mineville (see below), the
eudialyte from various world localities almost invariably apatite is LREE-dominant. The extraction of REEs from
shows enrichment in HREEs (Fryer and Edgar 1977). apatite as a by-product of marine- and igneous-phosphate
Despite the high solubility of eudialyte in weak acids, the mining has also been considered in Florida, Russia, South
isolation of ZrO2, Y2O3, and REE 2O3 is problematic owing Africa, Brazil, and Canada.
to the formation of an intimately associated SiO2 gel. Some
progress is being made with innovative experiments to

E LEMENTS 370 O C TOBER 2012

TABLE 1 NORTH AMERICAN REE OCCURRENCES. See Figure 1 for locations of map references.

Geologic Environment Map

Occurrence Mineralogy
and Mode of Occurrence Reference
Carbonatites
As independent minerals, including carbonates, •1 Mountain Pass, CA Bastnäsite, etc.
phosphates,and silicates, or as substitutional
•2 Bear Lodge, WY Ancylite, monazite, bastnäsite, etc.
elements in other mineral hosts
•3 Hoidas Lake, SK Allanite and substitutional REE in apatite
•4 Springer Lavergne, ON Synchysite
•5 Wicheeda Lake, BC Bastnäsite, monazite
•6 Eldor, QC Bastnäsite, monazite
•7 Cargill, ON Substitutional REE in eluvial apatite
Peralkaline Granites, Syenites, Nepheline Syenites
Diverse mineralogy •8 Kipawa, QC Eudialyte, mosandrite, britholite, etc.
•9 Pajarito, NM Eudialyte, kainosite, etc.
• 10 Red Wine, NL Eudialyte, cerite, bastnäsite, monazite
• 11 Thor Lake, NT Allanite, zircon, monazite, bastnäsite, etc.
• 12 Dora Bay, AK Eudialyte
• 13 Bokan Mountain, AK Kainosite and diverse mineralogy
• 14 Strange Lake, QC-NL Kainosite and diverse mineralogy
Metamorphic Rocks – Gneisses, Schists, Quartzites
Independent minerals, including monazite and • 15 Highland Falls, NY Xenotime, monazite
xenotime, in localized high-grade accumulations
• 16 Music Valley, CA Xenotime, monazite
• 17 Archie Lake, SK Monazite
• 18 Surprise Area, Kipawa, QC Xenotime, fergusonite, euxenite
• 19 Kwyjibo River, QC Apatite, allanite, kainosite
Magnetite Ore Deposits
REE and Y as substitutional impurities and • 20 Mineville, NY HREEs substituting in apatite
mineral inclusions in apatite, and as independent
• 21 Pea Ridge, MO REEs in apatite, xenotime, etc.
REE minerals
Uraninite Deposits
Predominantly as REEs and Y substituting • 22 Blind River/Elliot Lake, ON Uraninite, unrecovered brannerite
in uraninite
• 23 Athabaska, SK Uraninite
Pegmatites
Diverse mineralogy • 24 Llano, Baringer Hill, TX Xenotime, etc.
• 25 Harding Mine, NM Xenotime, etc.
Hydrothermal
Mineralization in quartzites and sandstones • 26 Maw Zone/Athabaska, SK Xenotime
• 27 Beatty River, SK Xenotime
Fluorite and REE mineralization • 28 Snowbird Mine, MT Parisite
Hydrothermal mineralization in syenite • 29 Mt. Prindle, AK Britholite, parisite, synchysite
Hydrothermal veins in gabbro • 30 Benjamin River, NB REE substituting in apatite
Fluorite and REE mineralization in carbonatite • 31 Hicks Dome, IL Cheralite, brockite, fl orencite, xenotime
environments
• 32 Gallinas Mountains, NM Bastnäsite
• 33 Rock Canyon Creek, BC Monazite, synchysite, bastnäsite, gorceixite
REE mineralization of carbonatite origin in gneisses • 34 Lemhi Pass area, ID/MT Monazite-(Nd)
Phosphorite
Low-grade REE in apatite • 35 North Carolina Apatite
• 36 Florida Apatite
• 37 Enoch Valley Mine, ID Apatite
Bauxite Laterites • 38 Jamaica
Beach Sands, River Placers, and Paleoplacers
Monazite and xenotime detrital accumulations S 39 Bear Valley, ID Euxenite
derived from weathering of granites and
S 40 Piedmont Placer area, VA, NC, SC, GA Monazite
metamorphic rocks
S 41 Florida/Atlantic coast beaches Monazite

ƒ The HREE-bearing oxide minerals fergusonite associated with uranium deposits, and colluvial accumula-
(YNbO 4 ), euxenite [(Y,Ca,Ce,U,Th)(Nb,Ta,Ti) 2 O6 ], and tions derived from weathered granites. However, these
brannerite [(U,Ca,Y,Ce)(Ti,Fe) 2O6 ] have attractive HREE minerals have never been found to occur in quantities that
contents and are frequently encountered in peralkaline could constitute a sustained source either as the primary
granites, pegmatites, metamorphic rocks, unconformities ore mineral or as a by-product.

E LEMENTS 371 O C TOBER 2012

PAST REE MINING AND CURRENT late-crystallizing phases. Bastnäsite at Mountain Pass is an
EXPLORATION IN NORTH AMERICA example of primary REE mineralization in a North
American carbonatite (FIGS. 2 AND 3).
Potential REE resources in North America have been
defi ned by broad-brush resource evaluation conducted by A good example of hydrothermal mineralization in carbon-
the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the atites is found in the Bear Lodge Complex of Wyoming,
Geological Survey of Canada and by private exploration which contains abundant (OH)-bearing REE minerals that
companies. In the regional evaluation programs, rocks and occur as transgressive veins in sövite (coarse-grained calcite
soils are typically chemically assayed, and these data are carbonatite) and as pseudomorphic replacements of earlier
then applied to tonnage calculations and less frequently phases (FIG. 4). A more comprehensive treatment of the
to the establishment of grade. The current market value sequence of REE mineralization in carbonatites can be
for the individual REEs is factored to the grade and tonnage found in Wall and Mariano (1996).
values for assessing the merit of the areas being investi-
gated. In most cases, a mineralogical assessment of the Mountain Pass, California
feasibility of physical and/or chemical processing has not The Mountain Pass carbonatite is the largest-known LREE
been carried out. As a result, many areas that are treated deposit of economic significance in North America. The
in government bulletins and company reports as potential ore body consists of a carbonatite sill with an average thick-
sources for REEs have not been evaluated in comparison ness of 75 m and dipping at an angle of 45° to the south-
with deposits that historically and currently provide these west. An early description of the outcropping carbonatite
elements to the market place on a sound economic basis. (Olson et al. 1954) documented an irregular, north-striking
The major historic sources of REEs in North America were mass about 700 m long and with an average thickness of
the Mountain Pass carbonatite and monazite sands in about 120 m. Detailed mapping of the carbonatite sill iden-
various states in the southeastern USA. Although predomi- tified 14 separate rock units consisting of calcite and dolo-
nantly a LREE deposit, Mountain Pass also served as the mite carbonatites with substantial quantities of LREE
major source of Eu and contributed much of the required mineralization occurring predominantly as bastnäsite
Sm and Gd. Monazite beach sands, when exploited, are (FIGS. 2, 3). Other LREE accessory minerals include parisite,
also able to provide mid–atomic number lanthanides synchysite, monazite, and, less often, allanite. Sahamalite
(MREEs) and low quantities of HREEs. For a limited time, and cerite also appear in trace quantities as small, localized
HREEs were also extracted from raffi nate fluids derived concentrations. The carbonatite units contain varying
from uraninite mining at Elliot Lake, Ontario. amounts of barite, celestine, strontianite, cerussite, phlogo-
pite, and fluorite. Asbestiform magnesioriebeckite and
Carbonatite-Related Occurrences quartz occur in varying amounts as late phases. The proven
and probable reserves, announced by Molycorp in April
Carbonatite occurrences are abundant in North America
2012, are 16.7 million tonnes at an ore grade of 7.98 wt%
(Woolley and Kjarsgaard 2008). All are anomalous in REEs,
REO, with a cutoff grade of 5% (9 April 2012 press release,
with the LREEs dominating. The LREEs and trace quantities
www.molycorp.com).
of the HREEs and Y occur as early crystallized, independent
REE minerals; as minerals originating from hydrothermal The Mountain Pass sill and subordinate carbonatite bodies
events; and, less frequently, as supergene products of occur as isolated units that are always spatially associated
weathering. The distinction between what constitutes with shonkinite, syenite, and granite, all of which show
primary and hydrothermal REE mineralization in mineralogy and ages that support a possible cogenetic
carbonatites is debatable. With the exception of extrusive origin from an alkaline magma source. The age of the
carbonatite lavas, virtually all carbonatites undergo recrys- carbonatite obtained by U–Th–Pb and 40Ar/39Ar dating is
tallization. In this context, we define primary REE minerals 1375 ± 5 Ma (DeWitt et al. 1986). Shonkinite and syenite
as those that have cocrystallized texturally with the are older than the carbonatite (1410 ± 5 Ma and 1403 ± 5
carbonates, exclusive of quartz, fluorite, and other obvious Ma, respectively). In the field, xenoliths of shonkinite can
be seen within the syenite body (FIG. 2 A). None of the
primary minerals in the shonkinite are peralkaline. Late

A B FIGURE 2 Mountain Pass rocks.

(A) Xenolith of shonkinite
in amphibole syenite, providing a
sequence of emplacement. (B) Asbestiform
magnesio-riebeckite in amphibole syenite.
(C) “Birthday Claim” tabular bastnäsite
in a ferruginous dolomite matrix (field of
view = 8 cm). (D) Bastnäsite-rich barite
sövite in plain light (field of view = 3.6 cm)

C D

E LEMENTS 372 O C TOBER 2012

 FIGURE 3 Mountain Pass minerals in thin A B
section. (A, B) “Black ore”
bastnäsite in ferruginous calcite carbon-
atite; X-ray element map and photomicro-
graph (plane-polarized light), respectively.
In the element map, pink is bastnäsite,
green is barite, blue is strontianite, red is
dispersed Fe oxide in calcite, and mustard
brown is calcite. (C) Cathodoluminescence
micrograph of Sm3+ -activated apatite (light
pink) in a dolomite carbonatite matrix (field
of view = 2.5 mm). (D) Photomicrograph
(plane-polarized light) of monazite (Mnz)
and pyrochlore (Pch) in parisite-rich calcite
carbonatite (field of view = 1.8 mm)
C D

metasomatic fluids introduced alkalis to the shonkinite. in the north. Tertiary, alkaline igneous rocks that have
In contrast, the syenite contains peralkaline magnesio- intruded and domed the surrounding Paleozoic and
riebeckite and other indications of strong alkali buildup. Mesozoic sedimentary rocks include carbonatite dikes,
stockworks, and oxidized equivalents, all of which are
There are numerous references in the literature to the
located in the north-central core of the Bear Lodge dome,
geology, mineralogy, and origin of the Mountain Pass
plus multiple intrusions of phonolite, trachyte, other alka-
carbonatite (summarized in Castor 2008). Carbonatite and
line igneous rocks, and a variety of associated breccias and
REE occurrences from other world localities are often
diatremes (Clark and Mariano 2011). These intrusions
compared with Mountain Pass, with emphasis on the simi-
range in age from 35 to 50 Ma.
larities; however, it should be stressed that no other carbon-
atite occurrence in the world closely resembles Dominant ancylite-(Ce) plus lesser carbocernaite occur
Mountain Pass. in unoxidized carbonatite (FIG. 4). Other REE minerals
occurring in both the oxidized and unoxidized carbon-
Bear Lodge Carbonatite, Wyoming atites include calcioancylite, bastnäsite, parisite, synch-
Second to Mountain Pass with respect to grade, tonnage, ysite, monazite, cheralite, burbankite, and cerianite. The
and amenability to processing, the Bear Lodge carbonatite lanthanide mineralization at Bear Lodge is predomi-
may be one of the best LREE-mineralized occurrences in nantly of hydrothermal origin. It can be divided into
North America. The Bear Lodge Mountains form a dome at least two types: a hydrothermal type that formed at
in the Black Hills area, Wyoming. The dome contains an moderate depth under relatively reducing conditions and
8.4 × 3.4 km core of Tertiary igneous rocks, together with a low-temperature supergene type that formed under more
more than 30 separate igneous bodies that are concentrated oxidizing conditions.

Bear Lodge minerals. A B

FIGURE 4
(A) Ancylite–parisite–
fluorite vein transecting sövite (field
of view = 40 mm). (B) Burbankite
prisms in sövite (field of view = 4.4
mm). (C) Hexagonal pseudomorph
with contained ancylite, carbocer-
naite, and strontianite in sövite (field
of view = 1.8 mm). (D) Secondary
electron image of carbocernaite (C),
strontianite (S), and ancylite (A).

C D

E LEMENTS 373 O C TOBER 2012

The ancylite and carbocernaite occur as microscopic stubby 1984); Red Wine, Labrador: agpaitic alkaline rocks and
crystals of orthorhombic habit that are best observed in peralkaline quartzofeldspathic gneisses (Curtis and Currie
thin section or with a scanning electron microscope. The 1981); and Bokan Mountain, Alaska: peralkaline granite
origin of the minerals is complex. They are most often (Keyser 2010). Geophysically, the peralkaline rock units
found as intergrown aggregates together with strontianite. produce positive radiometric and negative magnetic
The mineral grains within these aggregates show some anomalies.
degree of crystallographic continuity and are surrounded
by clearly defi ned hexagonal outlines. Some have residual In these occurrences, REE mineralization is complex and
cores of burbankite. This type of mineralization has been consists of many discrete REE-bearing minerals and rock-
interpreted as pseudomorphic replacement, with preserved forming minerals containing substitutional REEs. The
hexagonal prism outlines, of burbankite precursors in complexity of the mineralogy is manifest in the diversity
Khibina, Kola Peninsula, and other Russian occurrences of the mineral species, which occur as fi ne-grained, low-
(Vlasov 1966, p. 281). This mode of origin was also grade mineralization dispersed in a felsic matrix. Some of
suggested for Bear Lodge (Wall et al. 1997). Invariably, these occurrences have been explored for more than 25
sulfides, including abundant pyrite and pyrrhotite with years and are currently being subjected to physical and
minor bornite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, and molyb- chemical processing tests to determine the potential for
denite and rare covellite and arsenopyrite, are found economic beneficiation. These deposits tend to contain a
together with the ancylite and carbocernaite. higher proportion of the more valuable HREEs than
carbonatites. One example is the Kipawa metamorphosed
A second generation of lanthanide mineralization is often syenite, which is one of the most extraordinary
found accompanying these minerals. These younger REE-mineralized occurrences in North America. The
minerals partially or completely replace the earlier ones. coarse-grained phases are readily amenable to physical
They are considerably smaller in grain size and formed processing (FIG. 5). The most abundant independent REE
under oxidizing conditions, as indicated by the association minerals are mosandrite and britholite. Other minerals
of cerianite and the negative Ce anomalies in the parisite that contain REEs as substitutional impurities include
and bastnäsite. eudialyte, titanite, apatite, and hiortdahlite. Of these
minerals, eudialyte occurs in potentially economic
Grade and tonnage estimations for REE mineralization are quantities.
currently underway at Bear Lodge. Rare Element Resources
Ltd. reported a measured and indicated resource of 6.8 Heavy REEs in Apatite
million tonnes at 3.75 wt% REO, with a 1.5 wt% cutoff
If there is an urgent need for HREEs in North America, the
grade, and an additional inferred mineral resource of 24.2
apatite tailings at Mineville, NY, may be the best source.
million tonnes at 2.74 wt% REO with a 1.5 wt% cutoff
The tailings encompass a volume of 5 million cubic meters
(www.rareelemetresources.com).
and appear as small mountains on topographic maps.
Mineville is situated on the eastern edge of the Adirondack
Peralkaline Igneous Occurrences
Mountains, just 6 km west of Lake Champlain. It has
A number of igneous occurrences in North America contain become almost a ghost town since Republic Steel
substantial quantities of REEs, and are currently the focus Corporation suspended magnetite-mining activities in
of exploration programs. They include: Nechalacho or Thor the 1970s.
Lake, Northwest Territories: syenites and granitic phases
of the Blachford Lake complex (Trueman et al. 1988); In 1980, Molycorp examined the apatite-bearing tailings
Pajarito Mountain, New Mexico: peralkaline granites and piles, bulldozed a road through one pile and sampled the
quartz syenites (Moore et al. 1988); Kipawa, Québec: tailings extensively by drilling, establishing the presence
syenite gneiss (van Breeman and Currie 2004); Strange of 8–9 million kilograms of contained Y2O3 with an average
Lake, Québec–Labrador: peralkaline granite (Zajac et al. grade of 0.12 wt% Y2O3 and 0.6 wt% REO, mainly in the

A B FIGURE 5 (A) Eudialyte

with mosandrite
from Kipawa, Québec (inch
scale). (B) Mosandrite
concentrate from Kipawa
(mm scale). (C) Eudialyte
concentrate from Kipawa
(mm scale). (D) Chondrite-
normalized REE plots of Red
Wine eudialyte and Kipawa
eudialyte, mosandrite, and
britholite

C D

E LEMENTS 374 O C TOBER 2012

apatite. Apatite concentrates run in excess of 6 wt% ∑REE is 0.23–0.38 wt% and thus exceeds that of South China
with a HREE-dominant distribution (McKeown and Klemic clays. Their REE distribution shows a higher HREE content
1956). Both Molycorp and Rhône Poulenc eventually aban- than representative Chinese clay samples (FIG. 6). However,
doned the Mineville project because the results at that time mineralogical SEM analysis performed on the Jamaican
suggested that they could not compete with the Chinese samples suggests that the REEs are dispersed throughout
producers in terms of costs. the red mud, either as ion-adsorbed elements in the clays or
as an unknown phase intimately associated with Fe oxides.
Quartz-Pebble Conglomerates
Heavy REEs were extracted from raffinates produced during
the chemical processing of uraninite from the Precambrian
quartz-pebble conglomerates of the Elliot Lake area of
Ontario. A recent report by Cox et al. (2012) covers the
geology and economic assessment of the Eco Ridge project,
which is currently being investigated.
Predominantly Y was recovered from raffi nates at the
Denison plant during the periods 1963–1973 and 1985–
1990. Creation of residual ion-exchange solutions resulting
from the leaching of uraninite with sulfuric acid was
followed by solvent extraction to produce an upgraded Y
product. At that time, Y compounds were used as the host
for REE phosphors in color televisions, but there was little
demand for the HREEs. The REE concentrates shipped to
the Louviers Molycorp plant, Colorado, contained ~50%
Y. Details of the processing of the REEs in the Elliot Lake
ore are well documented by Goode (2012). Mining of the
REEs was terminated because of the reduced price of Y
resulting from the development of the South China
REE-clays. FIGURE 6 Chondrite-normalized REE plots of four Jamaican red
mud samples (J set) and seven South China clay
It should be emphasized that the major mineral sources of samples (T-712 set). The Jamaican samples all show a higher ∑REE +
Y content and a higher proportion of MREEs and HREEs relative to
Y and HREEs in the quartz-pebble conglomerates are almost
the clays.
exclusively uraninite and coffi nite (Fryer and Taylor 1987).
Other REE-bearing minerals occurring in near trace
amounts include monazite, brannerite, bastnäsite, and
unidentified species.
CONCLUDING COMMENTS
Mountain Pass clearly ranks as the premier LREE deposit
Sandstones and Quartzites in North America and is the only deposit to have a record
Remobilized yttrium occurs in sandstones and quartzites of sustained production and successful processing. To
in Saskatchewan as xenotime mineralization. At Beatty compete, other occurrences need favorable permitting and
River, the interstitial spaces in quartz sandstone are environmental considerations, sufficient grade and
completely fi lled in with bands of fi ne-grained xenotime. tonnage, better REE distribution (i.e. more Nd and HREEs),
Some of the outcropping rocks are composed of more than and, most importantly, proven amenability to competitive
30 vol% xenotime. This area is currently being explored economic processing. Mountain Pass is the only REE
by Great Western Minerals Group Ltd. resource in North America that has processing facilities
and proven technology for the mining and separation
In the McArthur River–Wheeler River area in the southern of REEs.
Athabasca Basin, xenotime occurs in quartzites. The Maw
Zone is related to unconformity-type uranium mineraliza- At this time, many carbonatite complexes in North America
tion (Quirt et al. 1991). The presence of xenotime is consid- are being explored for REEs, and in most cases the total
ered to be a result of the remobilization of Y and HREEs REE grades are ~2 wt% or less. It should be emphasized
from uraninite and reactions with mobile phosphates. that when the Mountain Pass carbonatite mine was oper-
ated by Molycorp, the mine tailings were running ~2 wt%
∑ REE! The economics are different if HREEs are involved,
Xenotime and Monazite in Metamorphic Rocks
and much lower grades are potentially viable. However,
Spectacular occurrences of xenotime and monazite are
again, an understanding of the mineralogy is key to
often observed in metamorphic rocks; they are locally of
successful exploitation of any deposit.
high grade and relatively coarse grained. Examples include
the Pinto Gneiss of Music Valley in California (Evans 1964)
and paragneiss and migmatites in the Crystal Lake pluton ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
of southern New York (Aleinikoff and Grauch 1990). The The authors wish to acknowledge the contributions made
Archie Lake property in northern Saskatchewan is another by the following colleagues: James G. Clark, James B.
example, where xenoblastic monazite grains occur in local- Hedrick, Edward B. McNew, Donald E . Ranta,
ized major quantities in a metamorphosed arkosic arenite John O. Landreth, William H. Bird, Tyson C. Birkett,
unit. These occurrences may have originated as detrital Constantine E. Karayannopoulos, John Gittins, Theodore
accumulations in paleoplacers that were subsequently P. Paster, John T. Ray, Carter H. Trimble, and especially the
recrystallized during a metamorphic event. None has yet late Les Heymann, James A. Keim, Trevor C. James, William
proved large enough to make an economic deposit. B. Cook, John Arthur Gower, and Donald G. Bryant, plus
Meghan A. Moore for information on Bear Lodge. Reviews
REE, Y, and Sc in Jamaican Red Mud Tailings by Scott Swinden, Pete Siegfried, and Peter Scott helped to
Red mud tailings from bauxite mining may contain improve the manuscript. We are also in appreciation
substantial amounts of REEs, Y, and Sc (Wagh and Pinnock beyond words to Claire Mariano, for all the support she
1987). In Jamaica, the ∑REE + Y content of the red mud has always given us.

E LEMENTS 375 O C TOBER 2012

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Canada. Report NI 43-101 for Pele Geologic and aeromagnetic map of a part Jamaican bauxite waste. Economic
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D2 PHASER
XRD wherever you need it
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E LEMENTS 376 O C TOBER 2012

 Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences
http://jams.la.coocan.jp

2012 AWARDEES presented a table of values of the atomic scattering factor for O2-. In
1967, he moved to the Institute of Scientific and Industrial Research,
The Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences (JAMS) is proud to
Osaka University. Along with Prof. N. Morimoto, he discovered the
announce the recipients of its 2012 society awards. Each year, the
domain structure of pigeonite and clinoenstatite, and with Prof. K.
Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences Award is given to
Otsuka and others, he studied the crystal structure of stress-induced
a maximum of two scientists for exceptional contributions to the min-
β1 martensite in a Cu–Al–Ni alloy using neutron diffraction. From
eralogical and related sciences. The Manjiro Watanabe Award—
1971, he worked as a guest professor for two years with Prof. E. Helmer
named in honor of Professor Manjiro Watanabe, a famous Japanese
at Marburg University, Germany, and solved the complicated structure
mineralogist, and funded by his own contribution—is awarded every
of the sulfosalt senandorite, PbAgSb3S 6. In 1981, he moved to the
year to one scientist who has contributed significantly to the mineral-
University of Tokyo, where, with Dr. J. Ye and Prof. K. Otsuka, he ana-
ogical and related sciences over his/her long career. The Sakurai
lyzed the structure of γ1′Cu–Al–Ni martensite using conventional X-rays
Medal—named in honor of Dr. Kin-ichi Sakurai, famous for fi nding
and synchrotron radiation. In 1998, he moved to the Saitama Institute
new minerals—is awarded to one scientist who has made great contri-
of Technology and, with Prof. R. Negishi and others, he showed that
butions to studies on new minerals.
elliptically polarized light can propagate in a crystal of alkali
amphibole.
Japan Association of Mineralogical Sciences
Award to Akira Yoshiasa Sakurai Medal to Tetsuo Minakawa
Akira Yoshiasa, of the Graduate School of
Tetsuo Minakawa, of the Department of Earth
Science and Technology, Kumamoto University,
Science, Ehime University, has made great con-
Japan, is a mineralogist who has studied the
tributions to the field of descriptive miner-
correlation between the structures and phys-
alogy. In the nomenclature of epidote-group
ical properties of minerals. In his research, he
minerals, A 2 M 3 (T 2 O7 )(TO 4 )(O,F)(O,OH), as
has derived dynamical structural information
recommended by Armbruster et al. (2006),
from both the long-range-order structure using
piemontite-(Sr), clinozoisite-(Sr), and manga-
the diffraction method and the local structure
nipiemontite-(Sr) have been described as cli-
by the XAFS method. Using a combination of
nozoisite subgroup minerals with Sr dominant
both techniques, he successfully determined
in the A2 site. Although the Sr analogue of
the pressure-dependent potential parameters
Akira Yoshiasa
Tetsuo Minakawa epidote, CaSrAl 2Fe3+ (Si 2O7)(SiO4)O(OH), was
and characteristic values of various materials
undiscovered in nature, Armbruster et al.
under high P–T conditions, and he contributed to the quantitative
(2006) had listed it as a possible member of the clinozoisite subgroup
understanding of their structural stability. He elucidated the conduc-
minerals. Minakawa and his coworkers discovered Sr-rich epidote as a
tion mechanism of ionic superconductors such as AgI and CuI, by
gangue mineral in the Nagakawara, Matsukabu, and Honomori deposits
performing anharmonic thermal vibration analysis; he also clarified
in the Ananai manganese mine in Kochi Prefecture, Japan. They identi-
their phase relations and phase transition mechanism through in situ
fied this mineral as similar to epidote-(Sr). In 2006, data on the new
experiments under various P–T conditions using synchrotron radiation.
mineral and the name epidote-(Sr) were approved by the IMA Commission
He applied this technique to the study of mantle minerals and proposed
on New Minerals, Nomenclature and Classification (#2006-055). The
that their ionic superconduction attributed to anharmonic thermal
details of the mode of occurrence and the mineralogical data con-
vibrations can result in high electric and low thermal conductivities
cerning epidote- (Sr) were provided by Minakawa et al. (2008).
in the Earth’s lower mantle. His research interests also include the
Epidote-(Sr) occurs as prismatic crystals up to 1 cm in length in the
structures of melt and glass. He discovered that the local structures of
manganaxinite veins cutting braunite–caryopilite ores and is associated
atoms in a melt change rapidly with pressure following fi rst-order phase
closely with Mn2+ -pumpellyite and bannisterite. The crystals are brown
transition processes. He attempted to understand the past histories of
to brownish red in color, owing to the high Mn3+ content. Subsequently,
the Earth and planets from the local structures of the trace elements
Minakawa and coworkers also discovered a new manganese–vanadium
in minerals, tektite impactite glass, and K–T boundary clays. Recently,
garnet, momoiite, (Mn,Ca) 3 (V3+,Al) 2Si3O12 (IMA CNMNC, #2009-026),
he extended his research to atomic-level structural analyses under
from the Kurase (Ehime Pref.), Fujii (Fukui Pref.), and Hokkejino (Kyoto
extreme conditions, such as ultragravity. He has thus contributed sig-
Pref.) metamorphosed manganese deposits in Japan.
nificantly to the advancement of fundamental Earth science
knowledge.
JOURNAL OF MINERALOGICAL AND PETROLOGICAL
Manjiro Watanabe Award to Masayasu Tokonami SCIENCES, VOL. 107, NO. 4, AUGUST 2012
Masayasu Tokonami was matriculated to the
graduate course of the University of Tokyo in Laihunite in planetary materials: An FTIR and TEM study of oxidized
1958. Along with Profs. R. Sadanaga and Y. synthetic and meteoritic Fe-rich olivine
Takeuchi, he elucidated the crystal structure NAOTAKA TOMIOKA, A NDREAS MORLOK, CHIYOE KOIKE, MELANIE KOHLER, AND
of mullite, Al 2 SiO5, using the single-crystal MONICA GRADY
X-ray diffraction method. He accepted a posi-
Sector-zoned aegirine in Sanbagawa quartz schist from the western
tion in the Institute for Solid State Physics,
Kii Peninsula, central Japan
University of Tokyo, in 1962 and, along with YASUYUKI BANNO AND SHIGEO YAMADA
Prof. S. Hosoya, put forth a systematic method
for unraveling a periodic vector set. He also Influence of garnet hosts on the Raman spectra of quartz inclusions
Masayasu Tokonami MASAKI ENAMI

E LEMENTS 377 O C TOBER 2012

 Association of Applied Geochemists
www.appliedgeochemists.org

NEWS FROM AAG

REGIONAL COUNCILLORS
Pakistan
The University of Peshawar’s National Centre
of Excellence in Geology (NCEG; see www.
upesh.edu.pk/academics/researchcenter/nceg/
nceg.html) has recently completed a synthesis
of the entire available geochemical data set for
gold and base metals in northern Pakistan cov-
ering a period of two decades (1992–2012).
During this period, more than 5000 samples
were analyzed by various agencies, such as the
Pakistan Mineral Development Corporation,
the Sarhad Development Authority, and inter-
national bodies like MINORCO. The entire
data set was scanned, digitized, and stored in
a GIS database. The database also includes sat-
ellite imagery, digital elevation model data,
and other related information. From this, the
NCEG has identified six target areas for further
gold and base metal studies: (1) Bagrot Valley,
(2) Golo Das, (3) Machulu Valley, (4) Shigri
Bala, (5) Ranthak, and (6) Chapursan Valley
(see map). According to the NCEG, these areas
may hold potential for gold mineralization.

On the basis of the above studies, a joint

program funded by the National Academies Geological map of northern Pakistan (after Searle and Khan, 1996, Oxford University),
of Science has been started with Houston showing the concentration of gold in rock samples and the locations of identified target areas
University (see www.geosc.uh.edu/features/
geos-nsm/gold-prospecting.php). Three field
trips were conducted in the northern areas of
Pakistan in 2011 (see photo). The first field trip
was conducted by the University of Peshawar
group in April. During this trip, 30 water and
30 sediment samples were collected along the
Gilgit River; in addition, 25 blood, 25 urine,
and 25 nail samples were provided by the gold
panners and their family members. During the
second field campaign in June, the University
of Houston group collected 40 water and
37 sediment samples along the Indus, Gilgit,
and Hunza rivers. The third field campaign
was conducted in July by the University of
Peshawar group, which collected more than
120 rock samples in four of the six identified
target areas: Bagrot Valley, Golo Das, Machulu Prof. Dr. Tahir Shah flanked by graduate students Laeiq Ahmad and Sadaf Miandad of the NCEG,
Valley, and Shigri Bala. Currently, water and University of Peshawar, during field work in the Bargot Valley
sediment samples are being analyzed at the
University of Houston, while rock samples are
being cut and pulverized at the University of sensing analysis is helping identify alteration and groundwater. Prof. Dr. Tahir Shah of the
Peshawar. About 90 thin sections were pre- zones that could contain gold. The project NCEG, University of Peshawar, is acknowl-
pared for petrographic study. Representative includes training Pakistani scientists in the edged for providing the above information.
samples were selected for geochemical work processing of remotely sensed images and
Iftikhar A. Malik
after splitting the pulverized samples. The in trace element geochemistry. The area’s
(malik.iftikhar@gmail.com)
University of Peshawar group has started labo- gold panners will also be trained in safer,
AAB (pvt) Ltd Islamabad,
ratory work on these representative samples. more efficient methods of panning, which
AAG Regional Councillor
About 90 rock chips have been shipped to the will reduce mercury pollution of river water
University of Houston for geochemical and
spectral analyses. In parallel to this, remote

E LEMENTS 378 O C TOBER 2012

 German Mineralogical
STUDENT–INDUSTRY WORKSHOP AND FIELD TRIP Society
In an effort to attract more students into the mineral exploration
industry, the Prospectors and Developers Association of Canada (PDAC)
ran its sixth annual Student–Industry Mineral Exploration Workshop
www.dmg-home.de
(S-IMEW) on May 5–18, 2012, in Sudbury, Ontario. The top 26 Canadian
postsecondary geoscience students were selected from across the REPORT ON THE DMG SHORT COURSE
country to attend the workshop. Students participated in lectures, pres- “APPLICATIONS OF SOLID STATE NMR
entations, and hands-on courses covering exploration techniques, min- SPECTROSCOPY IN MINERALOGICAL
eral deposits, geophysics, and geochemistry, as well as environmental, AND GEOSCIENTIFIC RESEARCH”
health and safety, and corporate social responsibility issues. Field trips
to Timmins and Rouyn-Noranda were included in the workshop,
May 29–June 1, 2012, Bochum
allowing students to see what these world-class mining regions have
to offer.

Among the highlights of this program is “Geochemistry Day,” organ-

ized and taught by Stew Hamilton and Richard Dyer from the Ontario
Geological Survey, Beth McClenaghan from the Geological Survey of
Canada, and Noelle Shriver from Vale, all of whom are members or
fellows of the AAG. They introduced students to exploration geochem-
ical techniques, but the main focus of the day was to provide the
students with practical experience that they are unlikely to receive in
the university setting. To that end, students carried out lake sediment
sampling fi rsthand in boats on Ramsey Lake in Sudbury. Beth then
introduced the students to the microscopic world of indicator minerals
and to hands-on mineral picking using microscopes. Noelle took the
students on a short field traverse to explore and review soil profi les and
carry out soil sampling in typical glaciated terrain.

The field trip was a great opportunity for students to see new parts of
Canada, learn about the wide variety of career opportunities in mineral Participants in the NMR short course at the University of Bochum, Germany
exploration, gain experience with exploration techniques not typically
taught to undergraduate students, and experience some of the adven-
Now almost a tradition, the DMG/DGK short course on NMR spectros-
tures of being a geoscientist.
copy took place at the University of Bochum from May 29 to June 1.
Beth McClenaghan (Beth.McClenaghan@NRCan-RNCan.gc.ca) Under the supervision of Dr. Michael Fechtelkord, 14 participants from
Geological Survey of Canada universities in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland dedicated four days
to exploring the possibilities of NMR spectroscopy.

After a theoretical introduction in the morning, the newly learned

knowledge was carried into the lab to test it in the real world. Thus
Tuesday afternoon was devoted to measuring the spin-relaxation of 1H
and the dynamics of tetramethylammonium iodide. In doing so, the
participants learned how to handle a spectrometer and to prepare sam-
ples for measurement. But no analytical procedure is complete without
the actual evaluation of the measured data.

Thus after getting to know the huge magnet better (see photo), the
second day started with the theory of dipole and chemical interactions
in solids. The aim was to fi nd a solution to the problem of how to
measure a good spectrum despite the presence of anisotropy effects.
The answer is simple and fascinating at the same time: by using the
magic angle. After solving these problems, the evaluation of spectra
still needs a lot of experience and patience.

On Thursday, the participants took a peek into the rabbit hole. NMR
spectroscopy not only can show the local distortions in the crystal
lattice induced by doping, it can also distinguish between different
atomic neighbors.

It is fascinating to see the possibilities provided by NMR spectroscopy

for fi nding answers to many scientific problems. Also it is amazing to
see how scientists come up with new solutions to experimental prob-
lems and measure what could not be measured before.

Last, but not least, this short course gave young scientists the oppor-
tunity to exchange experiences in a relaxed atmosphere. The two social
events were well organized and great successes.
Naemi Waeselmann
University of Hamburg

E LEMENTS 379 O C TOBER 2012

 Meteoritical Society
http://meteoriticalsociety.org

2013 ANNUAL MEETING INVITATION

The 76th annual meeting of the Meteoritical Society will take place in
Edmonton, the capital city of Alberta, Canada. The meeting will be
held on July 29−August 2 at the Crowne Plaza Chateau Lacombe in
Edmonton’s downtown core, within walking distance of the Arts
District, shopping, nightlife, restaurants, and coffee shops. Edmonton
is the most northerly major city in Canada. Long daylight hours and
warm weather are therefore expected during the summer months.
Situated on the North Saskatchewan River, Edmonton is close to
UNESCO World Heritage Sites such as Jasper and Banff national parks
in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump,
and Dinosaur Provincial Park. Less than an hour from Edmonton is Anaïs Fourny, one of the two students sponsored by the Meteoritical Society to
attend the workshop. PHOTO CREDIT: A LLAN TREIMAN
Elk Island National Park. In addition to being an opportunity to observe
bison, moose, and deer in a natural setting, this dark-sky preserve is
also a prime viewing area for the aurora borealis, a light show we may field study of a terrestrial analog for lunar crust formation. The
be treated to as the next northern lights activity maximum is Meteoritical Society was a cosponsor, and supported attendance by two
approached. The conference banquet will be held on Wednesday, July students, Corey Wall and Anaïs Fourny of the University of British
31, on the picturesque campus of the University of Alberta. Columbia.

The workshop, held on July 12–16, 2012, was convened by Dr. Allan
Treiman of the Lunar and Planetary Institute (and Fellow of the Society)
in Bozeman, Montana. The workshop featured invited contributions
by Dr. David Kring, who talked about the Moon’s impact history
(including the nature of the putative cataclysm) and the sources of the
impactors; Dr. Maria Zuber, on the new gravity maps from the GRAIL
mission; Dr. Carlé Pieters, on optical remote sensing and the mineral
constitution of the lunar surface; and Dr. Randy Korotev, on the nature
of the lunar highlands revealed by meteorites and the returned samples.
Contributed talks and posters spanned a huge range of topics, such as
terrestrial analogs, details of optical properties and models, and petro-
logic studies of samples new and old. Free discussion was an important
part of the meeting, and the conversations were active and cordial.

To complement the technical sessions, Dr. Stewart McCallum (University

of Washington) led two field trips to view rocks of the nearby Stillwater
Complex, a layered basic intrusion that has provided much of the con-
ceptual basis for understanding lunar highlands rocks. Before the work-
shop, participants examined rocks of the lower section of the Stillwater,
We expect to have a wide variety of interesting scientific sessions at
including peridotites, pyroxenites, chromite-rich rocks, and some
our meeting. Several field trips are planned, including an excursion to
anorthosites. After the workshop, Dr. McCallum and a dozen young
the Whitecourt Meteorite Impact Crater, one of a few Holocene craters
hardies climbed up Picket Pin Mountain to see part of the upper sec-
worldwide; a K/T boundary locality; and the world-famous Royal Tyrell
tion, including massive anorthosites, norites with sedimentary struc-
Museum of paleontology. Full details can be found in the first announce-
tures, and a sulfide-rich zone. After summiting, the group retreated
ment, available on the LPI website, www.lpi.usra.edu. Additional details
from a massive thunderstorm, soaked, but alive and happy.
can be found on the local meeting website, www.metsoc2013edmonton.
org. For more information, please contact Organizing Committee Chair To view the complete program and abstracts for this workshop, see
Chris Herd at herd@ualberta.ca. www.lpi.usra.edu/meetings/highlands2012/.
We look forward to welcoming you to Edmonton next summer!

SECOND CONFERENCE ON THE LUNAR

HIGHLANDS CRUST – MEETING REPORT FUTURE ANNUAL MEETINGS
The lunar highlands are the accessible exposures of the Moon’s pre- 2013 July 29–August 2 Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
mare crust, and so are a principal source of data on the Moon’s origin Contact Chris Herd (herd@ualberta.ca)
and early history. Lunar meteorites are essential contributors to under- 2014 September 7–14 Casablanca, Morocco
standing the lunar highlands; they provide “ground truths” from out- Contact Hassna Chennaoui (chennaoui_h@yahoo.fr)
side the Apollo and Luna sampling sites for remote sensing data (optical,
2015 July 27–31 Berkeley, California
radar, and gravity). The last conference devoted solely to the lunar
highlands was in 1979, the year of the fi rst fi nd of a lunar meteorite. 2016 Dates to be announced Berlin, Germany
So, it seemed timely to hold another such conference, augmented by

E LEMENTS 380 O C TOBER 2012

 STUDENT TRAVEL AWARDS
Over 45 students attending the annual meeting of the Society in Cairns,
Australia, in August 2012, received travel grants. Student travel grants
and travel grants for scientists from countries with limited fi nancial
resources are generously sponsored by the Barringer Crater Company,
the Planetary Studies Foundation, NASA (Cosmochemistry Program),
the Meteoritical Society Endowment Fund, the International Meteorite
Collectors Association (Brian Mason Award), and the Australian National
University (Research School of Earth Sciences and ICOG-7 awards).

The Barringer Crater Company

ƒ Feargus Abernethy, Open University ƒ Tu-Han Luu, CPRG-CNRS Nancy, France
ƒ Marlene Giscard, Imperial College ƒ Mia Olsen, University of Copenhagen
ƒ Michael Goodyear, Open University ƒ Claudiu Tǎnǎselia,
ƒ Maartje Hamers, Utrecht University Babes-Bolyai University

ƒ Leon Hicks, University of Leicester ƒ Nicole Spring, University of Manchester

ƒ Yoshihiro Hidaka, Tokyo ƒ Hiroko Suzuki, University of Tokyo

Metropolitan University ƒ Mona Weyrauch, Westfälische Wilhelms
ƒ Jesper Holst, University of Copenhagen Universität, Münster
Natasha Stephen, winner of the Brian Mason Award. PHOTO CREDIT: DIAMOND LIGHT SOURCE
ƒ Yutaro Kuriyama, University of Tokyo ƒ Felicity Williams, Open University

ƒ Yi-Jen Lai, University of Bristol ƒ Niel Williams, University of Manchester

ƒ Yuchen Xu, Chinese Academy Brian Mason Award
ƒ Nan Liu, University of Chicago
of Science, Guiyang In 1997, Joel Schiff, the fi rst editor of the popular Meteorite magazine,
ƒ Anna Losiak, University of Vienna
ƒ Shogo Yakame, University of Tokyo created a travel award in honor of Brian Mason, who was born in New
Zealand. The award is given to a student attending the annual meeting
NASA–Cosmochemistry of the Society who submits an abstract that presents clearly explained,
exciting results of particular interest to readers of Meteorite magazine.
ƒ Robert Beauford, University of Arkansas ƒ Jordan Kendall, Purdue University The recipient is required to write a popular account of his/her work for
ƒ Timothy Bowling, Purdue University ƒ Takafumi Niihara, Lunar the magazine. Since 2008, the award has been generously funded by
ƒ Patrick Gasda, University of Hawaii and Planetary Institute
the International Meteorite Collectors Association.
ƒ Evan Groopman, Washington ƒ Caitlin Schnitzer, University of Arizona
University in St. Louis ƒ Lev Spivak-Birndorf, Arizona This year the Program Committee for the Cairns, Australia, meeting
ƒ Pierre Haenecour, Washington State University selected Natasha R. Stephen as the winner of the Brian Mason Award.
University in St. Louis ƒ Reto Tappitsch, University of Chicago Natasha is a student at Imperial College in London, UK, and she sub-
ƒ Junko Isa, University of California, ƒ Myriam Telus, University of Hawaii mitted an abstract entitled “The Tissint Meteorite: A pristine and unique
Los Angeles sample of the Martian sub-surface,” authored by N. R. Stephen, M.
ƒ Curtis Williams, Arizona State University
ƒ Christine Jilly, University of Hawaii Genge, and S. Russell. This paper discusses the newest Martian mete-
ƒ Kelsey Young, Arizona State University
orite, Tissint, which was recovered quickly after it fell and represents
a rare opportunity to study unweathered Martian material (see the
Planetary Studies Foundation August 2012 “CosmoElements” feature in this magazine for a discussion
ƒ Marc Biren, University of New Brunswick of Tissint).
ƒ Matthew Huber, University of Vienna
CALL FOR AWARD NOMINATIONS
Australian National University Research School of Earth Sciences Please consider nominating a colleague for one of the Society’s
awards. Nominations should be sent to Secretary Greg Herzog
ƒ Vicki Darlington, James Cook University (herzog@rutchem.rutgers.edu) by January 15 (January 31 for the
ƒ Francesco Pignatale, Swinburne University Service Award and the Pellas–Ryder Award). For more information
and details on how to submit a nomination for any of these awards,
please see the latest Newsletter at the Society website (http://mete-
Australian National University ICOG-7 Conference Fund
oriticalsociety.org/Newsletter/nlett11.pdf - see page 9) or e-mail
ƒ Joelene Buntain, Monash University the secretary (metsocsec@gmail.com).
ƒ Barbara Frasl, Australian National University
The Society gives a number of awards each year. The Leonard
Medal honors outstanding contributions to the science of meteor-
Meteoritical Society Endowment Fund itics and closely allied fields. The Barringer Medal and Award
recognize outstanding work in the field of impact cratering and/or
ƒ Rogelio Acevedo, Centro Austral de Investigaciones Cientificas, Argentina
work that has led to a better understanding of impact phenomena.
ƒ Hasnaa Chennaoui Aoudjehane, Hassan II University, Morocco
The Nier Prize recognizes outstanding research in meteoritics and
ƒ Assia Laroussi, Hassan II University, Morocco closely allied fields by young scientists (under 35). The Service
ƒ Kuljeet Marhas, Physical Research Lab, India Award honors members who have advanced the goals of the
ƒ S. V. S. Murty, Physical Research Lab, India Meteoritical Society to promote research and education in meteor-
itics and planetary science in ways other than by conducting scien-
tific research. The Paul Pellas–Graham Ryder Award is given
International Meteorite Collectors Association (Brian Mason Award) for the best student paper in planetary science and is awarded jointly
ƒ Natasha Stephen, Imperial College by the Meteoritical Society and the Planetary Geology Division of
the Geological Society of America.

E LEMENTS 381 O C TOBER 2012

 Mineralogical Society of Great Britain and Ireland
www.minersoc.org CHARTERED STATUS
Applications for Chartered Status continue to trickle in. Go now to
www.minersoc.org/chartered.html to download the application form
LONDON CALLING
and other information. Note that fast-track application is available for
Setting Priorities those who have been members of the Society for a significant period:
By the time you read this, the London Olympics “A ‘Mature Entry’ procedure is important to the Mineralogical Society
will have come and gone. It is a huge honour to because…few members are of Chartered or equivalent status but many are
be asked to host the Olympic Games. The budget senior researchers and practitioners and ‘overqualified’ compared with the
at the time of the bid was in the region of £2 minimum standard required for CSci. The Society is keen to encourage this
billion, which has since ballooned to ~£9 billion. Television rights, body of membership to become Chartered Scientists and therefore has sought
ticket sales, etc. will be used to claw back some of the money, but, as to devise a rigorous but not too arduous fast track process for Fellows who
is often the case with major events such as the Olympics, the host is meet the qualification standard of M level or PhD and have more than 10
left out of pocket. years post graduate experience.”
The cost is £50 for the initial application and £45 per year thereafter.
In mid-July, the UK Government announced that, from 2014, all pub-
licly funded research is to be made freely available to any reader. In
detail, we will move to an ‘author-pays open access’ model, with £2000
MEETINGS IN 2013
per paper to be paid by the author to the publisher. It is expected that
The Society has a number of significant meetings coming up in 2013,
£50 million will be required during the period of transition from the
meetings which it is running itself or supporting extensively. Visit the
traditional subscription model to the author-pays model, and govern-
links below for more information.
ment has stated that this sum must be found from within the existing
2–4 January 2013
education budget. I wonder whether the people who were tasked with
Applied Mineralogy Group–Mineral Deposits Studies
setting up and running the Olympics could be brought in to manage Group Annual Meeting
the move to ‘author-pays’ – seems like we might get a better deal. We www.mdsg.org.uk/maintext.php?ID = 4
could call it “Olympic Access”. Venue: University of Leicester, UK
Convenors: Dave Holwell, Gawen Jenkin, Dan Smith
There are many unanswered questions:
7–9 January 2013
ƒ What about authors who cannot pay, either because they don’t Volcanic and Magmatic Studies Group Annual Meeting
have research funding or because their original research grant did www.vmsg.org.uk/vmsg-bristol/VMSG_2013/VMSG%20Bristol%20
not include money for the particular work being published? 2013%3A%20Home.html
ƒ What about the work of authors from other countries? When and Venue: Bristol University, UK
Contacts: Alison Rust, Kate Saunders, Elena Melekhova, Emma Johnston,
if other administrations follow the UK lead, how will the ‘author-
Jonathan Hanson, Rose Burden
pays’ versus ‘library-pays’ gap be managed?
26–29 March 2013
ƒ What about content that is included in international aggregates,
Volcanic and Magmatic Studies Group
e.g. GeoScienceWorld? Volcanism, Impacts, and Mass Extinctions: Causes and Effects
ƒ Rightly or wrongly, the profits of publishing behemoths such as Register online at www.minersoc.org/mass-extinctions.html
Elsevier and Springer have been oft-quoted in the decision to Venue: Natural History Museum, London, UK
move to this author-pays open access model. If authors continue Contacts: A. Kerr, M. Widdowson, N. MacLeod, G. Keller
to publish in the same journals as they do now, will they not still 17–19 June 2013
make a profit? And what is wrong with business making a profit? Mineralogical Society Annual Meeting
Minerals for Life: Living with Resource Constraints
And www.minersoc.org/minerals-for-life.html
ƒ The argument about profits completely ignores a very important Venue: University of Edinburgh, UK
point: not all publishers are in it for the money. Some, such as Contacts: M. Tyrer, K. Murphy
the publishers involved in Elements, plough their income back into
the science. ROBERT ANDREW HOWIE OBITUARY,
ƒ Finally, given a sustainable fi nancial model, many publishers will PUBLISHED IN MINERALOGICAL MAGAZINE
support author-pays open access. It might help to level the playing
field between the “big-deal” commercial publishers and small pub- Written by a former colleague at Royal
lishers who have increasingly been squeezed out in recent years. If Holloway University of London, Dr Nick
all content is equally available to all readers, citations might Walsh, a wonderful obituary for Mineralogical
become more dependent on the quality of the article and not just Society stalwart Prof. R. A. Howie has been
on what’s available in the library. published in Mineralogical Magazine. “Many
senior academics (and others) will also have
Kevin Murphy
abiding memories of his offers of ‘a lift up to
Executive Director
Senate House’. A lift in Bob’s car was a never-
to-be-forgotten ‘Alton Towers’-type experi-
ence; Bob had learned to fly before he drove
a car, and it showed.” The obituary is available
Robert A. Howie
for all to read at www.minersoc.org/fi les/
Howie-obituary.pdf.

E LEMENTS 382 O C TOBER 2012

MINERALOGICAL MAGAZINE Krásnoite, the fluorophosphate analogue of perhamite, from the
Huber open pit, Czech Republic and the Silver Coin mine, Nevada,
The list of contents for the
USA (pp 625-634)
bumper June 2012 issue of the
MILLS SJ, SEJKORA J, K AMPF AR, GREY IE, BASTOW TJ, BALL NA, A DAMS PM,
journal is given below. Included is R AUDSEPP M, COOPER MA
the paper by Brookshaw et al.,
which is available on an open Retrograde strontium metasomatism in serpentinite mélange of the
access basis at http://tinyurl.com/ Kurosegawa Zone in central Kyushu, Japan (pp 635-647)
cgbsbd6. MIYAZOE T, ENAMI M, NISHIYAMA T, MORI Y

The crystal chemistry of the The mineralogy and crystal chemistry of alkaline pegmatites in the
uranyl carbonate mineral grim- Larvik Plutonic Complex, Oslo rift valley, Norway. Part 1. Magmatic
selite, (K, Na)3Na[(UO2 )(CO3)3] and secondary zircon: implications for petrogenesis from trace-
(H2O), from Jáchymov, Czech element geochemistry (pp 649-672)
Republic (pp 443-453) PIILONEN PC, MCDONALD AM, POIRIER G, ROWE R, L ARSEN AO
PLÁŠIL J, FEJFAROVÁ K, SKÁLA R, ŠKODA R,
Calciolangbeinite, K 2Ca2 (SO4 )3, a new mineral from the Tolbachik
MEISSER N, HLOUSEK J, CÍSAŘOVÁ I, D UŠEK
M, VESELOVSKÝ F, ČEJKA J, SEJKORA J, volcano, Kamchatka, Russia (pp 673-682)
O NDRUS P PEKOV IV, ZELENSKI ME, ZUBKOVA NV, YAPASKURT VO, CHUKANOV NV, BELAKOVSKIY
DI, USHCHAROVSKY D YU
Trabzonite, Ca4 [Si3O9 (OH)]OH:
Diamond and coesite in ultrahigh-pressure-ultrahigh-temperature
crystal structure, revised formula,
granulites from Ceuta, Northern Rif, northwest Africa (pp 683-705)
new occurrence and relation to killalaite (pp 455-472)
RUIZ-CRUZ MD, SANZ DE GALDEANO C
A RMBRUSTER T, L AZIC B, GALUSKINA IO, GALUSKIN EV, GNOS E, MARZEC KM,
GAZEEV VM A reinvestigation of mayenite from the type locality, the Ettringer
Kazanskyite, Ba…TiNbNa3Ti(Si2O7 )2O2 (OH)2 (H2O) 4, a Group-III Bellerberg volcano near Mayen, Eifel district, Germany (pp 707-716)
GALUSKIN EV, KUSZ J, ARMBRUSTER T, BAILAU R, GALUSKINA IO, TERNES B, MURASHKO M
Ti-disilicate mineral from the Khibiny alkaline massif, Kola
Peninsula, Russia: description and crystal structure (pp 473-492) Comments on the eruption of basaltic magma at Tor Zawar,
C ÁMARA F, SOKOLOVA E, HAWTHORNE FC Balochistan, Pakistan on 27 January 2010, with a discussion of
Molybdophyllite: crystal chemistry, crystal structure, OD character the geochemical and petrological constraints on its petrogenesis
and modular relationships with britvinite (pp 493-516) (pp 717-723)
KOLITSCH U, MERLINO S, HOLTSTAM D K ASSI AM, K ASI AK, TAWAB K HAN A, SALAM K HAN A

The crystal structure determination and redefinition of matulaite, Metavivianite, Fe2+ Fe3+2 (PO4 )2 (OH)2 ·6H2O: new data and formula
Fe3+ Al7(PO4 ) 4 (PO3OH)2 (OH) 8 (H2O) 8 ·8H2O (pp 517-534) revision (pp 725-741)
K AMPF AR, MILLS SJ, RUMSEY MS, SPRATT J, FAVREAU G CHUKANOV NV, SCHOLZ R, A KSENOV SM, R ASTSVETAEVA RK, PEKOV IV, BELAKOVSKIY
DI, K RAMBROCK K, PANIAGO RM, RIGHI A, MARTINS RF, BELOTTI FM, BERMANEC V
Chevkinite-group minerals from Russia and Mongolia: new composi-
Debattistiite, Ag9Hg 0.5As 6S12 Te2 , a new Te-bearing sulfosalt from
tional data from metasomatites and ore deposits (pp 535-549)
MACDONALD R, BAGIŃSKI B, K ARTASHOV P, ZOZULYA D, DZIERŻANOWSKI P Lengenbach quarry, Binn valley, Switzerland: description and crystal
structure (pp 743-750)
A chemical and structural re-examination of fettelite samples from GUASTONI A, BINDI L, NESTOLA F
the type locality, Odenwald, southwest Germany (pp 551-566)
BINDI L, DOWNS RT, SPRY PG, PINCH WW, MENCHETTI S Jakobssonite, CaAlF5, a new mineral from fumaroles at the Eldfell
and Hekla volcanoes, Iceland (pp 751-760)
Biogeochemical behaviour of plutonium during anoxic biostimula- BALIĆ-ŽUNIĆ T, GARAVELLI A, MITOLO D, ACQUAFREDDA P, LEONARDSEN E
tion of contaminated sediments (pp 567-578)
K IMBER RL, BOOTHMAN C, PURDIE P, LIVENS FR, LLOYD JR Xenotime-(Y) and Sn-rich thortveitite in miarolitic pegmatites from
Baveno, Southern Alps, Italy (pp 761-767)
New Mössbauer measurements of Fe3+/ΣFe in chromites from the GUASTONI A, NESTOLA F, FERRARIS C, PARODI G
mantle section of the Oman ophiolite: evidence for the oxidation of
Forêtite, a new secondary arsenate mineral from the Cap Garonne
the sub-oceanic mantle (pp 579-596)
ROLLINSON H, A DETUNJI J, YOUSIF AA, GISMELSEED AM mine, France (pp 769-775)
MILLS SJ, K AMPF AR, MCDONALD AM, FAVREAU G, CHIAPPERO P-J
Pb2 (AsO2OH)Cl2 , a new phase from the Lavrion ancient slags,
Microbial effects on mineral-radionuclide interactions and radionu-
Greece: occurrence and characterization (pp 597-602)
SIIDRA OI, CHUKANOV NV, PEKOV IV, K RIVOVICHEV SV, MAGGANAS A, clide solid-phase capture processes (pp 777-806)
K ATERINOPOULOS A, VOUDOURIS P Open access review paper
BROOKSHAW DR, PATTRICK RAD, LLOYD JR, VAUGHAN DJ
Arsenohopeite, a new zinc arsenate mineral from the Tsumeb mine,
Namibia (pp 603-612) New minerals and nomenclature modifications approved in 2012
NEUHOLD F, KOLITSCH U, BERNHARDT H-J, LENGAUER CL (pp 807-817)
WILLIAMS PA, HATERT F, PASERO M, MILLS SJ
Thermal expansion of alunite up to dehydroxylation and collapse of
the crystal structure (pp 613-623) Professor Robert Andrew Howie, 1923-2012 (pp 819-821)
ZEMA M, C ALLEGARI AM, TARANTINO SC, GASPARINI E, GHIGNA P WALSH N

E LEMENTS 383 O C TOBER 2012

 European Association of Geochemistry
www.eag.eu.com

2012 DISTINGUISHED LECTURE TOUR

The European Association of Geochemistry started its Distinguished
Lecture Program in 2011. This program aims to introduce and motivate
scientists and students located in under-represented regions of the world
to emerging research areas in geochemistry; the program currently
focuses on Central and Eastern Europe. The Distinguished Lecturer is
selected each year based on a combination of outstanding research
contributions to geochemistry and the lecturer’s ability to clearly com-
municate these contributions to a broad audience.

The Distinguished Lecturer for 2012 will be Prof. Tim

Elliott, of the University of Bristol, UK. Tim’s research
focuses on the chemical evolution of the Earth. He
is interested in planetary formation and differentia-
tion, sampling of the hidden Earth via melts, and
the interaction of the deep and surface reservoirs and
how this has influenced the terrestrial environment.
His tools of choice are dominantly isotopic, in
Tim Elliott tandem with elemental abundance measurements
and the judicious application of petrology and field-
work. He has developed measurements of novel isotopic systems and
is enthused by the new vistas of isotopic determination offered by Abstract submission and
plasma mass spectrometry. online registration will
open in February 2013.
As part of his tour, to take place in November 2012, Tim will visit:
ƒ the University of Warsaw, Poland
ƒ the Institute of Geological Sciences, Wroclaw, Poland
ƒ the Universitatea Babeş -Bolyai, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
ƒ the University of Sofia, Bulgaria

Tim will propose the following talks: “The Origin of Precious Metals
on Earth,” “Supernova Contributions to the Solar System,” and “Tracing
Mantle Evolution with Novel Isotopic Systems.” Additional details can
be found at www.eag.eu.com/education/dlp/.

SUBSCRIBE TO

Geochemical Perspectives
is provided to all members of the
European Association of Geochemistry.
To join the European Association
of Geochemistry visit:
w w w.eag .eu.com/member ship
Copyright R and B

For information, contact us at:

of f ic e @ geoc hemic alper spec ti ve s .or g
www.geochemicalperspectives.org

E LEMENTS 384 O C TOBER 2012

 The Clay Minerals Society
www.clays.org the Fukushima nuclear disaster. Dr. Yamagishi
then reviewed his well-known work on the
synthesis and use of chiral clays and on
THE PRESIDENT’S CORNER Langmuir-Blodgett fi lms of clays. Chiral clays
“Shales and Imposters” was the theme of the can simply be prepared by exchanging chiral
49 th annual meeting of The Clay Minerals transition metal ion complexes of the right size
Society, held at the Colorado School of Mines and charge. These chiral clays specifically inte-
in Golden, Colorado, on July 7–11, 2012. The ract with chiral molecules, thus leading to
conference, organized by Manika Prasad and applications such as chiral separation and
her colleagues, featured a coordinated precon- chiral catalysis.
ference workshop focusing on organic-rich
It has been an honor for me to serve as CMS
rocks, a Sunday field trip to visit outcrops of CMS President David president this past year. My job was made easy
such rocks, and sessions on the themes “Pore- Laird (left) and 2012
Bailey awardee by the dedicated staff at the CMS office in
Systems in Organic Shales” and “Clay
Akihiko Yamagishi Chantilly, Virginia. I offer my sincere thanks
David Laird Diagenesis and Organic Maturity.” The restau-
to Mary Gray, Alex Speer, and Gordon Nord
rants of lovely downtown Golden and the
for all their help. I also want to thank members
excellent conference facilities on the nearby Colorado School of Mines
of the CMS Executive Committee for their
campus provided fertile ground for interdisciplinary discussions relating
dedication to clay science and to our Society.
clay mineralogy, diagenesis, rock structure, and surface chemistry to
Finally, it is my honor to introduce as the new
the formation and potential availability of hydrocarbons in organic
CMS president Dr. Peter Komadel of the Slovak
shales. Clearly, clay science is foundational to the rapidly growing indu-
Academy of Sciences, Institute of Inorganic
stry of extracting energy resources from organic shales. Other highlights
Chemistry, in Bratislava, Slovakia. Dr. Komadel
of the meeting included a symposium organized by Lynda Williams
will be writing this column and guiding our
on the topic “Clays and Human Health,” during which there was much
Society forward through our 50 th anniversary
discussion on the mode of action of antibacterial clays and the impact
celebration at the University of Illinois in
of clays mixed with animal feed on the fate and toxicity of aflatoxins.
Urbana-Champaign, October 6–10, 2013 (see
An intriguing symposium entitled “Multi-Scale Modeling of Clays and 2013 President Peter
Komadel (left) and 2012 ad on page 376).
Layered Minerals,” organized by Jeff Greathouse and Chris Greenwell,
President David Laird
provided a state-of-the-art ab initio view of clay surface chemistry, David Laird
hydration, and swelling and interactions of clays with PAHs, supercri- President, The Clay Minerals Society
tical CO2, and CO2 nanodroplets in deep saline aquifers. The latter dalaird@iastate.edu
work helps establish a theoretical foundation for the geological seque-
stration of CO2. David Bish described the miniature transmission X-Ray STUDENT AWARDS AT 49th CMS ANNUAL MEETING
diffractometer that is aboard Curiosity, NASA’s exciting new Mars rover.
If all works well, the first diffraction patterns of clay minerals in Martian
soils will be arriving on Earth later this year.

Dr. Jeffrey Post, a research geologist in the

Department of Mineral Sciences, National
Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution, USA, was the 2012 recipient of the
Marion L. and Chrystie M. Jackson Mid-Career
Clay Scientist Award. Dr. Post gave us a fasci-
nating tour of the dark world of manganese
oxides in a lecture titled “Unraveling
Student travel awardees (left to right): Sandra Londono, Asma Sadia, Keith
Manganese Oxides–Tales from the Dark Side Morrison, Luke Morgan, Michael Bishop, Baptiste Dazas, Kai Su, Laura Zaunbrecher,
of Mineralogy.” Often fi ne-grained and black and Jing Zhang
CMS President David Laird in color, Mn oxides have drawn little attention, The following students were recognized for their outstanding presen-
(left) and 2012 Jackson yet the more than 30 redox-active Mn oxide
awardee Jeffrey Post tations at the CMS annual meeting.
phases play a crucial and biologically mediated
role in soils and sediments. Dr. Post and his First place: Keith Morrison, Arizona State University, USA –
many collaborators have brought together X-ray and neutron diffrac- “Interaction between antibacterial clays and bacteria: Determining
tion, computer modeling, spectroscopy, and time-resolved synchrotron the reactivity and geochemistry of transition elements”
X-ray diffraction techniques to unravel the structure and reactivity of
this family of fascinating minerals. Second place: Tae-Hee Koo, Yonsei University, Korea – “Understanding
the illitization step by observing structural and chemical changes in
Dr. Akihiko Yamagishi, a professor in the Department of Chemistry, bioreduced nontronite in various redox conditions”
Toho University, Chiba, Japan, was the recipient of the Marilyn and
Sturges W. Bailey Distinguished Member Award. The Bailey Award is Third place: Hongi Yuan, Indiana University, USA – “Improved auto-
the highest honor of The Clay Minerals Society. It is awarded for scien- mated fitting of X-ray diffraction patterns from interstratified
tific eminence in clay mineralogy as evidenced by the publication of phyllosilicates”
outstanding original scientific research and by the impact of this rese-
arch on the clay sciences. In his lecture titled “Stereochemistry and
CORRECTION
Molecular Recognition on a Clay Surface,” Dr. Yamagishi began with
an appeal to his colleagues for help in fi nding a way to deal with Cs137 Graduate student Conni De Masi was highlighted in the June 2012
and other radionuclides released into the soils of Japan in the wake of issue. Her master of science degree will be in geology, not biology.

E LEMENTS 385 O C TOBER 2012

 Geochemical Society
www.geochemsoc.org weekly Geochemical News, which we hope the geochemistry community
will use as a forum for exchanging breaking news, from meeting
announcements to job and funding availability. We are working to
FROM THE PRESIDENT
build closer ties with other international geochemical organizations,
Geochemical Curiosity such as the International Association of GeoChemistry, and with our
This article is being written the week after long-time colleagues, the Geochemical Society of Japan, who will host
NASA successfully landed the Mars Science the 2016 Goldschmidt Conference.
Laboratory (MSL) in Gale Crater, with the fi rst The membership of the GS spans from Argentina to Venezuela and
pictures now being “phoned home” by the about 60 countries alphabetically between these two. As reported in
Curiosity rover. Not too many years ago, “curi- my message in the last issue of Elements, the GS leadership has taken
osity-based science” carried a negative conno- steps to ensure that the governance of the Society better reflects its
tation amongst some overseers of science international membership. We have started, with EAG, outreach cam-
funding. Seeking such basic knowledge was paigns to bring geochemistry to people in countries that stand to benefit
Rick Carlson
viewed as a frivolous pursuit, akin to a Da Vinci greatly from knowledge of, and access to, modern geochemical methods.
painting or a Beethoven symphony, and clearly Our new International Participation Program will sponsor membership
not worthy of government support. The only type of science deemed in the GS for those to whom the minimal membership fee of the GS
appropriate in this philosophy is that aimed directly at solving issues represents an economic hurdle. The success of this program will be
confronting humanity’s continued health and welfare. The problem aided greatly if members who can afford to do so offer a voluntary
with such societally relevant science, however, is that it occasionally contribution when they renew their membership this year. Geochemistry
provides answers that certain groups do not want to hear. The raging has much to offer the world, both in practical matters that will improve
debate over global warming and the controversy over the potential for the standard of living for all and by satisfying the curiosity of humans
groundwater contamination from various enhanced petroleum recovery seeking to understand the universe around them. The Geochemical
methods are just two examples where scientific data have run head on Society is working in support of both goals.
into confl icting economic or political sentiment.
Rick Carlson (rcarlson@ciw.edu)
Perhaps more than most sciences, geochemistry can, and should, GS President
address both societally relevant concerns and those that advance basic
human understanding. The MSL is dominated by a variety of analytical
chemistry instruments (well described in Geochemical News: www.geo- WELCOME GOLDSCHMIDT2012 MEMBERS
chemsoc.org/publications/geochemicalnews/gn145jun11/). Why?
Delegates who paid the nonmember registration rate to attend the
Because geochemical methods have become the de facto “gold standard”
Goldschmidt 2012 conference in Montreal this past June are provided
when seeking to provide answers to critical questions of planetary
a two-year (2013 and 2014) membership in the Geochemical Society.
evolution, in this case whether the Gale Crater sediments were deposited
As a special thank-you for their membership, they will also receive the
under conditions conducive to life. In my own field, isotopic methods
October and December 2012 issues of Elements and access to the online
now allow temporal resolution of less than a million years on events
Elements archive. For more information on GS member benefits, visit
occurring during Earth formation beginning 4.568 billion years ago.
www.geochemsoc.org/society/benefitsofmembership.htm.
Related approaches have discovered mineral grains that we can hold
in our hand (well, actually, on NanoSIMS sample mounts) and that Additionally, the GS Board was very impressed with the initiative of
may be direct condensates of the supernova that caused our Solar the Student Program Committee in Montreal, and in appreciation of
System to form. The origin of the Solar System, Earth, and life must be their effort will also be providing two-year memberships to the student
included on any list of fundamental science questions. Geochemical committee members: Grant Cox, Stéphanie Desrochers, Nouha Dhahri,
methods are at the forefront of the investigation of all three. On the Nicole Hurtig, Mina Ibrahim, Julia King, Audrey Limoges, Marc-Antoine
more applied front, this issue of Elements makes it clear that as materials Longpré, Anja Moritz, Laurence Nuttin, André Pellerin, Dirk Schumann,
science fi nds applications that take advantage of the unique properties and Geneviève Vautour.
of the less abundant elements in the periodic table, geochemical
methods are going to be the lead approach in fi nding these rare ANNUAL MEMBERSHIP DRIVE
resources, in evaluating their terrestrial inventories and hence price,
and in providing the measurements that will monitor and hopefully If you have not done so already, please take a moment to renew your
help minimize the environmental damage associated with membership in the Geochemical Society. Member dues for 2013 will
their extraction. increase by US$5, but members joining or renewing by November 30
Although it sounds trivial to say so, the Geochemical Society (GS) may do so at the 2012 rate ($30 professional, $10 student, and $15
supports geochemistry, both applied and basic. Support in this case senior). You may renew online or download a membership form from
means serving as a proponent for geochemistry, helping to bring our website at http://www.geochemsoc.org/join.
together the diverse geochemical community, providing a forum for Please consider making a donation with your membership renewal.
information exchange, and working to convey the strength and impor- Donations are tax deductible where applicable. Remember to indicate
tance of geochemistry in the investigation of a wide range of problems. how you would like your donation to be used.
Our efforts are closely aligned with those of other societies whose
interests overlap ours. The GS was a founding member of the large And fi nally, word of mouth is a valuable part of our membership drive.
consortium that now supports Elements. We alternate with the European If you know of a peer or student who isn’t a member, please encourage
Association of Geochemistry (EAG) in the organization of the annual them to join.
Goldschmidt Conference. We cosponsor Geochimica et Cosmochimica
Acta with the Meteoritical Society, G-cubed with the American
Geophysical Union, and the Reviews in Mineralogy and Geochemistry
book series with the Mineralogical Society of America. We publish the

E LEMENTS 386 O C TOBER 2012

 GEOCHEMICAL SOCIETY CONTRIBUTIONS
Many members contribute to the Geochemical Society each year by Everything we do at the Geochemical Society is made possible through
including a donation with their dues. Between January 1, 2011, and April the generosity of our members, volunteers, and contributors. If you would
15, 2012, 299 members made contributions totaling US$9817.13. Of this like to contribute to the Geochemical Society, please visit our website at
amount, US$230 were donated to the Organic Geochemistry Division, www.geochemsoc.org or contact the business office.
US$3450 were for the Student Travel Grant Program, and US$6137.13 went
to the General Support Fund. Thank you for your contributions!

GENERAL SUPPORT Richard W. MURRAY T. Kurt KYSER Hidenori KUMAGAI $50–99 Masami KANZAKI Fang LIN
FUND
Paul NORTHRUP Axel Hans LIEBSCHER Volker LUEDERS David R. JANECKY Christopher KHOUREY Craig C. LUNDSTROM
$200 or more Peggy A. O’DAY Jennifer MCKAY Jennifer MACALADY Noriko KITA Lin MA
Ian D. CLARK
Thomas F. ANDERSON Hiroshi OHMOTO Scott M. McLENNAN Barbara J. MACGREGOR Matthew LEYBOURNE Teruyuki MARUOKA
Ghislaine CROZAZ
Richard W. CARLSON James B. PACES Bradley MEYER Ryo MATSUMOTO Virgil LUETH Robert P. MASON
Michalann HARTHILL
Robert T. GREGORY Dean C. PRESNALL Christopher MILLS Alan MATTHEWS W. Berry LYONS Joao MATA
Joerg HERMANN

$100–199 Frank C. RAMOS William G. MINARIK Nadine MATTIELLI Jens HOPP James McKINLEY Patricia A. MAURICE

David M. GLOVER William S. REEBURGH Timothy D. MOCK Brandon Collins Fang HUANG Chris I. MEASURES Thomas C. MEISEL
MCADAMS
Hubert L. BARNES Vincent J. M SALTERS Daniel MONCADA Karen H. JOHANNESSON Jens MIBUS Jens MIBUS
Joyce M. MCBETH
Randall T. CYGAN Edwin SCHAUBLE Suzanne Y. O’REILLY Noriko KITA Christopher MILLS Jean MORRISON
Ciapha Nade MORRIS
Jacqueline DIXON Edward R. SHOLKOVITZ Jesus Javier OJEDA Yuri KOSTITSYN German Oded NAVON
Stearns A. MORSE MONTES-HERNANDEZ
Sonia ESPERANCA Thomas STACHEL Radomir PETROVICH Dmitrii A. KULIK Christopher R. OMELON
Klaus NEUMANN Troels F. D. NIELSEN
Robert O. FOURNIER David WALKER David C. RUBIE Janet MUHLING Raphael PIETZSCH
Jahandar RAMEZANI Darrell Kirk NORDSTROM
Bor-ming JAHN E. Bruce WATSON Vincent J. M. SALTERS Paul NORTHRUP Tracy RUSHMER
Mary REID Yuji ORIHASHI
Dante S. LAURETTA Gao SHAN Daniela RUBATTO Dany SAVARD
Up to $49 Agnes G. REYES David W. PEATE
J. Douglas MACDOUGALL Shigeki SHIMA Joanne E. STUBBS Erik SCHERER
Daniel B. HAWKINS Natascha RIEDINGER David A. RICHARDS
Edmond A. MATHEZ Brian J. SKINNER William J. ULLMAN Rendeng SHI
Samuel B. MUKASA Vincent RINTERKNECHT Maria
James B. PACES Richard STERN Mordechai STEIN
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Sheila J. ROBERTS
Roberta L. RUDNICK Heinz-G. STOSCH Katherine Sumire
C. Michael LESHER Gerald J. WASSERBURG Anja ROSENTHAL
Yoav Oved ROSENBERG THOMAS
Nobumichi SHIMIZU Kazuya TAKAHASHI
Edmond MURAD John ALEINIKOFF Carmen SANCHEZ-VALLE
Herdis H. SCHOPKA Renata VAN DER
Eric T. SUNDQUIST Katherine WALTON-DAY
Alexis S. TEMPLETON Rasmus ANDREASEN Hans A. SECK WEIJDEN
Gao SHAN
Susan TRUMBORE William M. WHITE
Gustaf O. ARRHENIUS Wolfgang BACH Lawrence A. TAYLOR Andrew WALL
Julia M. SHEETS
Richard J. WALKER Lynda B. WILLIAMS
Deborah M. ARUGUETE Zsuzsanna Katherine WALTON-DAY Richard WANTY
Mordechai STEIN
Peter KRAAL BALOGH-BRUNSTAD
Konrad J. BANASZAK Heather WATSON Robert MAYANOVIC
$50–99 Robert J. STERN
Robert C. ALLER Konrad J. BANASZAK
John R. BARGAR Gordon Phillip WEBB Deborah Jacquin ORTIZ
Jay J. AGUE Jacques L. R. TOURET
Hiroshi AMAKAWA Jane BARLING
Larry K. BENNINGER Bruce A. WYATT Jorgen ROSENQVIST
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Sonja AULBACH Melanie BARNES
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Paul B. BARTON Ilya BINDEMAN Benjamin C. BOSTICK $100 or more
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Paterno R. CASTILLO Zoltan ZAJACZ Kevin W. BURTON
Timothy DARLING Sarah CARMICHAEL Michael DEANGELIS
Rachel R. CAVE Katherine TELFEYAN Heather L. BUSS $50–99
Warren DICKINSON Liu CHENGSHUAI Gregory K. DRUSCHEL
David R. COLE Juan F. VILLAROMERO Robert CLIFF Keith A. KVENVOLDEN
Kiyoto FUTA Salirian CLAFF Denton S. EBEL
Patricia DURANCE-SIE Richard Allan COX
Bastian GEORG Richard Allan COX STUDENT TRAVEL Jonathan EREZ Up to $49
Vera Assis FERNANDES GRANT PROGRAM Massimo D’ANTONIO
Terrence M. GERLACH Hailin DENG Jadran FAGANELI Timothy Ian EGLINTON
Gudmundur H. $200 or more Carrick M. EGGLESTON
Joris M. GIESKES GUDFINNSSON James D. GLEASON Silvia FRISIA Philip A. MEYERS
Martin B. GOLDHABER Scott E. FENDORF
Judith L. HANNAH T. W. GULLIVER Christopher GLEIN Jean-Francois GAILLARD Timothy Ian EGLINTON
Judith A. MCKENZIE James D. GLEASON
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Fang HUANG
HANNEMAN
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Christopher Brenhin Naoyoshi IWATA
T. Kurt KYSER Douglas B. KENT Madhusoodhan
KELLER James R. LAWRENCE
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Mark J. LOGSDON Holly J. STEIN Linda JAHNKE
Yousif K. KHARAKA Lindsay Marie KOLBUS
Jonathan MILLER

GS AT GSA-CHARLOTTE
Dr. Isabel Montanez (University of Washington University in St. Louis
Geochemical Society
California–Davis) will present the Earth and Planetary Sciences
Business Office
2012 F. Earl Ingerson Lecture. Her One Brookings Drive, CB 1169
lecture, “Modern soil system con- Seth Davis, Business Manager
Kathryn Hall, Administrative Assistant Saint Louis, MO 63130-4899, USA
straints on reconstructing deep-time E-mail: gsoffice@geochemsoc.org
atmospheric CO2 : A new view of Phone: 314-935-4131
Phanerozoic PCO2,“ will be presented on Tuesday, Fax: 314-935-4121
6 November 2012 at 9:50 am in Room 202AB of Website: www.geochemsoc.org
the Charlotte Convention Center. The Geochemical www.facebook.com/geochemsoc
Society will again be sponsoring a ticketed recep- Weekly Geochemical News:
Isabel Montanez, tion with MSA and the GSA–MGPV Division, as
2012 F. Earl Ingerson http://multibriefs.com/briefs/gs/
well as welcoming attendees to our exhibit
Lecturer
(Booth 806).

E LEMENTS 387 O C TOBER 2012

 Mineralogical Society of America
www.minsocam.org

PRESIDENT’S LETTER Now, take this same mindset and go to an AGU or GSA meeting or a
Goldschmidt Conference and randomly walk into a session without even
Final Thoughts looking at the session schedule on the easel just outside the door. Listen
This is my sixth, and last, President’s Letter in Elements. If you look back to a few talks, then continue your random walk through the meeting
at the titles of my previous five offerings, “MSA at a Crossroads,” venue and keep doing the same thing. The point is, it would be difficult
“Mineralogy, an Inch Deep and a Mile Wide?”, “MSA and AGU: A Very to not find some aspect of the science of mineralogy, either directly or
Important New Partnership Begins,” “Mineralogy to the Fore,” and “MSA indirectly, in every talk you listen to. How many of the subdisciplines
Marches On, Quickly,” one can see that I have been writing about the of the Earth and space sciences can say that? A few can; most cannot.
challenges that MSA faces and the very important new opportunities The significance for us? In the natural world the science of mineralogy
that MSA has at its fingertips right now, particularly with new deve- is everywhere, and it is relevant in some way or another to just about
lopments related to AGU and American Mineralogist. A third theme that all things. The processes in which the science of mineralogy has critical
I have also written about is the foundational status that mineralogy will relevance are not ubiquitous but are truly common. Also, mineralo-
always have in the Earth, planetary, and space sciences, and the oppor- gists, especially these days, are also geochemists, or geophysicists, or
tunities this gives to us; I strongly believe that this simple fact underlies petrologists, or atmospheric scientists, or contaminant hydrologists, or
the health of our science in the long term and is arguably the most biologists, and so on, because they don’t see the boundaries—a very
important subject for our discussions not only within the MSA mem- good thing. The importance of and need for our science in the future is
bership but also with all the mineralogical societies around the world thus assured. Sure, the methods and emphasis and bounds of mineralogy
that represent our science so well. will change. They always have and they always will. But that in no way
should be mistaken for a reduction in mineralogy’s relevance.
As my final comment in the President’s Letter, allow me to attempt to
put together these three themes in a way that will result in a grand We should expect that the only constant thing is change. Change in the
challenge. To do so, I need to start with a natural tendency among all way in which mineralogy is taught; change in the courses where min-
of us: humans are deeply prone, and often for good reason, to put up eralogy is taught; change in the way mineralogy is done; and change in
dividing lines. We often categorize, organize, separate, classify, sort, and the way mineralogy is applied to understanding this planet, other
group. We all know this and experience it every day, whether in politics, planets, all the other types of bodies in space, and space itself.
religion, business, or any other human endeavor—including academics.
How many sessions at AGU, GSA, Goldschmidt, and other international
Considering the latter, here at Virginia Tech, every science major will
meetings can MSA cosponsor? We already cosponsor a remarkable
happily (or maybe not so happily) go through the usual “intro courses”
number, and we will do more. And how much of this exciting science,
where science is neatly separated—a.k.a. Introduction to Chemistry,
whatever “field” it is in, might appear on the pages of American
Introduction to Physics, Introduction to Biology, and so on—usually
Mineralogist? Mineralogy is relevant not just to itself, but to everything
within the first two years of their undergraduate tenure. However, these
outside of it. AmMin is now on a path to help promote that approach.
days, here at Virginia Tech and at some other schools, one can bypass
And as this happens, journals like Science, instead of just going to other
the intro courses and take, for two years, what is often called an “inte-
fine geoscience journals, such as EPSL and JGR, for their “Editor’s Choice”
grated science curriculum.” The historic barriers that we find so conve-
column, will also be able to come to American Mineralogist.
nient have been removed in this case, and students are immersed in
problem-driven science. In the process, they learn the fundamentals of Our grand challenge is to deconstruct artificial barriers, and at the same
all the sciences at once, as needed, to understand observed phenomena time actively show, always, how mineralogy is a science that is critically
of all sorts. After all, in the real world, there are no dividing lines within relevant to, and inseparable from, all aspects of the Earth and planetary
the behavior and processes of nature. Thinking of this from the opposite sciences.
direction, all aspects of nature operate not based on the principles of
physics and then the principles of chemistry, but on both, and always I have been deeply humbled to be president of this historic society, whose
combined. Closer to home, in the critical zone of Earth, no process is outlook is extraordinary, especially when seen from this angle. What a
truly purely geo or bio, but geo-bio-phys-chem, all mixed into one. From great pleasure it has been. My warmest and very best regards to all.
this vantage point, the dividing lines need to go away, or we are Michael F. Hochella Jr. (hochella@vt.edu)
fooling ourselves. Virginia Tech
President, Mineralogical Society of America

E LEMENTS 388 O C TOBER 2012

 NOTES FROM CHANTILLY
• Results of the 2012 MSA election: The 2013 president is John M.
MSA AWARDS
Hughes; the vice president is David J. Vaughan. Andrea Koziol remains
in office as secretary, and Howard W. Day was elected treasurer. The At this year’s annual meeting in Charlotte, North
new councilors are Isabelle Daniel and Kirsten P. Nicolaysen. They will Carolina, USA, Harry W. Green II will receive the
join continuing councilors Pamela C. Burnley, Guy L. Hovis, Christine 2012 Roebling Medal, given for a lifetime of out-
M. Clark, and Kimberly T. Tait. standing original research in mineralogy. Professor
• MSA members were contacted electronically in September to renew Green is Distinguished Professor of the Graduate
their membership for 2013. Members who renew and pay online before Division in the Department of Earth Sciences,
31 October 2012 will receive a $5 dues discount; the discount reflects University of California–Riverside, California, USA.
cost savings to MSA from members who renew early online. There will In his research, he uses microstructures to under-
be several electronic reminders before a paper copy is sent during stand the effect of stress on mineral reactions and
Harry W. Green II
November to those who do not renew online by the end of October. phase transformations, and the consequences of
• Honorary and life members and fellows are sent renewal notices. They those interactions for flow and failure in Earth’s
need not pay dues, but are sent notices as the best way to prompt an mantle and their relationship to plate tectonics. He has devoted par-
update of membership information, particularly mail and e-mail ticular attention since 1989 to the mechanics of earthquakes and other
addresses. processes operating within subducting lithosphere and at the interface
of that lithosphere with the mantle wedge above; in this environment
• Senior members and senior fellows also need not pay dues, but they
he and his colleagues have documented ultrahigh-pressure metamor-
do need to pay if they wish to subscribe to American Mineralogist or
phism occurring at depths approaching 400 km, followed by exhuma-
other journals.
tion to the surface.
A member qualifies for senior status if they have reached the age of 65,
have retired from fulltime professional employment, and have been a The Mineralogical Society of America Award is given
member of the Society for at least 30 years. Senior members and fellows for outstanding contributions by a scientist begin-
retain all benefits of MSA membership (receiving Elements, voting, ning his or her career. Dr. Karim Benzerara is the
reduced rates on MSA products, etc.), but need not pay dues. They can 2011 MSA Award recipient. Dr. Benzerara is a CNRS
subscribe to the paper or electronic version of American Mineralogist or director of research, Institute of Mineralogy and
other journals, purchase Society publications, and attend short courses Physics of Condensed Matter (IMPMC), Paris,
all at member rates. If you are interested in senior status, select senior France. Dr. Benzerara’s main research interest has
member or senior fellow dues on your next renewal and write us in the been the study of interactions between microorga-
text box that you would like to become a senior member. Karim Benzerara nisms and minerals, i.e. how microbes form and/or
alter minerals. The implications are as diverse as the
• If you subscribe to other journals through MSA—Journal of Petrology, search for traces of life in ancient rocks, the design of bioremediation
Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Rocks & Minerals, Mineral News, or strategies, and the study of processes leading to pathological calcifica-
Gems & Gemology—please renew early. MSA needs to forward your tions in the human body. In particular, he has used microscopy and
renewal to those publishers before your subscription runs out. spectroscopy techniques extensively, including electron- and synchro-
tron-based X-ray microscopy (STXM), which provides information both
J. Alex Speer
on organic carbon and minerals down to the nanometer scale. Recently,
MSA Executive Director
his research has centered on the formation of amorphous carbonate
jaspeer@minsocam.org
phases within cyanobacteria cells.

IN MEMORIAM
H AROLD R. STEACY – SENIOR FELLOW – 1967

2012–2013 MSA DISTINGUISHED LECTURERS

The Mineralogical Society of America is pleased to announce its
Distinguished Lecturers and their lecture titles for 2012–2013:
Out-of-print Reviews volumes are back! You can now purchase the
Julia A. Baldwin, Department of Geosciences, University of entire volume of your favorite, previously out-of-print Reviews
Montana, Missoula, MT, USA: (1) “Metamorphic phase diagrams and volume in electronic or print form. These are: v1, Sulfide Mineralogy;
geochronology: You can’t have one without the other”; (2) “When v2, Feldspar Mineralogy; v3, Oxide Minerals; v4, Mineralogy and Geology
the continental crust gets really hot: The petrology of ultrahigh- of Natural Zeolites; v5, Orthosilicates; v6, Marine Minerals; v7, Pyroxenes;
temperature metamorphism” v9A, Amphiboles and Other Hydrous Pyriboles: Mineralogy; v12, Fluid
Matthew J. Kohn, Department of Geosciences, Boise State University, inclusions; and v17, Thermodynamic Modeling of Geologic Materials:
Boise, ID, USA: (1) “How to become a fossil: A geochemist’s guide”; Minerals, Fluids, and Melts. An added advantage: you can word search
(2) “Making the Himalaya: Oozing, squashing or sliding?” the electronic versions.

Hans-Peter Schertl, Institut für Geologie, Mineralogie und You can also purchase single chapters from these and all Reviews
Geophysik, Ruhr Universität Bochum, Bochum, Germany: (1) “A time volumes [v1 (1974) to present], and you can use chapters from any
machine for rocks: Cathodoluminescence microscopy of metamorphic and all Reviews volumes for course packs and add to them articles
and magmatic minerals”; (2) “How do mountains form? The critical from the American Mineralogist [v85 (2000) to present] and Elements
evidence from small-scale petrological observation” [v1 (2005) to present].
The schedule of the Lecturers’ tours will be posted on the MSA website For more description and ordering instructions, visit www.minpubs.org
(www.minsocam.org). Check to see if the lectures will be at a location or contact Mineralogical Society of America, 3635 Concorde Pkwy Ste 500,
near you. MSA expresses its appreciation to these individuals for Chantilly, VA 20151-1110, USA; phone: +1 (703) 652-9950; fax: +1 (703)
undertaking such a service to our science. 652-9951; e-mail: business@minsocam.org.

E LEMENTS 389 O C TOBER 2012

 International Association of GeoChemistry
www.iagc-society.org GSA ANNUAL MEETING
The Geological Society of America annual
BIOGEOMON 2012 meeting will be held on 4–7 November in
The lovely Point Lookout Resort in Northport, Charlotte, North Carolina. Please stop by the
Maine, USA, was the ideal setting for the IAGC booth (#804) in the exhibit hall, or better
7th International Symposium on Ecosystem yet, stay for a couple of hours to help recruit
new members. The IAGC is also cosponsoring
Behavior (BIOGEOMON 2012), held July
6 sessions this year:
15–20, 2012. This symposium was the proud
continuation of the tradition of the ƒ T1. Sources, Transport, Fate, and
Toxicology of Trace Elements and
BIOGEOMON series of meetings, which was
Organics in the Environment (Cochairs:
started by the Czech Geological Survey David T. Long, W. B. Lyons, LeeAnn Munk)
(Prague) in 1987 as GEOMON. The meeting Participants on a field trip to Acadia National Park, ƒ T7. Progress in Forensic Geochemistry
was renamed BIOGEOMON in 1992 to empha- with conference organizer Steve Norton (front, center, (Cochairs: Russell Harmon, Jose R. Almirall)
size the biogeochemical scope and research in blue shirt)
ƒ T8. Hydrochemistry and Biogeochemistry
that was represented. There have been well of Tropical Mountainous Rivers and
attended BIOGEOMON symposia in both Estuaries (Cochairs: Steven Goldsmith, Russell
North America and Europe since that time, Harmon, Ryan Moyer)
and most recently the IAGC has formed a new ƒ T9. Geochemistry of Urban Environments
Working Group on Biogeochemistry, with the (Cochairs: W. B. Lyons, David T. Long, Russell
Harmon)
BIOGEOMON symposium as its focus.
Suppor t ing t he Work ing Group on ƒ T67. Innovative Classroom Approaches to
Teaching Biogeochemistry (Cochairs: Steven
Biogeochemistry is an exciting new direction
Goldsmith, Sarah K. Fortner, Stephen Levas)
for IAGC.
ƒ T129. Advances in Spectroscopy for
BIOGEOMON 2012 hosted over 200 scientists Geological and Mineralogical Analysis
(Cochairs: Thomas Tague, Sheila Seaman)
from 18 countries. The week included 20
invited speakers, more than 120 contributed Senator George J. Mitchell delivering a moving closing
talks, and 90 poster presentations. The six con- keynote address PhD STUDENT RESEARCH GRANTS
ference plenaries emphasized the use of time-
The IAGC PhD Student Research Grants help
series data, either empirical, experimental, or
Paul and Mary fame), and a midweek day of cover the cost of the analytical needs of PhD
modeled, to defi ne the trajectory of our past
field trips in the stunning Penobscot Bay students in geochemistry. Up to three PhD
environments and project ecosystem behavior
region. In addition, attendees were honored to Student Research Grants of up to US$3000 may
into the future. Conference research themes
hear an inspiring closing keynote address by be awarded annually.
included: long-term integrated monitoring and
modeling; biosphere–atmosphere interactions Senator George J. Mitchell, the former United
Applications for Student Research Grants for
and exchanges: gases and aerosols; the role of States Senate majority leader from Maine who
2013 will be accepted through 1 December
extreme events in ecosystem biogeochemistry; was instrumental in the reauthorization of the
2012. Funds will be distributed to winning
linkages among biogeochemical cycles; critical U.S. Clean Air Act in 1990 and played a leading
applicants before 1 May 2013. For application
unknowns in nitrogen dynamics and reactive role in peace negotiations in both Northern
instructions and to download the necessary
N; biogeochemistry of peat lands; carbon Ireland and the Middle East. Overall the week
forms, please visit www.iagc-society.org/phd_
cycling in well-drained forested soils; carbon provided an excellent opportunity to be chal-
grants.html.
cycling in poorly drained soils; experimental lenged by presentations on cutting-edge eco-
manipulations of ecosystems; trace element system science, to connect and reconnect with
biogeochemistry and ecosystem impact; appli- friends and colleagues in this highly interna- CALL FOR 2013 AWARDS
cations of isotopes and tracers; bioenergy- tional community, and to enjoy the beauty
Now is the time for the 2013 IAGC award nomi-
production impacts in forested systems; the and hospitality of coastal Maine. This highly
nations! Awards to be bestowed in 2013 are the
role of biogeochemistry in ecosystem restora- successful event was skillfully organized by an Ebelman Award, the Distinguished Service
tion and rehabilitation; and ecosystem man- energetic team led by Steven Norton, Ivan Award, the IAGC Fellow award, and the IAGC
agement and ecosystem services. Fernandez, and Tiffany Wilson from the Certificate of Recognition. For a summary of the
University of Maine. Plans are already awards and instructions on how to submit your
Other highlights of the week included a underway to hold the next BIOGEOMON in nomination, visit www.iagc-society.org/awards.
copious lobster banquet, where participants Bayreuth, Germany. html. Deadline for submission is December 1.
were serenaded by Noel Paul Stookey (of Peter,

BIOGEOMON 2012 attendees

E LEMENTS 390 O C TOBER 2012

 Sociedad Española de Mineralogía
www.ehu.es/sem
SEM-SEA 2012:
JOINT MEETING OF THE SPANISH MINERALOGICAL SOCIETY AND THE SPANISH CLAY SOCIETY

The joint meeting of the Spanish Mineralogical “Instrumental Techniques” (4), “Petrology and Four awards for young researchers were given
Society and the Spanish Clay Society (SEM-SEA Geochemistry” (3), and “Mineral deposits” out for the best communications. The winners
2012) was held in Bilbao on 27–30 June 2012. (31). The plenary lectures and communica- were:
The event was organized by the Department tions have been published in volume 16 of
ƒ Rubén MARTOS-VILLA: “Molecular simula-
of Mineralogy and Petrology of the University Macla magazine, which also includes geolog-
tions of methane hydrate crystal structure
of the Basque Country UPV/EHU. The program ical information about two scheduled field
and spectroscopic properties”
can be downloaded from the conference web- trips: “Cretaceous Submarine Volcanism of the
site: congresomineralogia.es. Basque-Cantabrian Basin” and “Mineralogical ƒ Anna ARIZZI: “La influencia de la Interfase
Heritage of El Valle de Carranza.” Árido-Matriz (ITZ) en las propiedades de
The opening ceremony was attended by the
Morteros de Cal”
presidents of the two societies, Mercedes
Suárez (SEA) and Carlos Ayora (SEM), and by ƒ Ana C. S. ALCÂNTARA: “Bionanocomposites
representatives of the organizing committee based on the megamolecular polysaccha-
(Javier Arostegi and Jose Miguel Herrero), the ride sacran and clay minerals”
University of the Basque Country (Miguel
Angel Gutierrez-Ortiz, vice chancellor, and ƒ Chiara CAPPELLI: “Monitorización de la
Esther Dominguez, dean of the Faculty of alteración de biotita mediante microscopio
Science and Technology), and the Basque confocal de contraste de fase de interfer-
Government (Begoña Ochoa). encia diferencial”

These joint meetings have become the most

important Spanish forum for discussion and
debate among researchers and professionals
working in mineralogy, petrology, geochem-
istry, mineral deposits and clays. More than Rubén Martos-Villa (left) receiving his award from
150 participants attended the meeting. A pro- Carlos Ayora (SEM president)
gram of grants and awards encouraged the
participation of young researchers.

A workshop entitled “Archaeometry and

Cultural Heritage: The Contribution of
Mineralogy,” organized by the Spanish
Mineralogical Society, was included in the
meeting program. The workshop program fea-
tured 7 lectures (Dr. Dominguez Bella, Cadiz; Ana Alcântara receiving her award from Mercedes
Dr. Prudêncio, Lisbon; Dr. Maggetti, Fribourg; Suárez (SEA president)
Dr. Artioli, Padova; Mr. Hradil, Prague; Dr.
Vendrell, Barcelona; and Dr. Rodriguez-
Navarro, Granada) and a discussion session.
Chiara Cappelli receiving her award from Mercedes
The papers have been published in volume 9
Suárez (SEA president)
of the Seminars of the Spanish Society of
Mineralogy collection and can be downloaded
from the SEM server.

The SEM-SEA 2012 program included four ple-

nary lectures: “Mineralogy in the study of
historical buildings” (Dr. Vendrell), “Marine
minerals as tracers of detrital provenance and
transport agents” (Dr. Fagel), “Using clay to
bioremediate oil spills” (Dr. Warr), and
“Structure and lithology of the oceanic crust:
What do we know today?” (Dr. Juteau). A total
of 111 scientific contributions were presented
at the conference (50 oral presentations and
61 posters), involving 385 authors. These con-
tributions were on the following themes:
“Archaeometry and Heritage Conservation”
(24), “Teaching and Museums” (2), “Applied
Mineralogy” (3), “Clay Minerals” (23),
“Environmental Geochemistry” (13), “Mineral
Sy nthesis and Cr ystal Grow th” ( 8), Participants in the SEM-SEA 2012 field trip to El Valle de Carranza

E LEMENTS 391 O C TOBER 2012

 Mineralogical Association of Canada
www.mineralogicalassociation.ca clearly acknowledged as the best-studied zoned pegmatite in the world.
He organized a memorable short course on granitic pegmatites for the
PUBLICATION NEWS MAC in 1978. In 1990, he wrote about the anatomy of a pegmatite and
about the influence of tectonic forces on the processes at work. In view
2012 Thematic Issues of The Canadian Mineralogist of his strong focus and prolific output on matters pegmatitic, it was fitting
Two exceptional individuals, Emil Makovicky and Petr Černý, will be given that the organizers of the PEG2011 conference, Miguel Á. Galliski and
a tribute in volume 50 of The Canadian Mineralogist. They have in common María Florencia Márquez-Zavalía, dedicated the meeting to Petr. The
their decision to leave their country of origin, Czechoslovakia, in the late response to a call for contributions to a thematic issue of The Canadian
sixties, and to come to Canada to pursue their ambitions in the Earth Mineralogist designed as a tribute to Petr was immediate and overwhelming,
sciences. Both Emil and Petr have gone on to be leaders in their respective to the extent that I proposed to split the tribute into two separate issues,
fields. In these days of virtual thematic issues, I planned real festschrifts with Miguel Galliski, David London, and Milan Novák as guest editors.
that could be bound and presented to the honorees and their families at The August issue (volume 50, part 4) will be a 375-page festschrift covering
an appropriate momentous occasion. mineralogical, petrological, and geochemical themes. The second install-
ment will be our December 2012 issue. We anticipate presenting both
Emil Makovicky chose McGill University in issues to Petr in May 2013, at the MAC luncheon during the GAC-MAC
Montreal to gain proficiency in the area of meeting in Winnipeg. A special session in honor of Petr Černý and an
structural crystallography. He had begun his excursion to the famous Tanco pegmatite will be feature attractions.
academic career at Comenius University in
Bratislava fifty years ago. For his PhD thesis Robert F. Martin, Editor
(1970), he worked on the very challenging The Canadian Mineralogist
structure of the sulfosalt cylindrite, under the
guidance of Prof. Alfred Frueh Jr. Dr. Frueh Quantitative Mineralogy and Microanalysis of Sediments
was then at the forefront of crystallographic and Sedimentary Rocks
studies of complex sulfides and silicates A two-day short course entitled Quantitative
showing non-Bragg reflections. By today’s Mineralogy and Microanalysis of Sediments
standards, gathering data with the film tech- and Sedimentary Rocks was held on May
niques then available was very laborious. 25–26, 2012, immediately prior to the
Progress was slow, but this allowed Emil to Geological Association of Canada–
acquire a solid grounding with which to Mineralogical Association of Canada joint
tackle future systematic investigations of the sulfosalts. He went on to annual meeting in St. John’s, Newfoundland.
define homologous series important in the common sulfosalts, to propose The course was presented to some two dozen
a modular classification of sulfosalts, and to focus on incommensurate attendees by an accomplished group of inter-
misfit-type structures. He teamed up with Milota, his wife, to establish national experts in the fields of mineralogy,
the solubility of platinum-group elements in common sulfides. He spent analytical geochemistry, and exploration
his academic career at the University of Copenhagen as Professor of geology. It included lectures, discussion, and
Crystallography and Mineralogy, and chose to publish many of his authori- a tour of the analytical geochemistry labs for
tative articles in The Canadian Mineralogist. In this way, Emil contributed microanalysis in the Bruneau Centre for
significantly to the strength of this journal in he mineralogy of ores. Thus Research and Innovation at Memorial
it was natural that his colleagues Tonci Balić-Žunić and Yves Moëlo came University of Newfoundland. Funding for the course was received from
to me with a proposal for a thematic issue as a tribute to Emil on the the MAC, Memorial University of Newfoundland, Apatite to Zircon Inc.,
occasion of his “retirement.” The illustration chosen by Emil for the Isomass Scientific Inc., and Bruker Ltd.
alluring cover of the April 2012 issue is a reflection of another aspect of
The course introduced participants to a variety of analytical instrumenta-
Emil’s fascination with symmetry operations, the ones displayed in ancient
tion and methods for understanding the mineralogy of sediments and
Islamic art. The example chosen was traced from a mosque in Maragha,
sedimentary rocks. Instructors demonstrated how these techniques are
Iran, and dates back to the late tenth century.
being used to address a variety of topics in sedimentary geology, such as
Petr Černý had a PhD from the Geological quantitative mapping of clastic and diagenetic minerals at various scales;
Institute of the Czech Academy of Science in determining the chemistry of organic matter, nanoporosity, nanoperme-
Prague when he came to the University of ability, 3D grain size, and shape distribution in coarse- and fine-grained
Manitoba as a postdoctoral fellow. For his sedimentary rocks; documenting changes in paleofluid composition
thesis (1966), he studied two granitic pegma- during growth of clays and carbonate cements; and characterizing reactive
tites from Věžná, in what is now the Czech and bioavailable metals in minerals of contaminated environmental
Republic. Arriving in Winnipeg in 1968, Petr media. A particular application of many of the techniques presented was
wasted no time in getting familiar with the mineral provenance for paleodrainage models, stratigraphic correlation,
enormous Tanco granitic pegmatite, then, as and petroleum and mineral exploration. These studies rely on quantitative
now, exploited for tantalum, cesium, and measurements of the abundances, morphology, and chemical and isotopic
lithium. To date, Černý has published 46 compositions of detrital grains in sedimentary systems, particularly refrac-
articles, chapters, and reports dealing specifi- tory “heavy” minerals. Uranium–lead geochronology of zircon and apatite,
cally with the Tanco mine, and many others the hafnium isotope composition of zircon, the lead isotope composition
in which the Tanco pegmatite is assessed in of feldspar, and fission track dating of apatite were explained in some detail.
relation to other rare-element deposits around the world. Petr’s impact An attractive, 299-page short course volume summarizing all the technical
lies in the broad area of the mineralogy, petrology, and geochemistry of information covered in the course is available from the MAC at www.
granitic pegmatites. Many of his contributions have appeared in The mineralogicalassociation.ca/index.php?p=25#SC42.
Canadian Mineralogist and have contributed to the strength of the journal
in this field. His work on Tanco culminated with a definitive statement Paul Sylvester
of the bulk composition of the Tanco pegmatite, by now Memorial University of Newfoundland, Canada

E LEMENTS 392 O C TOBER 2012

 CALL FOR NOMINATIONS 2013 MAC AWARDS STUDENT TRAVEL/RESEARCH GRANTS
The Mineralogical Association of Canada awards travel and research
Peacock Medal grants to assist honors undergraduate and graduate students in the
The Peacock Medal is awarded to a scientist who has made outstanding mineral sciences to:
contributions to the mineralogical sciences in Canada. There is no
• Present their research at a conference
restriction regarding nationality or residency. The medal recognizes
the breadth and universality of these contributions in mineralogy, • Visit a facility, laboratory, or field area to gather data for their research
applied mineralogy, petrology, crystallography, geochemistry, or the • Pay for analyses that cannot be acquired at their university
study of mineral deposits. or equipment for an independent research project

The maximum grant value is CDN$1200 per student. Grants will fund
Young Scientist Award up to 50% of costs incurred for registration, travel, and subsistence,
This award is given to a young scientist who has made a significant and up to 100% of other research costs (e.g. equipment, analyses).
international research contribution in a promising start to a scientific Quotations and receipts may be requested for any equipment
career. The scientist must be 40 or younger at the time of the award. purchased.
He or she must be a Canadian working anywhere in the world or a
scientist of any nationality working in Canada. The research areas Eligibility
include mineralogy, crystallography, petrology, geochemistry, mineral • Graduate students and honors students at the undergraduate
deposits, and related fields of study. level in one of the fields covered in The Canadian Mineralogist
(mineralogy, crystallography, petrology, economic geology,
Berry Medal geochemistry)
The Leonard G. Berry Medal is awarded annually for distinguished • Grant recipients must submit a report on their travel or research
service to the Association. The award recognizes significant service in for possible publication by MAC.
one or more areas, including leadership and long-term service in an
elected or appointed office. The medal is named after Leonard G. Berry For more information, see www.mineralogicalassociation.ca.
(1914–1982), a founding member of MAC, editor for 25 years of The Deadline to apply: January 15, 2013
Canadian Mineralogist and its predecessor, and fi rst winner of MAC’s
Past-Presidents’ (now Peacock) Medal.
Uranium: Cradle to Grave
Pinch Medal Mineralogical Association of Canada Short Course
The Pinch Medal has been awarded every other year since 2001 to Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada
recognize major and sustained contributions to the advancement of May 20–21, 2013
mineralogy by members of the collector–dealer community. The medal
is named for William Wallace Pinch of Rochester, New York, in recogni-
ORGANIZERS
tion of his enormous and selfless contributions to mineralogy through Peter C. Burns and Ginger E. Sigmon
the identification of ideal specimens for study and through his gener- University of Notre Dame
osity in making them available to the academic community.
The focus of this short course, which will immediately precede the GAC-MAC
Please submit your nominations by December 31, 2012 (November 30 meeting, will be the many aspects of uranium, an element that changed the
for the Pinch Medal). Check our website, www.mineralogicalas- course of the world like no other. Content will span the mineralogy,
sociation.ca, for additional details. geochemistry, and ore deposits of uranium, and will include nuclear waste
challenges and solutions, weapons proliferation, and nuclear forensics for
attribution and nuclear security.

Inter
restted
d in
n Rare Earth Elements?
We have publications for you!

The Mineralogy
and Petrology
of Carbonatites: Atlas of Non-Silicate
Pegmatites • TI 46-4, 2008, 360 pp Minerals in Thin
David London Rare-Element Section
• SP 10, 367 pp Geochemistry and Joan Carles Melgarejo
Mineral Deposits and Robert F. Martin
• TI 44-3, 2006, 250 pp

Order online at www.mineralogicalassociation.ca

E LEMENTS 393 O C TOBER 2012

 BOOK REVIEW

LAYERED MINERAL STRUCTURES

The remaining chapters tackle
AND THEIR APPLICATION IN more uncertain questions, such as
ADVANCED TECHNOLOGIES* “exactly how does water interact
with layer charges of common
smectite group minerals?” This
The current information about the existence of clay minerals on extra-
question has long been of interest
terrestrial bodies leads many to conclude that layered mineral struc-
to industry. Christidis emphasizes
tures facilitated the advent of self-replicating organic compounds on
a new, more insightful approach
Earth (i.e. life as we know it, here or elsewhere). Coupling this notion
that promotes treating smectitic
with Akihiko Yamagishi’s pioneering work on stereoselective molecular
samples using a variety of satura-
recognition of organics on clay surfaces further supports the long-
tions, like alkylammonium and
standing hypothesis of mineral natural selection in biochemistry (see
potassium, to assess key proper-
Cairns-Smith, Elements, volume 1, 2005) and the fact that we have
ties of thixotrophy (i.e. the ability
much to learn from nature’s world of clay nanocomposites. Also, a
to form a gel upon standing and
quick literature search using “clay nanocomposite” reveals hundreds
become fluid under stress—an
of citations in seemingly disparate engineering, medicine, geoscience,
essential process employed every
and materials science journals. All of this collectively suggests that
time you brush your teeth). Clay
layered mineral structures harbor enormous potential for applications
minerals and double hydroxides
in advanced technologies. The recent publication on this very subject
are not the only layered structures
by the European Mineralogical Union, Notes in Mineralogy, volume
in nature worthy of exploitation.
11 (EMU 11), edited by M. F. Brigatti and A. Mottana, arrives in a
Mottana and Aldega’s chapter broadens the theatrical stage of layered
timely fashion to give us the latest insights. The importance of this
materials to include graphene and addresses the pesky problem of how
book is derived from the coverage of the fundamental, yet complex,
to defi ne quasi-ordered nanosized intercalated structures. Traditional
layered structures that are possible from combining one or more layer
bulk methods, such as bulk powder XRD, often make hamburger out
types. Such combinations help make new-aged technological materials
of the materials we are trying to defi ne by averaging both bulk and
or enable ways to interpret old-aged geologic materials.
surface properties. The closer we want to look at an intercalated struc-
I fi rst digress by noting a slight misunderstanding hampering the ture, the less bulk XRD techniques can tell us (perhaps a new variant of
explosion of experimental work driven by hopes of discovering poly- Heisenberg to haunt us). The good news is that methods such as grazing
functional layered mineral structures. The incentive for fi nding new incidence XRD and X-ray absorption spectroscopies are reviewed with
materials is to expand thermal, rheological, time-release, and redox practical examples to guide us in studying configurations.
inhibitory/promoting material boundaries for biomedical, engineering,
The interaction of organic molecules with layered structures and surface
and environmental enterprises. The problem I see is that researchers
properties of clay minerals represents the current frontier for advance-
outside the field of mineralogy view natural layered mineral structures
ment of new materials in technology. The ability to control crystal
as some sort of reagent-grade compound, like those purchased from a
surfaces for the binding of molecules such as DNA is fundamental for
chemical supply store. Natural clays have novel properties, but they
biosensing, environmental science, and catalysis. Valdré and coauthors
are not all alike and are quite variable. A prime example is seen in the
explore recent advances in surface imaging techniques with atomic
kaolin-group minerals, which are used in ceramics, paper coatings,
force microscopy (AFM) and review some practical advances in under-
pharmaceuticals, inks, and plastics. Kaolin occurs with a wide range
standing decontamination of biological warfare agents, biofi lm for-
of crystallite order/disorder, crystal sizes and aspect ratios, and degrees
mation, and prebiotic chemistry. They clearly demonstrate the nucle-
of isomorphous iron substitution. Committing a career of research to
otide selectivity, using powerful AFM images of DNA ordering with
creating new materials without prior knowledge of the mineral struc-
linear confi rmations on brucite-like edges of a chlorite sheet, while by
tures will not only frustrate those who endeavor but also delay the
comparison the siloxane region topography indicates a very different
potential benefits to society.
agglomeration of the same DNA. Being able to control adsorption of
EMU 11 provides an ideal starting resource for those wanting to learn nucleic acid bases at different pHs and solution compositions on clay
more about natural layered materials. Chapters 1, 2, 3, and 7, with fi rst minerals raises the possibility of a genetic code based on purines and
authors Brigatti, Guggenheim, Li, and Bergaya, respectively, give over- a mechanism for protecting biomolecules from degradation.
views of layered silicates, order/disorder schemes, titanosilicates, and
Next to zeolites, clay minerals and their cousin layered structures (e.g.
intercalation, which collectively serve as a condensed resource for those
graphene) provide maximal amount and diversity of surface reactivity
needing a refresher in systematic clay mineralogy. Lanson’s chapter
sites, coming from outer surfaces, edge surfaces, and interlayer surfaces.
eloquently nurtures the notion of using X-ray diffraction (XRD) to
Schnoonheydt and Johnston bring closure to EMU 11 by linking water–
characterize anisotropic lamellar compounds (including layered double
ion interactions with clay surfaces (most examples being smectites) and
hydroxides) and the need to experimentally do this before, during, and
the amazing chiral discrimination that occurs when the organic com-
after testing. Following up XRD studies with calculated XRD models
plexes interact on these surfaces. Once these complex interactions are
assures the confidence needed to extract thermodynamic data, formu-
fully understood, the advances in electrochemistry, photochemistry,
late reaction mechanisms, and anticipate kinetic effects needed to give
and catalysis should open the path for novel ways to selectively react
new clay composites functionality. Speaking of models, Sainz-Díaz’s
enantiomeric (right- and left-handed) compounds. Some day we may
delightfully readable chapter on computational mineralogy helps to
realize a device, based on a clay-dye with extreme thermal, mechanical,
see how using both classical and quantum mechanical methods spe-
and chemical stability, small in size, low in energy demand, and high
cific to layered structures can be applied to interpreting spectroscopic
in light-scattering efficiency, that will enable us to biosense medical
properties, reactivity, and surface interactions with organic and water
problems well in advance of what we can do today.
molecules. This in silico work is supported by discussions of published
experimental vibrational and nuclear spectroscopic studies, which keep The bottom line is that EMU 11 is a very nice review volume for state-
this book from being an isolated theoretical exercise. of-the-art layered mineral characterization methods. The references
cited within it and peer-reviewed journals give the ultimate resource.
The lesson learned from this book is “get to know your layered mineral
structure well,” particularly if it is a natural material, and you will be
* Brigatti MF, Mottana A (eds) Layered Mineral Structures and Their Application well suited to discover the next nanocomposite to advance technology.
in Advanced Technologies. EMU Notes in Mineralogy Volume 11, XVI + 396 pp,
ISBN 978-0-903056-29-8 Paul Schroeder, University of Georgia

E LEMENTS 394 O C TOBER 2012

E LEMENTS 395 O C TOBER 2012
 PARTING SHOTS

FULL STOP FOR

MOTHER EARTH
As discussed elsewhere in this issue, many of the largest accumula-
tions of rare earth elements (REEs) are associated with rift-related
nepheline syenite and alkali granite plutons. The most extreme evolved
magmas produced by our planet form the agpaitic suite, named after
the headland of Agpat on Tunugdliarfi k, a fjord that cuts through the
extraordinary Ilímaussaq intrusion in the Mesoproterozoic Gardar rift
province in South Greenland (FIG. 1). Agpaite, by definition, has a molar
(Na + K) Al greater than 1.2; in other words, it contains much more
Na and K than can be accommodated in feldspars and feldspathoids,
and it also contains Na–Ti–Zr silicates.

FIGURE 2 Naujaite, Kangerdluarssuk fjord, Ilímaussaq intrusion. The rock is

simultaneously the type locality of eudialyte (pink), arfvedsonite (black)
and sodalite (grey prisms). The white areas are microcline and nepheline.

ƒ eudialyte, Na15Ca6Fe3Zr3Si(Si25O73)(O,OH,H 2O) 3 (Cl,OH) 2

(strong pink)
ƒ arfvedsonite, an alkali amphibole,
Na3 (Fe2+,Mg) 4Fe3+ Si8O22 (OH) 2 (black)
ƒ sodalite, Na4 (Si3Al3)O12Cl (light grey prisms)

The sodalite is a variety known as hackmanite. It is purple on a fresh

surface but its 1.13-billion-year-old colour fades to greenish grey in a
few minutes on exposure to light. I used to demonstrate this to stu-
dents, probably the only bit of the course they remembered!
FIGURE 1 Agpat headland, home to the agpaites
Kangerdluarssuk is the type locality for a further 8 mineral species,
all of which have subsequently been found elsewhere on Earth. These
minerals, occurring mainly in late pegmatites and veins, are:
The modern view is that the Gardar alkaline rocks are the products
ƒ aenigmatite, Na 2 (Fe2+) 5TiSi6O20
of extreme fractionation of an alkali basaltic parent magma origi-
nating from asthenospheric mantle modified by alkaline, rare-element- ƒ polylithionite, KLi2AlSi4O10 (F,OH) 2
enriched metasomatic fluids. The magmas ponded and fractionated, ƒ potassicarfvedsonite, KNa 2Fe2+ 4Fe3+ Si8O22 (OH) 2
perhaps at multiple levels, on their ascent, and also during their fi nal ƒ rinkite, Na(Na,Ca) 2 (Ca,Ce) 4 (Ti,Nb)(Si2O7)(O,F) 4
emplacement, since many rocks are clearly cumulates. In the fi nal ƒ skinnerite, Cu3SbS3
evolved juices, we have a blurring of silicate magma and silicate-rich ƒ steenstrupine-(Ce), Na14Ce6Mn2+ Mn3+ Fe3+2Zr(PO4)7
aqueous fluids that precipitate a bewildering array of exotic minerals (Si6O18 ) 2 (OH) 2 ·3H2O
and concentrate rare elements beyond the wildest fantasies of geochem- ƒ tundrite-(Nd), Na 2Nd 2TiO2 SiO4 (CO3) 2
ists. Many components, many phases, and a composition somewhere ƒ ussingite, Na 2AlSi3O8 (OH)
near the multiphase invariant point that represents the end of Earth
evolution through igneous fractionation – full stop for Mother Earth! Not only do these formulae attest to the extraordinarily high concen-
trations of elements that normally occur in parts per million, they also
Three localities in the Gardar rift (the Narsarsuk pegmatite, the Ivigtut illustrate the extremely alkaline character of the assemblage. Ussingite
cryolite body [Elements 5: 71, 2009] and the Ilímaussaq intrusion) have is essentially albite plus NaOH.
provided type samples for a total of 60 mineral species (that’s about
1% of all known species), of which 17 have not been found elsewhere. The type minerals in FIGURE 2 were collected on a remarkable journey
Ilímaussaq is one of the most complicated and, it is turning out, valu- started in 1806 by Karl Ludwig Giesecke, a German actor (his orig-
able intrusions in the world. About 220 mineral species have been inal name was Johann Georg Metzler). He had fallen on hard times
found there, so far. Below I give the formulae of a few them, just to in Vienna, left in a hurry without paying his bills and settled in
show how exotic and complex they are. Copenhagen, where he moved into mineral dealing. He arrived in
Greenland intending to stay for two years, exploring and collecting
F IGURE 2 shows a beautiful rock called naujaite, from the fjord minerals, but had to stay for seven because of the Napoleonic wars. His
Kangerdluarssuk, in the southern part of the 18 x 8 km Ilímaussaq samples were sent in a Danish ship to Copenhagen in 1806, but the
complex. It is extremely coarse grained, and seen out of context you vessel was taken as a ‘prize’ by the British Royal Navy and the minerals
would expect it to have come from a pegmatite. In Ilímaussaq such were auctioned in Edinburgh in 1808. Giesecke arrived back in Europe
rocks form whole mountainsides, and the naujaites make up more than in 1813, causing a stir by turning up in the English port of Hull clad in
half of the Ilímaussaq outcrop. The naujaite from Kangerdluarssuk is Inuit furs and feathers, his European clothes having long-since worn
the type locality for three mineral species, all visible in the photograph: out. Every cloud, however, has a silver lining. His samples had been
bought as a job-lot by a wealthy Scot, Thomas Allan, who recognised
Cont’d on page 398
E LEMENTS 396 O C TOBER 2012
 HMM #91500 In a joint effort to protect
and provide mineral material
Zircon Reference for present and future
Material research, across laboratories
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is marketing the HMM # 91500 zircon
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For ordering information go the the IAG’s
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As part of this collaboration, all profits from
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to expand its research collection.

This three-day Workshop

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discussion of the origin
and evolution of REE, Nb,
Ta, Li, Mo and In deposits,
and related processes in
igneous, hydrothermal,
metamorphic, and sup-
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CM2013, supported by the Geological Association of

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Geologists, petrologists, mineralogists, geoche-
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mists, explorationists, technologists and market
accompanied by a rich cultural program and followed by a
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fieldtrip to several large REE and Cu-Au deposits in the Gobi.
the Workshop, and explore wonderful Mongolia!
For further information, please visit us at:
www.criticalmetalsmeeting.com

E LEMENTS 397 O C TOBER 2012

 PARTING SHOTS

Cont’d from page 396

their importance and invited Giesecke to his home in Edinburgh. Allan

was impressed with his mineralogical skills and encouraged him to
apply for the Professorship of Mineralogy in the Royal Dublin Society,
a post Giesecke occupied until his death in 1833. One of Giesecke’s
samples was given the name allanite, so everyone was happy!

It is the northern part of the Ilímaussaq intrusion that is currently

attracting a lot of attention, mainly around a region of complex pegma-
tites called Kvanefjeld. So far Kvanefjeld is the type locality of a mere
7 mineral species, but remarkably none has so far been found outside
Ilímaussaq. They are:

ƒ kuannersuite-Ce, Ba6Na 2Ce2 (PO4) 6FCl

ƒ kvanefjeldite, Na4 (Ca,Mn)(Si3O7OH) 2
ƒ nabesite, Na 2BeSi4O10 ·4H2O
ƒ nacareniobsite-(Ce), Na3Ca3CeNb(Si2O7) 2OF3
ƒ orthojoaquinite-(La), NaBa 2 (La,Ce) 2Fe2+Ti2 Si8O26 (OH,O,F)·H2O
ƒ rohaite, Tl2Cu8.7Sb2 S 4
ƒ sørensenite, Na4Be2 Sn4+ (Si3O9) 2 ·2H2O

Naujakasite, Na6 (Fe,Mn)Al4Si8O26, is a fascinating mineral (FIG. 3). It

is a major rock-forming mineral at Kvanefjeld and over large areas of
Ilímaussaq, its silvery, diamond-shaped plates sometimes making up
75% of the rock, but it is known from nowhere else. Nowhere. It mainly
occurs in a rock type called arfvedsonite lujavrite, a bizarre peralkaline
amphibolite. It is often accompanied by beetroot-coloured villiaumite,
NaF, but it is so soluble in water that it does not survive on natural rock
surfaces. There is evidence that natrosilite, Na 2 Si2O5, was also present,
although it dissolves very rapidly in moist air, forming – as older readers
will know – water glass, once used for preserving eggs. Naujakasite has
relatively simple chemistry, not far from a combination of the common
minerals aegirine (NaFeSi2O6) and nepheline (NaAlSiO4). Anderson and
Sørensen (2005) have provided an intriguing assessment of the physical
and chemical conditions that provided the tiny window of opportunity
that gave naujakasite its moment as a rock star.

In 1955 Denmark began a programme to evaluate the uranium resources

of Greenland, and Kvanefjeld was discovered in 1956. Intensive map-
ping and drilling by the Geological Survey of Greenland continued until
the 1960s, and this work was followed up by detailed studies at the The entrance to the Kvanefjeld adit in 1986. The man in the centre is
FIGURE 4
University of Copenhagen under the leadership of Henning Sørensen, Henning Sørensen.
whom you can see in FIGURE 4. Two adits were dug, the largest in 1979–
1980. Most of the uranium and REEs are in steenstrupine. The ura-
and Energy Ltd, whose office address is in Subiaco, Western Australia.
nium programme was dropped in 1983, but in 2010 the Greenland
Kvanefjeld is now believed to be the second-largest deposit of REEs in
government lifted its ban on uranium mining and the area has been
the world, and the sixth largest uranium deposit. It has particularly
the subject of an intensive drilling programme by Greenland Minerals
high concentrations of heavy REEs, which are in much demand. It is
nice to see that the operators have called one of their exploration zones
the Sørensen deposit.

If mining goes ahead, I do not think it will be long before the list of
weird minerals found in Ilímaussaq becomes considerably longer. It is
a matter of great sadness to me that Mother Earth’s ultimate igneous
products will be dug up, but I fear it is inevitable. It is to be hoped that
the developers dedicate time and money to systematically recording
and interpreting features that they uncover, and take the trouble to
preserve crucial sections. Once it’s gone, it’s gone, full stop.

Ian Parsons
University of Edinburgh, UK

Andersen T, Sørensen H (2005) Stability of naujakasite in hyperagpaitic

melts, and the petrology of naujakasite lujavrite in the Ilímaussaq alkaline
complex, South Greenland. Mineralogical Magazine 69: 125-136
The mineral data were largely taken from Petersen OV and Johnsen O (2005)
Mineral Species First Described from Greenland. Canadian Mineralogist
Special Publication 8, 184 pp

FIGURE 3 World’s rarest rock-forming mineral? A silvery rhomb of naujakasite

in naujakasite lujavrite, Kvanefjeld, Ilímaussaq. The crystal is 15 mm
in largest dimension.

E LEMENTS 398 O C TOBER 2012

 RARE MINERALS Leonard Himes
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PARTING QUOTE
TENURE TRACK POSITION
An ounce of example is worth a pound of generalities. MINERALOGY/MATERIAL SCIENCE
HENRY JAMES The Department of Earth and Environmental Science
at TEMPLE UNIVERSITY seeks applicants for a tenure-track
position at the level of Assistant or Associate Professor in
ADVERTISERS IN THIS ISSUE mineralogy and material science whose research emphasizes
the emerging fields of Environmental Mineralogy, Medical
Actlabs 397
Mineralogy, or Nanoscience to begin in August 2013.
AHF Analysentechnik 326 The successful candidate will have a Ph.D. degree, an established
Bruker AXS 376 record of accomplishment in their discipline, a strong commitment to
teaching and student mentoring, and a keen interest in collaboration
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CAMECA Back cover program. The candidate is expected to complement existing specialties
in our department, including low-temperature aqueous geochemistry,
Cambridge University Press 395 hydrology, environmental geophysics, structural geology, mineralogy,
coastal geomorphology, soils, sedimentology/stratigraphy, and
Critical Metals Workshop 397
paleoclimatology.
Excalibur Mineral Corporation 400 Available analytical instrumentation includes: X-ray fluorescence,
IAGeo 397 magnetic susceptibility, electron microprobe, liquid chromatography/
mass spectrometry, Raman spectroscopy, automated powder, single
International Center for Diffraction Data 332 crystal, and thin film XRD, SEM and TEM with EDS, as well as access to
Leonard Himes Fine Minerals 400 high-performance computing.
The deadline for applications is January 7, 2013. Applications should
Rigaku 331 include a CV, statement of research goals, description of potential
Savillex Inside front cover classes and teaching philosophy, names and addresses of at least three
references (five if applying at the Associate level), and copies of selected
SPECTRO 329 reprints. Applications should be submitted electronically via the link on
The Geochemist’s Workbench 399 the Department website: www.temple.edu/geology and letter of intent
emailed to Jonathan Nyquist, Department chair (nyq@temple.edu).
Thermo Scientific 395
Temple University is an affirmative action and equal opportunity employer
JOB POSTINGS committed to equal access and to achieving a diverse community. The department
specifically invites and encourages applications from women and minorities. We
Temple University 400 will be available to meet with candidates at the 2012 Annual GSA and AGU
meetings in Charlotte and San Francisco.
See www.elementsmagazine.org/jobpostings

E LEMENTS 400 O C TOBER 2012

 CALENDAR
May 5–8 Canadian Institute of Epitaxy (ICCGE-17), Warsaw, Poland. April 21–25 MRS Spring Meeting,
2012
Mining, Metallurgy, and Petroleum Web page: http://science24.com/event/ San Francisco, CA, USA. Web page:
December 3–7 AGU Fall Meeting, 2013 Conference & Exhibition, iccge17 www.mrs.org/spring2014
San Francisco, CA, USA. Details forth- Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Web page:
www.cim.org/calendar/calender. August 12–15 SGA 12th Biennial May 21–23 Geological Association of
coming
cfm?Year=All Meeting, Uppsala, Sweden. Web page: Canada /Mineralogical Association of
December 5–8 13th European www.akademikonferens.uu.se/sga2013 Canada Annual Meeting, Fredericton,
Meeting on Environmental Chemistry, May 19–22 AAPG 2013 Annual Canada. Details forthcoming
Moscow, Russia. Web page: www.euro- Convention & Exhibition, Pittsburgh, August 18–23 EnvironMetal
PA, USA. Web page: www.aapg.org Isotopes 2013, Ascona, Switzerland. June 9–13 Goldschmidt Conference,
peanace.com/about/meetings
E-mail: emi2013@env.ethz.ch; website: Sacramento, CA, USA. Details forth-
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January 2–4 Applied Mineralogy Manitoba, Canada. Web page: http:// Crystallographic Meeting, Warwick, UK. Meteors, Helsinki, Finland. E-mail:
Group - Mineral Deposits Studies gacmacwinnipeg2013.ca Website: http://ecm28.org acm-2014@helsinki.fi; web page:
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php?ID=4 Conference: Interior of the Florence, Italy. Website: www. August 3–7 Microscopy & Micro-
Earth, South Hadley, MA USA. goldschmidt2013.org analysis 2014, Hartford, CT, USA. Web
January 6–10 93rd
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TX, USA. Web page: http://annual. Poznan, Poland. Web page: www.astro.
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Studies Group Annual Meeting, Bristol, Aosta Valley, Italy. Web page: www.
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From Molecular Processes to Global
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April 7–11 245th American Chemical 2014 highlighted in yellow. This meetings
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Exposition, New Orleans, LA, USA. Web Alberta, Canada. Web page: www. Conference and Expo on Advanced Koziol (more meetings are listed on
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August 4–8 Microscopy & Micro- homepages.udayton.edu/~akoziol1/
zoic Magmatism in Central Europe,
analysis 2013, Indianapolis, IN, USA. March 16–20 247th ACS National meetings.html). To get meeting infor-
Görlitz, Germany. E-mail: basalt2013@
Web page: www.microprobe.org/events Meeting & Exposition, Dallas, TX, USA. mation listed, please contact her at
senckenberg.de; web page: www.
Web page: www.acs.org
senckenberg.de/root/index.php?page_ August 11–16 17th International Andrea.Koziol@notes.udayton.edu.
id=15387&preview=true Conference on Crystal Growth and

E LEMENTS 401 O C TOBER 2012

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Feature analysis using a HyperMap
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Rare earth elements (REE) have gained increasing importance for high technology industries.
The scarcity of REE on the global market makes it necessary to explore alternative resources. The
laterite deposit shown above was examined using ESPRIT Feature, the QUANTAX EDS system‘s
automated feature analysis module. Combining morphological and chemical classification made it
possible to display several monazite generations formed upon chemical weathering of carbonatites.
High concentrations of La are shown in yellow, high concentrations of Nd in red, intermediate
concentrations of La and Nd in blue and cerianite is shown in green.

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REE concentrations on various spots of a garnet grain.
Data obtained on the CAMECA IMS 7f-GEO
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a c

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b d
a&b: Chondrite-normalized REE profiles as determined by EPMA. Monazite cores
contrast with monazite rims and associated xenotime.

A
c&d: WDS maps of Nd and Y distributions.
Points marked on the Nd map show EPMA age determinations in Ma, 2σ
Data acquired on the SX Ultrachron model, courtesy of Dr. Julien Allaz,
Univ. of Colorado and Dr. Michael Jercinovic, Univ. of Massachusetts.

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2D projection of 70 million atom 3D dataset from a metamorphic
zircon. Y atoms (red) are concentrated along microfractures.

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