Gems

VOLUME XXlll
SPRING 1987
The quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America
EDITORIAL
STAFF
Editor-in-Chief
Richard T Liddicoat, Jr.
Associate Editors
Peter C. Keller
D. Vincent Manson
John Sinkankas
Technical Editor
Carol M. Stockton
Editor
Alice S. Keller
1660 Stewart St.
Santa Monica, CA 90404
Telephonc: (213) 829-2991
Assistant Editor
Sally A. Thomas
Subscriptions
Lisa Hebenstreit, Manager
Yvette White, Assistant Manage1
Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

C. W. Fryer
Editor, Gemological Abstracts
Dona M. Dirlam
Editor, Book Reviews
Elise B. Misiorowski
Contributing Editor and
Editor, Gem News
John I. Koivula
PRODUCTION
STAFF
Jennifcr Brosious
Linda Manion
Susan Kingsbury
Julie Matz
Patricia Mayer
Cecile Miranda
Ruth Patchiclz
Peter Johnston
EDITORIA~.
REVIEW BOARD
William E. Boyajian
Santo Monica, CA
Robert Crowningshield
New York, NY
Pete Dunn
Washington, DC
Dennis Foltz
Santo Monica, CA
Chuck Fryer
Sonta Monica. CA
C. S. Hurlbut, Jr.
Cambridge, MA
Robert C. Kammerling
San ta Monica, CA
Anthony R. Kampf
Los Angeles, CA
Robert E. Kane
Los Angeles, CA
John I. Koivula
Sonto Monico, CA
Hcnry 0. A. Meyer
West Lofoyette, IN
Sallie Morton
Son lose, CA
Kurt Nassau
Bernardsville, NI
Ray Page
Santo Monico, CA
George Rossman
Posrldeno, CA
James E. Shigley
Santo Monica, CA
SUBSCRIPTIONS
Subscriptions in the U.S.A. are priced as follows: $32.95 for one year (4 issues), $89.95 for threc years (12 issues].
Subscriptions sent elsewhere arc $42.00 for one year, $120.00 for thrce years.
Special annual subscription rates are available for all students actively involved in a CIA program: $29.95 U.S.A.,
$39.00 elsewhere. Your student number must be listed at the time your subscription is entered.
Single issues may be purchased for $8.50 in the U.S.A., $1 1.50 elsewhere. Discounts are given for bulk ordcrs of 10
or more of any one issue. A lirnitcd number of back issues of G&G are also availablc for purchase.
Please address all inquiries regarding subscriptions and the purchase of single copies or back issues to the
Subscription Manager.
MANUSCRIPT
SUBMISSIONS
Gems d Gemology wclcomes the submission of articles on all aspects of the field. Please sec the Suggestions for
Authors in the Summer 1986 isstre of the journal, or contact the editor for a copy. Letters on articles published in
Gems d Gemology and other relevant matters are also welcome.
COPYRIGHT
AND REPRINT
PERMISSIONS
Abstracting is permitted with credit to the sourcc. Libraries are per~nittcdto photocopy beyond the limits of U.S.
copyright law for privatc use of patrons. Instructors are permitted to photocopy isolated articlcs for noncommercial
classroom use without fee. For other copying, reprint, or republication permission, please contact the Editor.
Gems Q, Gemology is published quarterly by the Gemological Institute of America, a nonprofit educational
organization for the jewelry industry, 1660 Stewart St., Santa Monica, CA 90404.
Postmaster: Return undeliverable copies of Gems d Gemology to 1660 Stewart St., Santa Monica, CA 90404.
Any opinions expressed in signed articles arc understood to be the vicws of the authors and not of the publishers.
SPRING 1987
Volume 23 Number 1
TABLE OF CONTENTS
EDITORIAL
The Gems & Gemology Most Valuable Article Award

Alice S. Ueller
FEATURE
ARTICLES
"Modern" Jewelry:Retro to Abstract

Sally A. Thomas
Infrared Spectroscopy in Gem Identification

Emmanuel Frjtsch and Carol M . Stockton
A Study of the General Electric Synthetic Jadeite

I<rrrt Nossor~and lames E. Shigley
NOTES
AND NEW
TECHNIQUES
A New Gem Material from Greenland: Iridescent

Or thoamphibole
Peter W Uitterdijk Appel and Aage lensen
REGULAR
FEATURES
Gem Trade Lab Notes

Gems & Gemology Challenge
Gem News
Gemological Abstracts
ABOUT THE COVER: The article b y Sally A. Thomas i n this issue examines the dramatic
changes in the design of fine jewelry that occurred between the late 1930s ond the mid-1960s.
The heavy, curved "Retro" jewelry produced during World War II was replaced i n the 1950s b y
a profusion of gems in light, flexible wire settings. During the late 1950s and early 196Os,
m a n y artists already skilled i n painting or sculpture experimented in jewelry design. The gold,
platinum, peridot, ond dinmond falltnsy necklace, nnd the gold, peridot, nnd diamond ring
(both c. 1965) shown here were designed b y surrealist artist Salvador Dali and executed b y
goldsmith Charles Wllliant. Photo courtesy o f Sotheby's.
ppesetting for Gems & Gemology is by Scientific Composition, Los Angeles, CA. Color
separations ore b y Effective Graphics, Compton, CA. Printing is b y Woverly Press, Easton, MD.
0 1987 Gemological Institute of America
All rights reserved
ISSN 0016-626X
THE GEMS & GEMOLOGY

MOST VALUABLE ARTICLE AWARD
Alice S. Keller, Editor
For many in gemology, 1 9 8 6 was a landmark year. Some of the most important technical developments and
concerns of the year-if not the decade-are reflected in the winners of the G e m s d Gemology most
valuable article award.
The winning article, 'A Simple Procedure to Separate Natural from Synthetic Amethyst on the Basis of
Twinning," by Robert Crowningshield, Corllelius Hurlbut, Jr., and C. W Fryer, provides a practical solution
to what had become a major problem in the colored-stone industry. The second-place article, "The
Gemological Properties of the Sumitomo Gem-Quality Synthetic Yellow Diamonds," by James E. Shigley,
Emmanuel Fritsch, Carol M. Stockton, John I. Koivula, C. W Fryer, and Robert E. Kane, gives an in-depth
examinatioil of the first jewelry-quality synthetic diamonds to be manufactured commercially. Gemology
is also, vitally, the study of the use of gems in jewelry. The award for third place goes to the beautifully
illustrated 'Art Nouveau: Jewels and Jewelers," by Elise B. Misiorowslzi and Dona M. Dirlam, which
investigates one of the most fascinating and distinctive periods in jewelry history.
Cash prizes of $500, $300, and $100, respectively, will be shared by the authors of the first-, second-, and
third-place winners. Brief biographies of the winning authors appear below and on the following page.
We also wish to talze this opportunity to thank the many people who participated in the voting this year.
Your comments indicated that it was not always easy to choose. One reader simply voted for three entire
issues. dthers commented that "all articles are first class" (we agree!. And another insisted that we
aclznowlehge the importance of the Gem Trade Lab Notes, Gem News, Abstracts, and Book Reviews sections (wedo!).Our thanlzs alsogo to the many authors, section contributors, and editorial review board members who hut thousands of hours into malting the 1 9 8 6 issues of Gems d Gemology among our best ever.
Currently vice-president of the GIA eastern headquarters in New York City, Bob
Crowningshield has been with the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory since 1947, and is
considered one of the world's leading authorities on gem identification. A native of
Colorado Springs, Colorado, Mr. Crowningshield has a degree in natural science from Sail
Diego State College and is a fellow with distinction of the Gemmological Association of
Great Britain as well as a graduate gemologist.
Cornelius Hurlbut, Jr.
Dr. Hurlbut's career includes more than 50 years in the Department of Mineralogy at
Harvard University (11 as chairman), where he is currently professor emeritus of
mineralogy. A prolific writer, he has edited the 15th through 20th editions of Dana's
Manual of Mineralogy and is coauthor of a college textbook on gemology. A native of
Springfield, Massachusetts, Dr. Hurlbut received his doctorate from Harvard University.
C. W. Fryer
Director of gem identification for the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, and editor of the Gem
Trade Lab Notes section of Gems d Gemology, Chuck Fryer has more than 20 years of
experience in gem identification. He is also a noted writer and lecturer on gemological
instruments and identification techniques. A native of St. Louis, Missouri, Mr. Fryer is a
graduate gemologist and a fellow of the Gemmological Association of Great Britain.
Editorial
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
James E. Shigley
Emmanuel Fritsch
Carol M. Stockton
John I. Koivula
C. W. Fryer
Robert E. Kane
Dr. Shigley, who received his doctorate in geology from Stanford University, is director of GIA's Research Department.
He has written several articles on gem minerals, and is currently directing research on the identification of natural,
synthetic, and treated gems. A research scientist at GIA, Dr. Fritsch has a Ph.D. in spectroscopy from the University of
Paris. He has done considerable research on the origin of color in gemstones. Ms. Stockton is senior research gemologist
in the GIA Research Department, and has written extensively for Gems d Gemology In addition to her G.G., she holds
a B.A. in anthropology from the University of California, Los Angeles.
Senior gemologist in GIAs Research Department, John Koivula is world renowned for his expertise in inclusions and
photomicrography. A graduate gemologist, Mr. Koivula also holds a fellowship diploma from the Gemmological
Association of Great Britain and bachelors degrees in chemistry and mineralogy from Eastern Washington State
University. C. W. Fryer's biography appears above. Mr. Kane, a graduate gemologist and native of Albuquerque, New
Mexico, is staff gemologist in gem identification at the GIA Gem Trade Laboratory, Los Angeles. He is also actively
involved in researching treated and synthetic gems, and has written and lectured extensively on these subjects.
I, to r.: John Koivula, Robert E. Kane, James E. Shigley, Carol M. Stockton, C. W Fryer, Emmanuel Fritsch
Ms. Misiorowskils art history major at Knox College evolved into an avid interest in
jewelry history. Currently research librarian at GIA, Ms. Misiorowski is also Book
Reviews editor for Gems d Gemology A native of New Canaan, Connecticut, she is a
graduate gemologist and has a number of years of experience working in the GIA Gem
Trade Laboratory.
Dona M. Dirlam
Now senior research librarian at GIA, Ms. Dirlam taught earth science for 10 years after
she received her M.S. in geology/geophysics from the University of Wisconsin-Madison.
In addition to her work expanding and updating the GIA library, she serves as editor of the
Gemological Abstracts section and the Annual Index of Gems d Gemology Ms. Dirlam,
who is originally from Redwood Falls, Minnesota, is a graduate gemologist and holds a
fellowship diploma from the Gemmological Association of Great Britain.
Editorial
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
"MODERN" JEWELRY:
RETRO TO ABSTRACT
By Sally A. Thomas
T h e period between the onset of World

War I I and the mid-1960s saw the
development of several styles in fine
jewelry During the 1940s, Retro jewelry
retained Art Deco's bold lines but
gradually softened its colors and curved
its sharp geometric shapes. These heavy
settings were eventually replaced by fine,
hand-made -wire settings which prodr~ced
flexible, th&e-dimensional jewelry shaped
b y the gehktones themselves. The
designers and neo-Renaissance artists of
the 1950s dreated colorful jewels overflowing with faceted gems as well as beads,
cabochons, or rough-tumbled stones. In
the late 1950s and early 1960s, gemstones
became subordinate t o the flow and sham
of the overall design during a revival in
individual craftsmanship that is still
evident in contemporary jewelry
--
ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Ms. Thomas is a writer and editor for the
Gemological lnstitute 01 America in Santa Monica.
Acknowledgments: The author would like to thank
the following people lor supplying many insights
and useful information for this article: A. H. Fisher,
J, Jonas, N. Letson, R. T: Liddicoat, B. Merritt,
F: Rich, and J. Samuel. 0. Beasley of The
Worshiplul Company 01 Goldsmiths, C. Elkins 01
Sotheby's-Beverly Hills, M. Kellaher 01 Verdura,
L. Krashes 01 Harry Winston, Inc., J. Landers 01
Tiffany & Co., W. Roosli of Gubelin, Harold &
Erica Van Pelt-Photographers, and B. Wassarman of Sotheby's-New York were very helpful in
securing photos. Special thanks go to Dona
Dirlam and Elise Misiorowski lor their comments
and encouragement. Ruth Patchick did a
wonderlul job typing the manuscript.
O 1987 Gemological lnstitute of America
Modern Jewelry
he roughly 30 years between the onset of World War I1

and the early 1960s were dynamic ones in jewelry
design. Art Deco, which was the predominant style of
jewelry in the 1920s and early 1930s, was a backlash
against the disillusionment following the first world war.
Deco jewelry was weighty, bold, and exotically geometric,
a bonding of art and industry (Ebert, 1983). By the late
1930s, however, Deco had begun to alter into a softer, more
voluptuous style that has recently been loosely classified
as Retro (figure 1).Created primarily in France, Italy, and
the United States during the lean war years, Retro jewelry
used what precious metals (forthe most part gold)and gemstones were available during and immediately after the
war.
As was the case following the first world war, people in
the late 1940s and early 1950s were hungry for luxury and
opulence, which prompted a revolution in the design of
fine jewelry. Light, hand-made wire settings enabled jewelers to create flexible, three-dimensional pieces that
shimmered with cascades of fine diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds.
During the mid-1950s, artists already skilled in painting and sculpture began to take an active role in jewelry
design. Many new or improved methods to work gold had
evolved during the warj at the same time, new quantities of
gems such as citrine, tourmaline, amethyst, and aquamarine became available on the market. These neo-Renaissance artists - applying their design talents in many different areas, like their counterparts centuries earlier in
Europe-used these materials to create colorful, exotic
pieces that appealed to a burgeoning upper middle class
seeking both quality and stylish creativity in their jewelry,
The demand for creativity in design also propelled
individualized craftsmanship in the late 1950s and early
1960s. Eventually, fewer gemstones were used, as the
emphasis in design shifted from the materials to the design
itself.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
This article, then, traces the evolution of

jewelry design from Retro, the most recently
defined period, to the beginning of contemporary
jewelry design in the early 1960s.
JEWELRY OF THE 1940s:
THE INFLUENCE OF WAR
World War 11, with the destruction and privation
4 that it brought to much of.Europeand Asia, greatly
affected the design and production of jewelry. In

Europe especially, metal, jewels, and craftsmen
were consumed by the war. Many jewelry firms
were forced underground, disbanded, or even destroyed. And many pieces made during this time
were broken up after the war to finance reconstruction efforts. In addition, during the 1960s some
jewelers had their 1940s gold jewelry florentined (a
texturing process whereby parallel lines are
closely engraved in one direction and then crosshatched at 90" with parallel lines more lightly
engraved) to malze it more salable (J. Samuel, pers.
comm., 1987). This is why, until recently, many
jewelry historians have overloolzed the decade
surrounding World War 11, believing it was little
more than a buffer between the bold geometric
jewelry of Art Deco and the luxurious flexible
pieces of the 1950s.
Only within the past several years has interest
in this "lost" period been piqued. During the past
decade, jewelry from the 1940s began to appear in
prestigious auction houses. Franqois Curiel, head
of the jewelry department at Christie's New Yorlz
office, is credited as having been the first, in the
early 1970s, to categorize jewelry from this period
under the term Retro. He chose this word because
it was, lilze much of the jewelry it described,
reminiscent of Art Deco, and it would be easily
recognized by the public (N. Letson, pers. comm.,
1987). The identification of a recognizable style
initiated research and reevaluation of the jewelry
produced during the years surrounding the second
world war.
Retro Jewelry: The Materials and the Style. Retro
jewelry evolved directly out of Art Deco, which
had waned by the early to mid-1930s (again, see
figure 1).Pieces became much heavier and more
curved, as jewelers consolidated gold and gemstones into easily transported items of jewelry
(Gabardi, 1982). Whereas Deco jewelry was usually flat and one dimensional, early Retro jewelry
Modern Jewelry
had a chunky, sculptural quality, accompanied by

raised rectangles, domes, and baroque scrolls set
with bands of gemstones.
Because the war cut off most of the usual
gemstone supplies, Retro jewelry was fashioned
almost exclusively from gems and metals in stoclz
when the war brolze out. Diamonds were abundant, usually in small and medium sizes and cut in
calibre, round, or baguette shapes. Lilze Deco,
some Retro jewelry also used vibrant colored
stones such as rubies (and synthetic rubies), sapphires, and emeralds. However, as it grew away
from Deco, Retro jewelry started to use different
color combinations. For example, in 1939 Louis
Cartier produced jewelry that combined orange
and brown gems (Sindt, 19871, initiating the use of
less vividly colored stones such as topaz, citrine,
green beryl, and aquamarine (figure 2). In Retro
jewelry, citrines and aquamarines were often
paired with rubies.
The war also had a dramatic impact on the type
of metal used for jewelry. Platinum, the most
popular metal of the 1920s and early 1930s) was
commandeered for war-time manufacturing.
Thus, most Retro jewelry was set with gold. It was
often used as smooth or fluted sections, pierced
strips, or wires interwoven in lattice and grid
meshes (Gabardi, 1982).After the war, warm, soft
shades of pinlz, green, white, and yellow gold were
created with copper and silver alloys. Many pieces
combined several different shades of gold together
(N. Letson, pers. comm., 1987).
Although early Retro jewelry retained much of
Decols geometric lines, pieces produced near the
end of the 1940s toolz on a distinctly floral style.
Sprays or bunches of diamonds burst forth, loosely
bound with flowing scrolls, plaques, twists, and
spirals of diamond baguettes. Many of the finer
diamonds in these pieces had been part of the
Spanish crown jewels, which were broken up and
the stones placed on the marlzet in the early 1940s.
Figure 1. These jewels represent three distinct periods
in jewelry design. The cabochon ruby cufflinks
(manufactured around the tzzr11 of the centrlry) are
late Victorian, and the ruby, rock crystal and
diamond cufflinlcs (1930) are typical Art Deco. Note
h o w the gold, ruby, and diamond bow and bracelets
(all are c. 2940), which are characteristic of the early
Retro style, combine the softness and the geometry
of the other two styles. Photo corlrtesy
o f Sotheby's.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
A number of these diamonds were purchased by

American dealers, who often had the old-mine
stones recut into modern styles by European
cutters who had fled the war (A. H. Fisher, pers.
comm., 1987).
Retro jewelry originated in France, spread
throughout Europe, and emigrated to the United
States with the outbreak of the war. For example,
the French firm of Van Cleef & Arpels produced a
collection of jewelry for exhibit at the 1939World's
Fair in New Yorlz, but when the war broke out, the
pieces remained in New Yorlz and served to influence U.S. designers. Van Cleef and Arpels jewels
were particularly lznown for their bouquets de
fleurs style. Ribbon-like bracelets consisted of
hexagonal links that were centered on flowery
clusters of fine gemstones and fastened with heavy
clasps containing gems set en suite with the band
(Gabardi, 1982).
Much of the war-time jewelry produced by
Cartier was in the "animalier" style. Many kinds of
animals, such as birds, dogs, cats, and horses, were
created by individual Cartier craftsmen. These
miniature' golden figures were studded with a
variety of ifine-colored gems and often brightly
enameled-a gay, rebellious style against the advancing war. Cartier mastermind JeanneToussaint
designed two symbolic pieces, L'oiseau en cage and
L'oiseau libre (the bird in the cage and the free
bird), in mute defiance of the German occupation.
Other French firms such as Boucheron, Chaumet,
Lacloche Frkres, Fouquet, and Mauboussin, as well
as the closely linked Belgian firms of Wolfers,
Leysen Frgres, Altenloh, and Sturbelle, all produced fine Retro jewelry during and after the war.
Italian jewelry of this period tended to adopt
the French forms, motifs, and materials. Firms
Figure 2. This assortment of jewels illustrates m a n y

of the cl~aracteristicsthat are distinctive of the Retro
style. The ruby and diamond bangle bracelet (c.
1940) shows the curved lines of Retro but with the
sharply contrasting white and red that are often
associated with Art Deco. The citrine and diamond
brooch by Cartier (c. 1940) and the green beryl,
sapphire, and diamond ring (1940) demonstrate the
trend toward tawny-colored gems during this period.
Gold "snake" chains, like those in the gold and
emerald Van Cleef d Arpels wristwatch (1940) shown
here, were also popular i n the 1940s, as were animal
figures such as the ruby, emerald, and diamond owl
brooch. Photo courtesy o f Sothebyk.
Modern Jewelry
Figure 3.
Gold bracelet-watches with
gem-covered dials were
important fashion accessories
during the 1940s. This one
features gold scroll links, typical
of Retro jewelry, with an emerald
and diamond cover. Photo courtesy
of Sothebyk.
such as Buccellati, Castelli, and Bulgari all created

pieces in the Retro style. Interestingly, gemstones
were in such short supply in Italy during the war
that amber, which has been used sporadically in
jewelry throughout history, once again became a
popular gem material.
Fine Retro jewels were produced in the United
States by firms such as Raymond Yard, Oscar Heyman, Black Starr and Frost, Laclzreitz, Bailey Banks
& Biddle, Seaman Shepps, Shreve & Co., William
Russer, and John Rubel. Traubert and Hoeffer
created a jewelry line called Reflection for
Mauboussin in New Yorlz. In addition, Forstner
Chains of Rhode Island became lznown for their
snake-like gold chains, which were often seen in
conjunction with American jewelry of the 1940s
(F. Rich, pers. comm., 1987; again, see figure 2).
Retro Fashion. The dramatic change that occurred
in women's fashion during the 1940s greatly affected Retro jewelry,The sleek, elegant fashions of
the Deco period were suddenly replaced by severely tailored jackets, with lapels and padded
shoulders, that were worn with narrow skirts.
The single most important item of jewelry
during this time was without a doubt the clip.
Popular in the 1930s, clips of the Retro period
served to soften and feminize the starker clothing
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
of the 1940s. Two clips worn together often served

as a brooch or a pendant to a neckline. Separately,
they adorned jacket lapels or served as hair ornaments.
Bracelets were commonly made of heavy gold
bands, often thickly set with precious stones. It
was during this period that "tank-tread" style
bracelets appeared, bracelets formed of chains of
angular links simulating the tracks of armored
cars (Gabardi, 1982).Swiss jewelers of this period
produced montres bracelets, wrist watches that
were actually heavy gold bracelets with small dials
that were commonly concealed under jeweled
covers (see figure 3).
Brooches were enormously popular, especially
as executed in heavy, flowing gold bows (figure 1)
or sprays of flowers. Necklaces and rings also
followed the basic Retro style.
Retro jewelry was born and nurtured out of
World War 11. As French jeweler Jean Mauboussin
observed: "The jewellery of the Forties was the
jewellery of an age of crisis, so it was only logical
that it should come to an end with the crisis itself"
(Gabardi, 1982).However, although the war ended
in 1945, it would take several years for manufacturing jewelers, particularly those in Europe, to
recover from its effects. Thus, Retro jewelry appeared in the early postwar years as well, until it
was gradually replaced by the multitude of styles
that came to the forefront during the late 1940sand
early 1950s.
POSTWAR TRENDS:
CLASSIC TO AVANT GARDE
Since jewelry historians have only just begun to
recognize and define the jewelry of the 1940%it is
not surprising that the jewelry of the ensuing
decade has not yet been given a specific name. Not
only do we lack the benefit of historical perspective, but this period is also difficult to pinpoint
because of the surge of diversity in jewelry design
that began in the late 1940s and has, in fact,
continued to the present. We can, however, identify certain important trends during this periodin the gemstones, types of settings, and designsthat give it a distinctive character.
jewelry of the late 1940s and the 1950s was an

almost ostentatious use of gemstones.
The fascination with gemstones was propelled
by the numerous discoveries of new gem sources
that occurred both during and right after the war.
In their search for large quantities of minerals and
metals to support the machinery of war, many
countries looked to South America for electronicgrade mica, feldspar, quartz, and lithium minerals.
During the prospecting for these minerals, several
hundred gemstone mines were discovered in Brazil
alone (Proctor, 1984).These prodigious discoveries
launched the subsequent interest in and popularity of Brazilian gems such as citrine, topaz,
kunzite, and chrysoberyl. Aquamarine and amethyst were also extremely popular and were often
set together, accented with diamonds (N. Letson,
pers. comm., 1987). Tourmaline, particularly
rubellite, experienced an increase in popularity
(R. Liddicoat, pers. comm., 1987).In fact, literally
tons of gem-quality tourmaline crystals were discovered by American miners intent on recovering
mica from deposits in the Governador Valadares
district of Minas Gerais, Brazil (Proctor, 1985).
Although faceted stones were extremely popular at this time, beads, cabochons, and roughtumbled gems also experienced a revival. They
were often mounted in independent prong settings
to create a smooth continuous band, or jumbled
together in a riot of color. Rubies, sapphires, and
emeralds, as well as coral and turquoise, were
favorite stones of firms such as Boucheron, Bulgari, and Van Cleef & Arpels. According to Baerwald and Mahoney (1949),during this time peridot
was "rapidly becoming one of the most popular
gemstones for modern pieces." And, indeed, peridot was commonly seen in jewelry of the 1950s.
Also following the war, diamonds were
brought to the attention of consumers at all
income levels by De Beers, who in 1948 coined the
now-classic phrase "a diamond is forever" (Nadelhoffer, 1984). In 1954, De Beers instituted the
annual Diamonds International Awards to encourage the use of diamonds in both daytime and
evening jewelry and to advance diamond jewelry
design (Scarisbrick, 1981).
Gemstones at the Forefront. As the world left the

war behind, wealth was redistributed to a rapidly
growing upper middle class, which was hungry for
luxury and eager to display its prosperity. Consequently, the most striking characteristic of the
Flexible Settings. The growing demand for conspicuous luxury was eloquently expressed in the
new flexible jewelry pioneered by Harry Winston
of New Yorlz. The heavy settings characteristic of
Retro jewelry had some sense of dimension, but a
Modern Jewelry
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
re 4. Light, hand-made wire settings enabled Harry Winston f o create supple jewelry-here,
142 ct of diamonds set i n plafinum-that was shaped entirely by the gemstones themselves.
Courtesy of Harry Winston, Inc.
ponderous amount of metal still dominated the

gemstones. Winston spent a lifetime accumulating
fine diamonds, as well as rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and pearls. To him, fine gemstones were the
essence of jewelry, meant to be displayed in elegant
but undeniably unobtrusive settings (Krashes,
1984).
Innovative fabrication methods were needed to
accomplish the lightness and dimension Winston
desired. His inspiration for this new method occurred one Christmas as World War I1 drew to a close.
Arriving home one evening, Winston noticed how
Modern Jewelry
the leaves of the holly wreath on his front door gave

the wreath shape and dimension. It suddenly
struck: him that perhaps gemstones could be made
to shape jewelry, and at once he set craftsmen to
the task:. What resulted was a revolutionary way of
setting and designing jewelry: fine, hand-made,
flexible wire settings of platinum or gold (figure 4).
Independent prong setting allowed Winston's famous diamonds and colored stones to shape jewelry that was light, dimensional, and so flexible that
bracelets could be "crumpled lilze a sweater and not
one stone will touch another" (Krashes, 1984).
GEMS h GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
ents, and remains a hallmark of Winston jewelry.

This method of setting jewelry was adopted by
other large firms such as Tiffany and Van Cleef &
Arpels and established an important trend in
jewelry design.
Legendary Designers. The nouveau riche of the

1950swanted color, creativity, and individuality in
their jewelry -pieces to express the vitality of the
times. W o jewelry designers of this period created
pieces that capture the essence of 1950s style: Jean
) and Fulco, Dulze of VerSchlumberger (1908dura (1898-1978).
Jean Schlumberger ("berger" pronounced as in
FabergC)is famous for both his jeweled objects and
his jewelry (Hoving, 1982). Born in France, he
Figure 6. Fanciful and prickly, this "Sea
Bird" was designed in the 1950s for Tiffany
d Co. b y lean Scl~lumberger.The body is
made from diamonds pavk set i n platinum,
with gold scales and crests, a ruby eye, a
black enamel beak, and a blue enamel
collar. Photo courtesy of Tiffany d Co.
Figure 5. During the 1950s, gemstones could

not be too large or too lavish. Created i n
1951 b y Harry Winston for Mrs. I. W Killam
of Canada, these five pear-shaped diamonds
(ranging from 14 to 20 ct) drop gracefully
from a river of round and baguette
diomonds (62 ct total), Illustration b y A. V
Shinde; courtesy of Harry Winston, Inc.
Winston's earrings were shimmering cascades of

diamonds falling from larger and often detachable
bases suitable for daytime wear. Perhaps the most
sumptuous pieces are his necklaces: brilliant,
supple rivers of large diamonds (figure 5) and fine
colored stones that lie softly against the contours
of the neck and throat. This style proved enormously popular with wealthy, conservative cli-
Modern Jewelry
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 7. Schlumberger also designed this sinuous "Leaves7'necklace, created from diamonds pavS
set in 18K gold. Photo courtesy of Tiffany d Co.
emigrated to the United States during World War I1

and set up a small shop on Fifth Avenue. In 1955,
his business was absorbed into Tiffany and he
entered his prime as a jewelry designer. He created
lavish pieces to suit the individual tastes of his
wealthy American customers. As he commented
in a recent interview, "To create these splendid
baubles, I become almost a psychoanalyst. When a
new client comes in, I must determine her taste,
her way of life, her lilzes and dislilzes, her superstitions, her physical characteristics, and the sense
she has of her appearance. You see, I must lznow the
physical environment in which my jewel will live"
(Hoving, 1982).
Schlumberger produced numerous imaginative pieces: angels, sea horses, birds, flowers, and
star fish (figures 6 and 7).Many were set in priclzly
Modern Jewelry
spines of gold amid a profusion of faceted jewels.

He is also credited with reviving enameling in
jewelry (figure 8). Schlumberger's famous Pegasus
pin combines emeralds and amethysts with gold
and sparlzs of diamonds, endowing the legendary
winged horse with flight and fire. He also created a
whimsical setting for the 100-ct Dancing Girl
sapphire by centering this magnificent stone in a
spilzey gold sunflower "growing" out of an ordinary
clay pot talzen from his client's greenhouse. After
this piece, Schlumberger went on to design a series
of jeweled boxes and other objects valued by
Tiffany between $200,000 and $500,000 (Hoving,
1982). Although he closed his studio in the late
1 9 7 0 ~his
~ designs are still being interpreted and
executed by Angelo Poliseno, Schlumberger's chief
jeweler at Tiffany.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
11
Figcire 8. Icnown as
"The Classics," Jean
Schluni berger's vivid
enameled bracelets
and earrings studded
wilh 18IZ gold were
almost a necessity for
lashionable, upperclass women in the
1950s. Photo courtesy
of Tiffany d Co.
Fulco Santostefano della Cerda, Dulze of Verdura, was another innovative jewelry designer of
the 1950s and early 1960s. Born into a noble
Sicilian family in 1898, Verdura's talent for drawing was evident at an early age. In 1927, he became
a textile designer for Chanel in Paris. His creations
were so original that within a short time he
became Chanel's head jewelry designer. In 1937
and 1938, he designed jewelry for Paul Flato in
New York and then in California, and in 1939 he
set up his own business at Cartier's original
headquarters on Fifth Avenue. Despite the war, his
jewels quickly became popular, and were purchased by such personalities as Cole Porter, Baron
Nicolas de Gunzburg, and opera star Lily Pons.
Verdura's pieces, many of which originally sold
for less than $1,000, show a more subtle, rounded
elegance that was also characteristic of the 1950s.
~ e r d u r abelieved that jewelry should enhance, not
overwhelm, the wearer. Favorite motifs included
ropes and knots of gold and diamonds, caning,
coins, and tassels similar to those in the papal coat
of arms (figure 9). He also liked to design pieces
based on nature: feathers, wings, ferns, and leaves.
Verdura's exquisitely executed jeweled sea shells
Modern Jewelry
were fashioned from colorful scallop shells slzillfully set with thin gold rims and small diamonds
and cabochons of coral or turquoise [figure 10).A
versatile designer, he could create a delicate "fairy
queen's tiara" of branched pink coral set with tiny
diamonds, and at the same time produce an abstract set of large baroque pearl links and studs
inset with round brilliant diamonds.
In 1970, Verdura retired to London and sold his
business to his associate Joseph C. Alfano. In 1985,
Alfano turned the business over to Ward Landrigan, who continues to execute Verdura's original
designs. Verdura's jewelry influenced both his
contemporaries, such as David Webb (figure l l ) ,
and later designers such as Margaret Styx, Angela
Cummings, and Paloma Picasso (Letson, 1983).
NEO-RENAISSANCE IN JEWELRY
An important development in jewelry design occurred in the late 1950s and early 1960s with the
emergence of neo-Renaissance artists. Like Cellini, Botticelli, and de Lucca of the Italian Renaissance, these artists were already skilled in painting
and/or sculpture when they began to experiment
with jewelry design. Few of these modern artists
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 9. Tassels were popular with the Duke o f Verdura, and were often seen i n his designs. Here
they appear i n gold and diamonds, setting off a necklace of tumbled peridot, a gemstone that was
particulnrly popular during the 1950s. The matching pearl with diamond earrings were also
designed b y Verdurn. Photo courtesy of E. J Landrigan 1nc.IVERDURA.
Modern Jewelry
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
13
preted with Braque's cubist vision (figure 12).

Many of the forms are similar: textured gold over
thin slabs of stone such as jasper, rhodochrosite,
lapis lazuli, grossularite, and turquoise. Some
pieces also used masses of pave diamonds to
complement areas of textured gold.
Salvador Dali, the celebrated surrealist Spanish painter, wholly believed in the Renaissance
concepts of an artist's versatility and integrity of
design. As he commented in Dali,A Study of His
Art-In-lewelry (Dali, 1959):
Figure 10. Verdura's sensitivity t o natural

beazlty is evident in this scallop shell set
with turquoise and diamonds. Photo
courtesy of E. Landrigan Inc./VERDURA.
had the technical slzills needed to actually manufacture their creations, yet they were responsible
for introducing concurrent art movements such as
cubism and surrealism into modern jewelry design, generating a trend that has heavily influenced
contemporary jewelry.
There is a small group of artists who designed
only a handful of pieces: Calder, Giacometti, Cocteau, Ernst, Arp, Man Ray, Tanguy, de Chirico, and
Dubuffet (Black, 1974).However, two neo-Renaissance artists did produce impressive collections of
jewels, and contributed greatly to the advancement
of jewelry design: Georges Braque (1882-1963) and
Salvador Dali (1904- ).
Georges Braque was a French painter and
designer who, together with the famous painter
and sculptor Pablo Picasso, pioneered cubism in
the early 1920s (Hughes, 1963).In contrast to the
single artistic viewpoint characteristic of Renaissance art, cubism involved multiple angles of
vision and the simultaneous presentation of discontinuous planes.
The culmination of Braque's work in jewelry
design occurred in 1963 when, at age 81, he
exhibited 133 jewels executed by Baron HenriMichel Heger de Lowenfeld at the Muse6 des Arts
Dkcoratifs in Paris. Most of these jewels portrayed
themes talzen from classic mythology and interModern Jewelry
Paladin of a new Renaissance, I too refuse to be

confined. My art encompasses physics, mathematics, architecture, nuclear science - the psycho-nuclear, the mystico-nuclear -and jewelry -not paint
alone.
My jewels are a protest against emphasis upon
the cost of the materials of jewelry. My object is to
show the jeweler's art in true perspective-where
the design and craftsmanship are to be valued above
the material worth of the gems, as in Renaissance
times.
Although he was influenced by Picasso in the

late 1920s, Dali was much more closely associated
with the surrealist art movement, a revolution
against traditional representational art. The surrealists portrayed fantasy and images from the
subconscious mind, founded for the most part on
Freud's methods of psychological investigation.
Thus, much of Dali's jewelry has a dream-lilze, if
not nightmarish quality. Many of his pieces are
anthropomorphic: An anemone swirls its petals of
human arms formed from pave diamonds and gold
in an unseen wind; a honeycomb heart of gold with
rubies and diamonds drips a golden drop of honey
(figure 13); an oak leaf is startlingly transmuted
into a gnarled hand with ruby cabochon fingertips;
two rows of lustrous white pearls beclzon from a
pair of sensual, yet vaguely sinister, ruby lips.
Dali's religious convictions are embodied in
his crosses. Many show a cubist influence and
convey an explosive divine power with sharp
needles of diamonds radiating from shattered or
disjointed golden crucifixes. One of his medallions
presents the world as a misshapen sphere, ruby
blood oozing from deep craclzs, pierced together
with an arrow that Dali says represents the healing
power of Christ (Dali, 1959).
INDIVIDUALISM PREVAILS:
THE EARLY 1960s
The jewelry designed by artists such as Dali and
Braque helped to close the gap between the mainGEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 11, jewelry designer David Webb was influenced by Verdura's designs and, like Verdura,
m a n y of his pieces used beads or rough-tumbled gemstones (often i n conjunction with faceted
material). This necklace of baroque rubies and pav6 diamonds set in gold, with a 27.5-ct ruby
pendant, also shows the geometric lines that were distinctive o f Art Deco. The ring, another David
Webb piece, contains a 32.5-ct ruby Photo courtesy of Sotheby's.
stream art world and the applied art of jewelry

design. As mentioned previously, most of these
artists merely designed the pieces, leaving their
interpretation and execution to highly skilled
metalsmiths. However, the 1950s and early 1960s
witnessed a revival of individual craftsmanship,
Modern Jewelry
and the reemergence of artisans who possessed the

talent to design, manufacture, and marlzet their
jewelry.
In the United States, one woman is credited
with almost singlehandedly reviving the crafts:
Mrs. Eileen Vanderbilt Webb (Black, 1974). Webb
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
15
Figure 12. By French artist Georges Braque,

this brooch of turquoise, textured gold, and
yavb-set diamonds portrays the bird
Memnon flying away from the walls of
Babylon. Photo courtesy of The Worshipful
Company of Goldsmiths, London.
strove to establish a school in the U.S. that,

initially, would train World War I1 veterans in the
American (primarily Appalachian) crafts, including jewelry fabrication (B. Merritt, pers. comm.,
Figure 13. The famous surrealist painter
Salvador Dali also designed a collection of
jewels, including this "Honeycomb Heart"
w j ~ hrubies and diamonds set in gold. Photo
courtesy of Sotheby's.
1987).In 1952 she founded the School for American Craftsmen in Alfred, New Yorlz (now part of
the Rochester Institute of Technology),and in 1955
she founded the Museum of Contemporary Crafts
in New Yorlz City. Shortly thereafter, Webb implemented America House in New Yorlz, a retail
gallery and shop open to any qualified craftsmen.
Baclzed by these institutions, the American craft
movement grew quiclzly and eventually influenced many talented artisans and jewelers such as
Irena Brynner, Ronald Pierson, Art Smith, and
Stanley Lexon.
The surge of craftsmen into jewelry was also
evident in Europe, particularly in Great Britain.
Graham Hughes, former artistic director of The
Worshipful Company of Goldsmiths, has been
particularly instrumental in promoting the crafts
movement. In 1962, in association with the Victoria and Albert Museum, he helped assemble
1,067 jewels from 28 countries. The exhibits were
selected on the basis of originality of design and
artistic merit rather than monetary value. Thus,
"the most precious diamond jewels in existence
shared the showcases with intrinsically worthless
pieces of extraordinary beauty" (Hughes, 1963).
The basic trend of this period, then, was one of
freedom and diversity unbound by any single rigid
standard of taste or fashion. The concept that
jewelry need not be dominated by expensive, large
stones to have value and merit encouraged individual craftsmen (and women) of the early 1960s to
pour their energy into individualistic, nonrepresentational pieces (figure 14). In general, gemstones became subordinate to the flow and texture
of the overall design. Many pieces, particularly
those from Switzerland (figure 15) and Scandinavia, revolved entirely around the cool, smooth,
abstract lightness of gold or silver.
During this time, many artists turned to
creating objets trouvhs, the "found objects" that
owe their shape to chance or the work of nature
(Hinlzs,1983).British artist John Donald was one of
the first to attempt to mount high-quality gem
crystals into rings, pendants, or pins. Through
arduous experimentation, he discovered methods
that enabled him to set the specimens without
damaging or even destroying their sometimes
fragile beauty (Hinks, 1983). Artisans such as
Georg Jensen, David Thomas, Desmond Clen Murphy, and Gilbert Albert also produced some stunning natural crystal pieces. Donald also experimented with dropping molten gold into cold water,
allowing the physical reaction to naturally shape
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
the piece. Andrew Grima, who is most famous for

his innovative watches, was also very slzilled in
producing objets trouve's, such as a delicate rosette-lilze brooch of diamonds set in gold cast from
pencil shavings. Others successfully incorporated
nongem materials, such as arrowheads, meteorites, and even small chunlzs of coal into beautiful,
expressionistic jewelry.
SUMMARY
The 30 years from the onset of World War I1 to the
mid-1960s witnessed dramatic changes in jewelry
design. The heavy, curved jewelry of the 1940s
gradually evolved into the sumptuous, gemstoneoriented jewels of the 1 9 5 0 ~and
~ then expanded
and grew to incorporate a multitude of textures,
forms, and materials. In essence, modern jewelry
has moved from periods (suchas Art Nouveau, Art
Deco, or even Retro) where one style predominated
and was relatively easy to identify, to a multitude
of styles unhampered by any one standard. The "do
your own thing" credo of the 1960s artisans
encouraged a new generation to embrace the
values of p.riginality and craftsmanship, and to
continue to experiment with shape, form, and
texture. This creative freedom has produced fine
contemporary jewelry designers such as Paloma
Picasso, Elsa Peretti, and Angela Cummings. In
Figure 14. Iewelry of t h e m i d - 1 960s became
increasingly abstract ond individual, as
demonstrated b y t h i s bangle-bracelet m a d e
f r o m malachite, tiger's-eye, diamond, and
rliodonite. Courtesv o f Giibelin.
Figure 15. Individualism in the 1960s empliasized

originality in texture and design rather t h a n gems.
Courtesy of Giibelin.
turn, their individualistic jewelry has encouraged

consumers to d?re to express their own tastes,
whether it be meteorites in niobium or diamonds
in gold.
REFERENCES
Baerwald M., Mahoney T (1949) Gems and Iewelry Today.
Marcel Rodd Co., New York.
Black J.A.(1974) The Story of lewelry. William Morrow and Co.,
New York.
Dali S. (1959) Dali, a Study of His Art-In-jewelry. Owcn
Cheatham Foundation, New York.
Ebert M. (1983) Art Deco: The period, the jewelry Gerns d
Gemology, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 3-1 1.
Gabardi M. (1982) Gioielli Anni '40 (The jewels of 1940s in
E~rrope).English trans. by Diana Scarisbrick, Gruppo
Giorgio Mondadori, Milan, Italy.
Hinks l? (1983)IThrentietll Century British jewellery. Faber and
Faber, London.
Hoving T (1982) "Cellini, Faberg6 and me." Connoisseur, April,
pp. 82-91.
Hughes G. (1963) Modern lewelry. Crown Publishers, New
York.
Krashes L. (1984)Harry Winston: The Ulti~nateleweler. Harry
Winston, New York, and the Gemological Institute of
America, Santa Monica, CA.
Letson N . (1983)The peerless Verdura. Connoisseur, March, pp.
52-62.
NadelhofferH. (1984)Cortier: Iewelers Extraordinary. Harry N .

Abrams, New York.
Proctor K. (1984) Gem pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil:
Exploration, occurrence, and aquamarine deposits. Gems
d Gemology, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 78-100.
Proctor K. (1985) Gem pegmatites of Minas Gerais, Brazil: The
tourmalines o f the Governador Valadares district. Gems
d Gemology, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 86-104.
Scarisbrick D. (1981) nends in post-war jewellery. In Art nt
Auction 7980-'81, Sotheby Publications, Totowa, NJ.
Sindt N . (1987) Design symposium explores 20th-century
jewelry National jeweler, January 16, p. 121.
Modern Jewelry
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY IN
GEM IDENTIFICATION
By Emmanuel Fritsch and Carol M. Stockton
Infrared spectroscopy i s a powerful tool

for gein identification and research.
Absorptions of a gem material i n the
infrared region o f the electromagnetic
spectrum are due to vibrations i n the
crystal structure; they can be used t o
help separate one gem material from
another or t o detect certain types of
treatments. T h e arrthors describe the n e w
Nicolet 6 0 S X Fourier transform infrared
spectrometer recently acquired b y CIA'S
Research Department, and outline the
detection of polymer-impregnation of opal
as a n example o f the use of infrared
spectroscopy i n gemology
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr, Fritsch is research scientist, and Ms. Stockton
is senior research gernologisl, in the Research
Department of [he Gemological lnstitule of
America, Sanla Monica, California.
Acknowledgrnenls: The aulhors wish lo lhank Dr.
George Rossrnan, of !he California lnslilute of
Technology (CalTech), who recommended lhe
applicalion of infrared speclroscopy lo !he
deteclion of irnpregnaled opals and provided
access lo CalTech's FTIR speclromeler before
GIA acquired ils own syslern.
@ 1987 Gemological lnslilule of America
18
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
nfrared spectroscopy in itself is not new, having become

generally available to scientists about 50 years ago.
However, technological advances in instrumentation in
the past 10 years have made infrared spectra much more
readily and rapidly accessible. In recent years, this spectroscopy has been used in several instances by a number of
gemologists (e.g., Arnould and Poirot, 1975; Zecchini,
1979); and since its arrival at the GIA Research Department in January 1986, the Nicolet 6OSX Fourier transform
infrared (FTIR) spectrometer (see box) has consistently
proved its value in gemological applications. As a result,
gemologists can expect to encounter numerous reports in
the future that involve the use of infrared spectroscopy.
This article is intended to introduce gemologists to the
concepts, instrumentation, and terminology of infrared
spectroscopy, as well as to illustrate the usefulness of this
technique through several examples, in particular the
distinction of natural from polymer-impregnated opals
(figure 1).
INFRARED ENERGY
The infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum is the
energy range just beyond the red end of the visible spectrum. In fact, the terminfrared is derived from being lower
in energy ("infra-") than the red end. The unit by which
infrared energy is usually measured is the wavenumber
(number of waves per centimeter), which is expressed in
reciprocal centimeters (cm-1). The infrared is thus referred to as the energy range between 13,333 cm-1 (the
edge of the red) and 33 cm - 1 (a limit determined by use and
technology). Alternatively, infrared radiation can be expressed in wavelength units, traditionally the micrometer
(1p m = 1,000 n m = 10,000 A), or in another energy unit,
electron volts (eV).This broad region is divided on the basis
of experimental techniques and applications into three
parts: near infrared, mid-infrared, and far infrared (figure
2). For most gemological purposes, infrared energy is
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 1. One of these two

opals (7.00 and 1.14 ct) has
been treated with polymer
to improve its play of color,
while the other is
completely natural. No
traditional gemological
tests can distinguish
between the two and,
now laboratory testing took
hours. With the infrared
techniques described in
this article, however,
identification can be done
in a matter of minutes (see
figures 6 and 8). Photo O
Tino Hammid.
expressed in cm- 1; energies above 400 cm- 1 that is, the mid-infrared and the near infrared - are
of g-eatesf hterest gemologically.
!.
APPLICATIONS OF INFRARED
SPECTROSCOPY
Absorption features in the visible range are largely
due to electron transitions, including those that
generate color, such as occur with chromium
atoms in the corundum lattice and cause the color
of rubies. In the infrared, however, spectral features generally arise from vibrations (as well as, in
the far infrared, from rotations) of molecular and
structural components of the crystal. For example,
carbon in diamond and water when present in a
gemstone have characteristic signals in the infrared.
Crystal structures consist of atoms held together by chemical bonds. A possible analogy to
describe these bonds is to think of them as springs
connecting heavy weights such that the weights
representing atoms have the ability to vibrate.
Every group of atoms has a number of intrinsic
vibration frequencies that correspond to rocking,
stretching, or bending of the bonds between the
atoms of the group (see figure 3). In order to
actually vibrate, the structure must extract energy
from some Source, in this case a beam of incident
infrared radiation, giving rise to an absorption
band. This band is usually very sharp for organic
X-rays, Gamma Rays . . .
3o.ooo-
Ultraviolet
26.700-.
20,ooo-
-5
violet
(375 nm)
Visible
P
a,
c
W
13.300-7
red
(750 ""1)
10,000-
Near Infrared
4,000
(2.500nm)
pdiowaves ...
Figure 2. The position of the infrared region and

its three subdivisions in the electromagnetic
spectrum.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
19
THE NICOLET 6OSX FOURIER TRANSFORM

INFRARED SPECTROMETER
Figure IA. The Nicolet 6OSX FTIR spectrometer. Photo courtesy of Nicolet I n s t r ~ ~ m e Corp.
r~t
This spectrometer (figure IA) is a state-of-the-art
instrument capable of measuring spectra between
400 and 25,000 cm- - that is, through the entire
mid- and near infrared, as well as visible, ranges.
How an Infrared Spectrometer Works. In a typical

dispersive instrument, the beam is split into two
parts: One goes through the sample, while the other
passes through a reference. Each beam is dispersed
through a prism or a grating, and the absorption at one
particular wavelength is analyzed by partially ob-
20
strutting the reference beam, until the same amount

of energy goes through both beams. An FTIR spectrometer contains two parts that do not exist in
classical dispersive instruments: a Michelson interferometer, which combines all the incoming infrared
radiation into one "interferogram," and a mathematical program that operates on the principle of the
Fourier transform, which converts an interferogram
back into a spectrum. In the FTIR concept, the light is
split into two halves by a semitransparent mirror
(called a beamsplitter). These two beams are then
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
reflected back toward one another by two additional

mirrors, one fixed, the other moving, so that the two
beams "interfere" when they come back together at
the beamsplitter, giving rise to a n interferogram.
Figure 1B shows the optical path of the infrared
radiation in a classical dispersive spectrometer, compared with the way the same radiation is handled
through an FTIR instrument. I11 the Fourier transform instrument, when the moving mirror is at
exactly the same distance from the beamsplitter as
the fixed mirror (or the same distance plus an integer
times half the wavelength), the interference is constructive (i.e., the two intensities are added together).
Otherwise, the interference is destructive. With such
a configuration, the further the moving mirror
travels, the better two very close frequencies will be
separated. In this manner, a very good resolution is
obtained without cutting down the amount of energy,
a problem inherent to any dispersive instrument. The
interferogram then goes through the sample, and
parts of the wavelengths are absorbed. The transmitted wavelengths-still in the form of a n interferogram-reach the detector. The data are digitized and
processcd using a Fourier transform program, which
(through'q'sequence of many steps) basically transforms thC. final interferogram into a transmission spectrum and eventually into an absorption
spectrum..
The FTIR spectrometer has a number of important advantages over the older dispersive instrument.
Because the entire spectrum is recorded at the same
time in the form of an interferogram, there is no need
to mechanically scan one wavelength after the other.
Thus, where 20 minutes were needed in the past to
obtain a spectrum using a dispersive instrument,
only a fraction of a second is required on a n FTIR
spectrometer. This allows the operator to run 100 or
even 1,000 spectra of the same sample in a very short
time and then average the results in order to reduce
the random "noise" and bring out weak bands that
often contain essential information. There is also
reduced heating of the sample, in contrast with
dispersive instruments, and the consequent spectral
perturbations are largely avoided.
I11 addition, the FTIR concept uses a laser both to
check the moving mirror displacements and as an
internal reference for wavelength, another feature
that is not found on the dispersive spectrometer.
A further advantage is that the Nicolet 6OSX
spectrometer is monitored by a powerful computer
that not only does the mathematics of the Fourier
transform, but also provides considerable flexibility
to plot, display, store, and manipulate spectra. Basically, then, an FTIR spectrometer is both faster and
more accurate than a dispersive instrument.
Fourier Transforn~Infrared Spectroscopy
How Spectra Are Obtained from Gemstones. A transparent gemstone is usually cut in such a way that
light returns to the eye, creating the brilliance and
fire of the gem. The problem in spectroscopy is
exactly the reverse: How do we get light to pass
through the stone and emerge on the other side?
Several sample holder "attachments" are available on
an FTIR spectrometer to achieve this purpose.
The most useful adapter is probably the microbeam chamber, where a curved mirror focuses the
beam down to an area the size of a pinhead, or smaller.
This intense, focused beam can then be passed with
relative ease through a very tiny culet or the girdle of
a stone to obtain a spectrum.
For nontransparent materials, such as jade and
turquoise, the diffuse reflectance attachn~entprovides satisfactory spectra, with the beam of energy
barely penetrating the surface of the sample, "bouncing" off, and then being collected by a curved mirror
before passing to the detector.
Figure I B. Comparispn of the principle of a

dispersive infrared spectron~etercvith that of an
FTIR instrument. The inonocl~romatorin the
former is replaced by an interferometer and
Fourier tra~lsforinprograin in the latter (after
Nicolet User's Manual, 1986).
Typical Dispersive Spectrometer Design
SmCE
E...,~s,,..,~
'
MOVING hllRROFl WSlTON
FTIR System Concept
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
21
Detection of "Water" and Its Significance in Gemology. "Water," either molecular ( H 2 0 )or as hydroxyl groups (OH)is combined in various forms in
many gemstones or is present as an impurity.
These various forms of water have characteristic
patterns in the mid-infrared and can be good
indicators of structure, origin, or treatment. Preliminary results show that natural amethyst can
be distinguished from its synthetic analog on the
basis of slightly different types of water absorptions. Water is typically the first component to
leave a mineral on heating; therefore, there is some
hope that infrared spectroscopy may also be useful
in identifying the absence of heat treatment in
some water-containing gemstones (Aines and
Rossman, 1985).
Figure 3. The vibrations of atoms i n , for
instance, o tetrahedral unit-szlclz as i n the
SiO, tetrahedron of silicates and quartz
illustrated here- are responsible for the
absorption of infrared radiation (after Conley,
1972).
molecules (such as polyester), and infrared spectroscopy has, indeed, been most extensively developed for organic chemistry.
Gemstone Identification through Characteristic

Infrared Spectra. Inorganic materials, including
gemstones, also have characteristic vibrational
energies in the infrared that can be used for
identification. However, their spectral features are
usually broader than for organic molecules. An
analogy can be made with X-ray diffraction, where
a pattern for a given mineral is the "fingerprint" of
its atomic structure. For infrared spectroscopy,
absorptions associated with the vibrations of the
crystal structure ("lattice vibrations") are characteristic of the given combination of atoms constituting the gemstone. A good example is provided
by turquoise: Natural turquoise - a phosphate,
CUA~~(PO,),(OH),
5*H20-can be distinguished
easily from one of its common substitutes, gibbsite - a hydroxide, A1 (OH),-by features in the
mid-infrared. Because the two materials are so
different chemically, their patterns are also very
different (see figure 4). Even Gilson turquoise,
which is a synthetic, exhibits a significantly
smoother pattern when compared with natural
turquoise, because of a different state of aggregation (Arnould and Poirot, 1975; Rossman, 1981).
Figure 4. G e m identification w i t h infrared

spectra: Natural turquoise has a very different
spectrum compared t o that of gibbsite, an
increasingly common substitute. Gilson
m a n - m a d e turquoise exhibits flattened
features. For the pzrrpose of this illustration,
transmittance values are arbitrary
a,
c
0
m
+
C
Ec
m
(Phosphate)
WAVENUMBER
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Detection of Gemstone Impregnation. The extensive documentation by organic chemists of the

characteristic infrared absorption spectra of organic compounds is very helpful in recognizing
impregnation in gemstones. One or more sharp
bands will show up in the spectrum of an impregnated stone that are not present in the spectra of
similar untreated stones. A detailed example of
how this is applied to impregnated opal appears
below. Not only does infrared spectroscopy enable
one to detect impregnation, but the additional
bands can also reveal which species of polymer or
other material has been used to process the stone.
Other Applications. Infrared spectroscopy reveals
characteristic patterns for different types of diamonds (Ia, Ib, IIa, IIb), inasmuch as both nitrogen
and boron impurities trapped in the diamond
lattice have absorption features in the mid-infrared. One of the most significant gemological uses
recently revealed for the near infrared is detection
of the H l b and H l c bands (4941 and 5165 cm- 1,
respectivC\jr), which identify that a diamond has
been irradiated and heat treated to produce or
enhance yellow to brown coloration (Woods, 1984;
Woods and Collins, 1986).
THE DETECTION OF POLYMERIMPREGNATION OF OPAL
BY MEANS OF FTIR SPECTROSCOPY
The ability of infrared spectroscopy to provide
information about various organics, plastics, dyes,
and hydroxides malzes this technique particularly
useful in the study of opal, especially the detection
of treatment. Until now, the only positive method
of identifying polymer-impregnation of opals (including impregnation with plastics and, more recently with silicon-based polymers)has been examination with an electron microscope (Manson,
1978))a time-consuming and expensive procedure.
The infrared spectra of opals in the 4000-9000
cm-1 range have been well characterized (e.g.,
Langer and Florlze, 1974). While the spectra of
natural opals vary somewhat, all exhibit a broad
transmission region between 5300 and 6800 cm- 1
and another between 4000 and 5000 cm-1. The
strongest absorption features lie between 50005300 cm-1 and 6700-7200 cm-1, and have been
attributed to combination vibrations of molecular
water (H20).Weaker absorptions also usually occur at about 4400 and 4500 cm-1, both caused by
vibrations of SiOH groups, as well as at 5500 cm-1

(figure 5).
We examined 15 natural, untreated opals by
FTIR spectroscopy and found that all displayed
infrared spectra consistent with the above general
pattern. These samples (figure 6 ) include Australian white, gray, and black opal; Brazilian white
and hydrophane opali and (from various localities)
blue, brown, orange, and transparent colorless opal
with play of color, red-orange and yellow nonphcnornenal transparent opal, and green chrysopal
("prase opalN).Variations among their spectral
features (figure 7) are related to differences in
microstructure, hydroxyl content, and organic
impurities.
We also examined 23 polymer-impregnated
opals by FTIR spectroscopy (figure8).They include
opals treated as long as 10 years ago as well as
stones treated within the last two years; some of
these can be detected by electron microscopy and
some cannot. White, black, brown, blue, and
orange baclzgrourid colors are represented.
Without exception, the impregnated opals exhibit absorption features in the infrared that have
Figure 5. The near-infrared spectrum of a

natural, untreated white opal from Australia.
Absorption features characteristic of opal are
la beled.
rr- -
I0
;Li
WHITE OPAL FROM AUSTRALIA
z
a
+
+m
rm
z
a
CE
xN;
+Ln
.,
9000
8b00
7b00
6b00
WAVENUMBER
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
5600
$000
Spring 1987
23
Figure 6. Several of t h e
natural, untreated opals
(0.88-14.79 ct) examined
for this study, including
material from Australia,
Brazil, Mexico, and Idaho.
Photo O Tino H a m m i d .
never been reported for any natural, untreated

opals. Two types of spectra can generally be distinguished for these treated opals. The first has strong
overlapping features at about 5725 and 58 10 cm- 1,
with weaker bands at about 4265,4350,4670, and
4775 cm-1 (figure 9). The second has strong
overlapping bands at 5780, 5890, and 5925 cm-1;
distinct features at 4735 and 6155 cm- 1; and lesser
ones at 4270, 4350, and 4405 cm-1 (figure 10).
Because of the overlap of features in the 43004500

cm-1 range found in both treated and untreated
specimens, however, we do not recommend the use
of bands in this region to determine treatment.
The exact cause of each feature has not yet
been identified; nor- has correlation been made
with the types of materials being used for impregnation. However, consistent differences in the
spectra of impregnated as compared to untreated
Figure 7. Near-infrared spectra of the Australian black, Idaho yellow and Mexican red-orange opals
pictured i n figure 6. In spite of the v~lriabilityexhibited among these spectra, their basic similarity to
the spectrum i n fisure 5 i s evident.
r
B L A C K OPFtL FROM A U S T R A L I A
~n
ID
L",
TRANSPARENT YELLOW O P A L
FROM I D A H O
0
m
TRANSPARENT RED-ORANGE O P A L
FROM M E X I C O
Ln
3.
wm
'1
W
U
.-
W .
U
+
Q
+ Ln
5n; -
I Ln
-5
S"
ID
Ir
f?
5
E< 0
.E
Lm" .b
19!1oo
shoo
7600
6boo
UAVENUMBER
shoo
5600
9600
8600
7boo
6b00
UFtVENUMBER
5600
$600
9600
8b00
7600
sboo
WAVENUMBER
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
sboo
$600
Spring 1987
"?
POLYMER-TREATED OPAL
5'9
,
.-
3-
t-
W
.,
U,.
Z
(I:
I-
c_?
rm -
V)
z
u
I
I
:
I-?
LO
xL"
In
(0
,
.
S~OO
6600
7600
6600
WFIVENUMBER
Figure 9. The near-infrared spectrum o f the opal

at top left i n figure 8 i s representative of the
first type described for polymer-treated opals i n
'the text. Absorptio'n feitzlres diagnostic o f the
treatment are labeled.
Figure 8. A representative sample (1.00-20.37 ct)

of the polymer-impregnated opals examined
for this study. Some of these can also
be detected b y electron microscopy,
while others cannot.
Photo O Tino Hammid.
opals are sufficient to deduce that certain features

are related to the impregnation materials. Thus, a
new method for the identification of polymerimpregnated opal, faster and more foolproof than
the old electron microscope test, has been identified. It should be noted, as a caution, that identification of treated opals by infrared spectroscopy
applies only to opals treated with polymer-type
materials. Sugar- and smolze-treated opals exhibit
no significant differences from untreated opals in
the 4000-9000 cm- 1 region. Identification of these
older types of treatment rests in the use of the
gemological microscope (e.g., Giibelin, 1964).
CONCLUSION
Infrared spectroscopy has now joined the ranlzs of
laboratory techniques that can be applied to solv-
Figure 10. The near-infrared spectrum of the opal at

middle right i n figure 8 is representative
of the second type described i n the text. Absorption features diagnostic o f t h e treatment are
labeled.
POLYMER-IMPREGNFITED OPFIL
(I)
L?
'I
E
m
Z
u
I-
LL?
r3-
V)
I
I
:
I-?
x"'
'J?
9
I
00
WFIVENUMBER
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
25
ing gemological problems that have thus far eluded

solution by traditional gem-testing techniques.
Reports on the use of infrared spectroscopy by
other scientists to identify irradiation and annealing of diamonds (Woods, 1984; Woods and Collins,
1986) as well as treatment and synthesis of other
gem materials (Langer and Abu-Eid, 1977; Zecchini, 1979; Dontenville et al., 1986)indicate that
infrared analysis is gaining popularity for gemological applications.
Other projects using infrared spectroscopy
that are now under way in the GIA Research
Department include:
Colored diamonds, especially the presence of
treatment-related absorptions in the near infrared
Naturallsynthetic separations: amethyst and
corundum
Impregnation: identification of the presence of
organic polymers in gemstones other than opal,
such as turquoise
Gem identification through fundamental lattice

vibrations: turquoise vs. gibbsite, jadeite vs.
nephrite, etc.
To increase our knowledge of gemstones, and
to simplify identification procedures by comparison with standard references, the GIA Research
Department will also create a library of gemstone
infrared spectra. Each spectrum will be correlated
with the stone's geographic origin or method of
synthesis, its chemistry, the orientation of the
crystal, and standard gemological properties.
In the near future, the above applications will
be developed and infrared spectroscopy will be
extensively used to help detect other forms of
treatment, especially heat treatment, inasmuch as
water is usually one of the first components to be
modified (Aines and Rossman, 1985). All these
ongoing studies suggest that infrared spectroscopy
is one of the most promising analytical techniques
available today for resolving otherwise elusive
gemological problems.
REFERENCES
Aines R.D., Rossman G.R. (1985)The high temperature behavior of trace hydrous components in silicate minerals.
American Mineralogist, Vol. 70, pp. 1169-1 179.
Arnould M., Poirot J.-I? (1975) Spectrographie infrarouge par
reflexion de la turquoise et de quelques-uns de ses substituts. Bulletin de 1'Associ~itionFr~incaisede Gemmologie,
Vol. 44, pp. 9-10.
Conley R.T. (1972) Infrared Spectroscopy, 2nd ed. Allyn and
Bacon, Boston.
Dontenville S., Calas G., Cervelle B. (1986)Etude spectroscopique des turquoises naturelles et traitees. Revue de
Gemmologie A.EG., No. 85, pp. 8-10, and No. 86, pp. 3 4 .
Giibelin E.J. (1964)Black-treated opals. Gems e3 Gemology Vol.
11, No. 5, pp. 157-159.
Langer K., Abu-Eid R.M.(1977)Measurement of the polarized
absorption spectra of synthetic transition metal-bearing
silicate microcrystals in the spectral range 44,0004,000
cm - 1. Physics and Chemistry of Minerals, Vol. I , pp. 273-
26
299.
Langer K., Florlze O.W. (1974)Near-infrared absorption spectra
(4000-9000 c m - 1 ) of opals and the role of "water" in these
Si02.nH20 minerals. Fortschritt der Mineralogie, Vol. 52,
No. 1, pp. 17-51.
Manson D.V (1978) Plastic impregnated gem opal. Gems d
Gemology, Vol. 16, No. 2, pp. 49-57.
llossman G. (1981)Color in gems: the new technologies. Gems
e13 Gemology Vol. 17, No. 2, pp. 60-72.
Woods G.S. (1984)Infrared absorption studies of the annealing
of irradiated diamonds. Philosophical Magazine B, Vol. 50,
No. 6, pp. 673-688.
Woods G.S., Collins A.T. (1986) New developments in spectroscopic methods for detecting artificially coloured diamonds. journal of Gemmology, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp. 75-82.
Zecchini I? (1979) Etude de l'absorption infrarouge de quartz
d'origine naturelle ou de synth&se.Revue de Gem~nologie
A.EG., No. 60, pp. 14-18.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
A STUDY OF T H E GENERAL
ELECTRIC SYNTHETIC JADEITE
-
By Kurt Nassazz and lames E. Shigley
The gemological properlies of synthetic

green and lavender jadeite, which has
been manufactured by the General
Electric Company on an experimen la1
basis, are summarized. The synthetic
judeites exa,mined appear as flattened or
rounded disks that have indices of
refractiofi df about 1.66 and specific
gravities of 3.28-3.34. They are also
similar in many other respecls to natural
jadeites, excep~for a slightly greater
hardness (7'/~-8)and differences i n luster,
translucency, and appearance. The
synthetic jadeites are the result of an
experimental study, and at present there
are n o plans for co~nmercialprodnction.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Nassau is a research scientist residing in
Bernardsville, New Jersey. Dr. Shigley is director
of the Research Department of the Gemological
lnstitute of America, Santa Monica, California.
Acknowledgments: The authors thank Drs. R. C.
DeVries and J F: Fleischer, of the General Electric
Company, for providing the synthetic jadeite
examined. D. Hargett, R. E. Kane, J. I. Koivula,
and C. W. Fryer made some of the gemological
observations and provided helpful suggestions on
the manuscript.
General Elcctric Synthetic Jadeite
n examining the prospects for the future of synthetic

gemstones, Nassau (1980) noted that 'Another field
providing scope for further work is that of the polycrystalline materials. . . . With their toughness derived from
tiny interloclzing crystals . . . the jades should provide
interesting preparation problems to the materials scientist." We now know that at that time R. C. DeVries and J. F,
Fleischer, of the General Electric (G.E.)Research Center in
Schenectady, New Yorli, had already completed the bulk of
their research on the synthesis of jadeite by a high-pressure
technique, although this work was not published until
1984 (DeVries and Fleischer, 1984 a and b).
In the course of their experiments, DeVries and
Fleischer produced white, various shades of green to black,
and lavender jadeite, in cylindrical pieces up to 12 mm in
diameter and 3 mm thick (figure 1).Although this product
can be considered gem material, it does not match the
highly translucent, almost transparent, quality of what is
linown in the trade as "Imperial" jadeite. Both total
synthesis, as well as reconstruction of crushed natural
jadeite with additional colorants added, were used to
produce uniform as well as mottled and layered structures.
It appears that at present the General Electric Company
has no intent to continue this research or to marliet a
synthetic jadeite. A brief preliminary description of this
material was provided by Pough (1985).
The following report describes the synthesis experiments and, on the basis of the authors' examination of a set
of samples obtained courtesy of Dr. DeVries, presents a
comprehensive gemological description of this synthetic
jadeite.
THE JADEITE "PROBLEM"
Jadeite is one of the pyroxene "single-chainNsilicates, with
ideal composition NaAlSi2O6 (Deer et al., 1978). Both
jadeite and the amphibole mineral nephrite are called jade.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
27
Figure I . These nine synthetic ladeites

manufactured by the General Electric Company
were examined b y the authors. The sample
n~linbersof the jadeites, starting at the top row
and proceeding left t o right, are as follows: 7, 6;
9, 3, 1; 4, 8, 5; 2. The pieces range from 0.68 ct
to 2.46 ct i n weight. Photo O Tino Hammid.
The two lzinds of jade consist of aggregates of tiny

interloclzing crystals. In the case of nephrite, these
microscopic crystals are long and fibrous, whereas
in jadeite they are more prismatic or platy (Zoltai,
1981).In both cases, the crystals themselves are
not particularly hard (5'/z to 7 on the Mohs scale),
but in their compacted, interloclzed arrangement
they are collectively extremely tough. This intricate network of tiny crystals is responsible for the
great toughness and excellent polishing quality of
both types of jade (see Bradt et al., 1973). Lilze
nephrite, jadeite is found in a range of colors, and
has been used extensively for carvings and other
ornamental purposes (for further details, see
Hobbs, 1982; Webster, 1983).
Early attempts to synthesize jadeite in the
laboratory have been summarized by Yoder (1950).
According to Roy and Tbttle (1956),L. Coes (Norton Company) may have been the first to achieve
success, in 1953.
28
General Electric Synthetic jadeite
Jadeite cannot be synthesized at atmospheric

pressure, since it decomposes into a mixture of the
minerals nepheline and albite when heated (see
Bell and Roseboom, 1969).Pressure is required to
maintain the stability of jadeite at elevated temperatures. As shown in figure 2, based on several
studies as summarized in Deer et al. (1978), a
pressure of about 28 lzilobars at about 1330C (and
higher pressures at higher temperatures) is required so that jadeite melts without prior decomposition. Equally important, such conditions are
also required for a melt of jadeite composition to
form crystalline jadeite without the presence of
any other phases.
To prepare a mixture of the correct composition for high-temperature studies of jadeite, it has
been customary to mix the ingredients (e.g.,
+ Na2C03+ 4Si02)and melt the mixture at
a high temperature in air. Typically, this is done at
1550Cin a platinum crucible. The CO, is released
and the result on cooling is a glass of jadeite
composition. The crystallization of such a glass at
high temperature and pressure then readily produces synthetic crystalline jadeite, although this
had previously been done only with very tiny
Figure 2. Temperatnre-press~~re
relations of
jadeite, showing the stability fields of jadeite
and other phase assemblages in this
compositional range (after Bell and Roseboom,
1969).
Liquid
Jadeite
20
30
40
50
PRESSURE (Kbar)
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
specimens, for example, by Williams and Kennedy

(1970).
, ,
THE GElVERAL ELECTRIC

EXPERIMENT
In the latter of the two descriptive accounts
published by DeVries and Fleischer (1984 a and b)
on their synthetic-jadeite experiments, they provide tabulated data giving the 61 compositions
used and some details of the 189 high-pressure
synthesis experiments." These data indicate that
the work was begun in 1974, not long after G.E.
accomplished the production of gem-quality synthetic diamonds (see, e.g., Nassau, 1980),and that
it was basically completed in 1979. The final 14
high-pressure experiments, involving five compositions, were performed between 1979 and 1982.
According to DeVries and Fleischer (1984a and
b], three major types of starting material were used
in the G.E. experiment. Most of the starting
materials were glass, prepared as described above,
but subjected to several crushing and remelting
steps to achieve a high level of homogeneity; these
were found to be the best type of starting material
and were the ones used to produce the samples
examined here. The G.E. researchers also performed some experiments using crushed white or
gray natural jadeite, sometimes with colorants
added. This method has the advantage that there is
"lease note that there are a number of typogrrrphical
errors in this report, some of which ore not obvious.
General Electric Synthetic Jadeite
Figure 3. In this photograph of

the high-pressure apparatus
used to synthesize jadeite,
R.C. DeVries is loading a
sample into the apparatus
w l ~ i l eJ E Fleischer looks on.
Photo courtesy of the G e n e r ~ ~ l
Electric Company
no significant volume change on crystallization as

there is with glasS, but the overall results were not
as good. Finally, some compositions were prepared
by a sol-gel method (Saklza, 1982) to improve
homogeneity, but there were no particular benefits
in the final product. Exact compositional data on
the starting materials used to produce the group of
synthetic jadeites examined herein are not available.
In the absence of color-active impurities, the
synthetic jadeite produced was white. Colorants
used included chromium as Cr203, which gave the
typical light to dark green jadeite colors when
present in the 0.5 to 2.0 wt.% range, but produced
black at higher concentrations. Manganese, best
added in the form of Mn203as 1.5 to 3 mol.%, gave
medium to dark purple (lavender]colors. Titanium
added as TiOz at similar concentrations provided a
measure of whiteness (rather than gray) and translucency. Additional impurities tried included erbium, europium, iron, niclzel, samarium, uranium, and vanadium, as oxides, as well as some
combinations, such as iron with chromium and
iron with vanadium. However, the results usually
were either not reproducible or provided no improvement over the use of chromium or manganese alone.
The high-pressure experiments were carried
out in a belt apparatus (for details, see Nassau,
1980) within a graphite heater (figure 3). Processing was performed for one-half to 24 hours at 30 to
50 kilobars pressure and 1200" to 1400C; values
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
29
near the higher end of all of these ranges gave the

better results. Finally, the temperature was reduced before the pressure was released in the
manner normally used to preserve the high-pressure equilibrium phases. Crystallization occurred
at the high pressure and temperature, possibly
with some strain recrystallization as described
above. Figure 4 shows jadeite crystals grown in a
glass taken from an experimental run that was
quenched by cooling prior to complete crystallization.
The experimental product, consisting of flat or
rounded circular dislzs up to 12 m m across and 3
m m thiclz (figure 5), was principally jadeite as
determined on the basis of X-ray and optical
characterization by the G.E. researchers. The sizes
and shapes obtained were limited by the apparatus
used. Given the known high-pressure technology,
there is little doubt that uniform pieces up to the
size of a 10-mm cube and even larger could be
Figure 4. This photomicrograph shows euhedral

synthetic jadeite crystals that have grown in a
glass. The glass sample was removed from an
experimental run that had been quenched to
room temperature prior to complete
crystallization of the glass. Photo courtesy of
the General Electric Company.
30
produced if large tetrahedral or cubic presses were

used (Nassau, 1980). One problem also probably
avoided by the use of these alternative configuration presses would be the laminar structure often
observed, which is caused by the uniaxial pressure
present in a belt-type apparatus.
A variety of other problems were noted by the
G.E. researchers, including the frequent occurrence of a residual glassy phase. Again, there is
little doubt that with a suitable development
effort, should one wish to market synthetic jadeite,
such probleins could be solved. General knowledge
of high-pressure technology suggests that a price
on the order of $100 per disk would be feasible,
with a significant reduction for larger-scale
production.
GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
We examined nine specimens of synthetic jadeite
(figure I), scven of which range from medium light
green to darlz grayish green, with the remaining
two medium and darlz purple. Three are rounded
"cabochons" and six are flat dislzs; all are approximately 5-10 m m in diameter. The cabochons
range up to 3 m m thick, and the flat disks are
approximately 1 mm thiclz.
The color of natural jadeites can vary greatly in
terms of hue, saturation, tone, and uniformity of
appearance. The synthetic jadeites correspond
closely to natural jadeites in many of these respects, and thus color provides little assistance as a
distinguishing feature. However, the synthetic
lavender jadeites and some of the synthetic green
jadeites do have a more intense color than is
commonly seen in natural jadeites. In addition, the
color of the synthetic lavender jadeites is quite
mottled, and appears to be concentrated in distinct
areas. One of the synthetic jadeite dislzs also
exhibits aventurescence, which is caused by the
reflection of light from numerous tiny grains
(figure 6).
All of the synthetic jadeites are semitranslucent to almost opaque, with a deep green or purple
color being visible when the green and purple
samples, respectively, are placed over a strong light
source. Polished samples of the synthetic jadeite
exhibit a vitreous luster and an appearance exactly
like that of natural jadeites. We were not permitted
to prepare optical thin sections of the synthetic
jadeite for examination with the microscope, so
features such as the nature of the granular texture,
aventurescence, and the sometimes irregular color
GEMS h GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 5. The crushed glass on the left was used as

starting material in some of the synthesis
experiments, and is shown here with one of the
synthetic jadeite disks that resulted. Photo
courtesy of the General Electric Company
distribution could not be investigated further; nor

could we,,cut the samples for use in preparing
spectrophotometric absorption curves. However,
the infra'rid reflectance spectra of the synthetic
jadeites (DeVries and Fleischer, unpublished data)
agree with' those of natural jadeites.
The nine specimens were examined using
standard gemological methods and instruments.
The measured gemological properties for all of the
synthetic jadeites are tabulated in table 1 along
with values for natural jadeites. The values for
most of the physical properties are very similar to
those reported for natural jadeites. However, the
synthetic jadeites were all found to have a somewhat greater hardness (7'12-8, as measured using
hardness points) than natural jadeites (7). The
cause of this difference is not lznown, but it may be
due to the size, degree of compaction, or orientation of the jadeite grains themselves, or it may be a
result of the method of synthesis employed in
these experiments that gave rise to the pronounced
lamellar structure. For the synthetic jadeites, we
attribute the somewhat lower density values measured by the hydrostatic method, as compared to
those obtained by the heavy liquid method (both
measured in repeated trials), to the fact that the flat
shape, light weight, and small size of the disks
leads to greater buoyancy, to the trapping of air
bubbles along surface cracks and irregularities,
and to the lesser wetting characteristics of water as
compared to those of the immersion oil (meth-
Figure 6. The upper surface of this synthetic

jadeite disk (no. 6 ) shows granular texture,
mottled color distribution, and an aventurinelike appearance caused by light reflecting from
numerous tiny grains. In contrast to the other
samples, this disk has a black rim; it has probably
not yet been cleaned. Reflected light, magnified
20 x . Pl~otomicrographby Iohn Koivula.
ylene iodide diluted as needed with benzyl benzoate) used as the heavy liquid.
Natural green jadeites exhibit a range of behavior when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Our own
observations indicate that they can either be inert
or fluoresce in various colors (366 nm long-wave yellow, yellowish green, or yellowish white;
254 n m short-wave - yellow, orangy yellow,
orange). The intensity of this fluorescence varies
greatly from extremely weak to moderate, and it
can have a "chalky" or an uneven, mottled appearance. The synthetic green jadeites vary from inert
to weak in their fluorescence (see table I), and the
fluorescence is often visible either at the edges or
at the center of a disk, perhaps related to the
textural difference described below. This range of
behavior falls within the fluorescence range observed in natural green jadeites, and thus is not a
distinguishing feature.
Natural lavender jadeites also vary in their
reaction to ultraviolet radiation. If the color of the
jadeite is mottled, so is the fluorescence. The
fluorescence ranges from very weak to strong in
intensity, and may occur in many colors (366 nm
long-wave-grayish white, yellowish white, violetish white, reddish orange, orange; 254 nm shortwave-yellowish white, greenish white, reddish
orange, orange).Again, the color is often "chalky."
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
31
vague grain outlines, and in minor variations in

surface relief suggesting hardness differences.
Some of the synthetic jadeites exhibit a "dimpled"
surface caused by a slight undercutting during
polishing. Broken edges display no evidence of
cleavage but represent irregular fracture surfaces.
The rims of many of the disk-shaped specimens
are lighter and more grayish in color, which is
caused either by a compositional inhomogeneity
or, more lilzely, by textural differences, since the
rim areas are highly fractured (figure 8).
One of the more interesting observations concerns the pronounced lamellar structure present in
most of the disks. When viewed along their edges,
the disks exhibit numerous, parallel fractures that
give the material a distinct layered appearance
(figure 9). Around the edge of a disk or cabochon,
there frequently is some breakage of the outermost
layers (figure 10). It is likely that this layered (or
delaminated) structure of the synthetic jadeite is
related to the method of synthesis under uniaxial
In contrast, the two synthetic lavender jadeites

displayed only weak fluorescence, but they exhibited small distinct spots of brighter orange fluorescence. Because only a few synthetic jadeites were
available for study, it is difficult to assess the
significance of these observations. In general,
though, it does not appear that natural jadeites can
be distinguished from the synthetic stones on the
basis of their fluorescence behavior.
Observations with the Microscope. Each of the
synthetic jadeite samples was examined with the
microscope in transmitted and in reflected light.
The three "cabochons" (nos. 4, 5, and 8) appear to
have been partly polished, but the flat dislzs have
surfaces that vary from rough to rather smooth. All
of the samples display a granular texture, especially along their outer edges and along broken
areas (figure7). Even on flat or semi-polished areas,
this granular texture was apparent from slight
differences in surface luster, in the appearance of
TABLE 1. Gemological properties of natural and nine General Electric synthetic jadeites.
Natural jadeite
Property
Deer et al. (1978)a Webster (1983).
Synthetic jadeite
1
Disk
Disk
9.5
9.4
2.4
1.2
1.17
2.21
Dk. grayishd Dk. green
green
vsbG 612
C 212917
8
7'12
Shape
Diameter (mm)
Thickness (mm)
Weight (ct)
Color
Color descriptionb
ColorMaster reading
Hardness (Mohs scale)
Refractive index
a
Disk
10.6
0.9
1.31
Med. green
Cabochon
10.3
Cabochon
5.7
2.5
3.0
2.46
0.68
Med. dk. green Med. green
G 512
C 7173116
8
1.653
1.652
1.654
3.34
3.31
3.34
3.27
3.31
3.25
lnert
lnert
lnert
lnert
None
None
Ex. wk.
greenish
at edges
Ex. wk.
chalky
orange
None
Specific gravity
Heavy liquid (3.32)
Hydrostatic
Fluorescence
Long-wave UV
Yellowish white
X-ray
Ex, wk.
greenish
at edges
Ex. wk.
chalky
orange
None
Ex. wk.
greenish
at edges
Ex. wk.
chalky
orange
None
Compilalion of data.
Color description terminology laken from the GIA Colored Slone Grading System; colon for sample nos. 1 and 7 do not fall wilhin lhe system
c See discussion in lhe texl.
dAbbrevia1ion.s: dk. = dark, med. = medium, 11. = light, ex. = extremely, wk. = weak, v. = very, mod. = moderate, st. = strong.
a
32
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 7. The edge of one of the synthetic

jadeite disks (no. 9) shows granular texture
along with the irregular surface and fracture.
Also note the blotchy color that is typical of
these synthetic jadeite samples and the
presence of small black grains of unknown
identity. Reflected light, magnified 25 x .
Photomicrograph by John Koivula.
Figure 8. The rim area of this jadeite disk (no.

2) illustrates the fractured lighter-colored edge
evident on most of the synthetic jadeites

examined. Reflected light, magnified 15 x .
Photomicrograph by John Koivula.
I .
Synthetic jadeite
6
Disk
11.1
1.7
2.11
Med. It. green
Disk
10.8
1.5
2.08
Dk. grayish
Cabochon
7.3
1.6
0.70
Med. purple
Disk
9.3
1.1
1.14
Med. dk. purple
green
G 512
bP 511
V 512
C 7173116
C 14/45/52
C 14/44/74
7'1~8
7'12-8
1.65
1.655
1.65
1.655
3.33
3.27
3.34
3.29
3.28
3.22
3.32
3.24
V. wk.
yellowish
green
Ex, wk.
chalky
orange
None
Inert
Wk. reddish
orange
Inert
V. wk.
reddish
orange
st, yellow
Reddish orange
with orange
spots
Wk. reddish
orange
None
7'1~8
M O ~yellow
.
Figure 9. This view of the edge of one of the

synthetic jadeite disks (no. 7) shows numerous
fractures that run parallel to the upper and
lower s~lrfacesof the disk. Reflected light,
magnified 25 x . Photomicrograph by Iohn
Koivula.
pressure and, as discussed earlier, could probably

be avoided.
Chemistry. Chemical compositions of the synthetic jadeites were obtained by electron microprobe analysis. Table 2 summarizes the chemical
compositions of two representative specimens.
These analyses are consistent with reported data
on the chemistry of natural jadeite with the
exception of the greater amounts of manganese in
the synthetic lavender samples and the absence of
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figrlre 10. This view of the upper srlrfnce of one

of the synthetic jadeite cabochons (no. 4) shows
the brolien edges of severnl of the thin layers
thnt mnlie rip the mnterinl. Reflected light,
mngnified 20 x . Photomicrogrnph by [ohn
I<oivula.
magnesium and calcium in both the synthetic

green and lavender samples. Minor differences in
concentrations of the color-causing transition elements (Fe, Cr, Mn) give rise to the variations in
color among the samples. Further chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) confirmed the
presence of the major elements shown in table 2
and also indicated the presence of trace amounts of
zirconium, niclzel, zinc, tin, and strontium in
almost all of the synthetic jadeites. The reasoil for
the presence of these trace elements is uncertain,
but their presence does provide a good indication of
synthetic origin and thus distinguishes these specific samples from natural jadeites.
Spectroscopy. Viewed with a hand spectroscope
and transmitted illumination, the synthetic green
samples exhibit general absorption from 400 to 500
nm, a narrow region of transmission from about
500 to 600 nm, and then absorption from 600 to
700 nm. The degree of absorption in these two
regions increases as the synthetic jadeites become
more blaclzish green in color. In some instances,
the green samples exhibit three absorption bands,
at about 630, 655, and 690 nm, which vary in
intensity from one sample to the next. These three
bands are also present in natural deep green
jadeites. However, the sharp band at 437 n m
typically observed in the spectrum of any translucent color of natural jadeite (except for some darlzer
green natural jadeites, in which the 437 n m band is
maslzed by general absorption in this region of the
General Electric Synthctic Jadeite
spectrum) was not seen in the spectrum of any of

the synthetic jadeites. While the darlzer green
natural jadcites are colored by chromium, the
principal coloring agent of most natural green
jadeites is iron (Rossman, 1974).In natural jadeite,
iron gives rise to the 437 n m band and to wealzer
bands at 573 and 610 nm, while chromium is
responsible for the 630, 655, and 690 n m bands.
Because of its high content, chromium appears to
be responsible for the green color in the synthetic
jadeites. An exception is sample no. 6, which does
not show the 437 n m iron line despite a high iron
content. No features in the spectra of the synthetic
jadeites could be attributed to iron.
There is little written in the gemological
literature on the spectra of lavender jadeites. The
absorption spectrum of a natural lavender jadeite
shown in Rossman (1974)has a sharp band at 437
n m that is due to iron, and a very broad, prominent
band at 573 n m which is responsible for the
lavcnder color. Rossman attributed this latter band
to a mechanism involving Fez+-Fe3 intervalence
charge transfer. In the hand spectra of both the
synthetic lavender jadeites, in contrast, there is a
broad absorption band from approximately 530 to
630 n m but no other features. The low iron content
but high manganese content of these two samples
suggests that manganese is the lilzely cause of this
broad band in synthetic lavender jadeite.
+
TABLE 2. Chemical data on natural a n d G.E. synthetic

jadeites.
Oxide
Nalural
greena
G.E. synlhetic
green (no. 3)b
SiO,
TiO,
A1,03
Fe0
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na,O
K20
Cr,O,
59.65
0.02
24.07
0.63
0.02
0.71
1.08
14.01
NRc
0.01
60.2
NDc
25.3
Tolal
ND
ND
ND
14.9
ND
0.5
Natural
G.E, synthetic
lavendera lavender (no. 8)b
60.40
0.07
24.22
0.43
ND
0.66
1.02
13.83
NR
ND
100.20
100.9
100.63
59.3
ND
23.5
--
2.0
ND
ND
15.2
ND
ND
--
100.0
Data laken from Rossman (1974) forlade~lesamples from

Burma Average of iv#o electron microprobe analyses. Fe,70,
value recasl as FeO.
0 Average of lhree eleclron microprobe analyses of lwo
represenlalive samples of /he G.E. synthetic jadeite. Total iron
as FeO. Analyst C M Stockton
c NR = not reported, NO = no1 detected.
dPresence delecled by energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence.
Analysl C. M Slocklon.
a
GEMS 8: GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
X-Ray Diffraction Analyses. Unit-cell parameters

for one representative specimen (no. 4) were determined by least-squares refinement of d-spacing
values measured from an X-ray powder diffraction
film. Refinement of 23 measured values yielded
the following parameters: a = 9.434 (6),b = 8.565
e
(5), c = 5.227(3)A, P = 167.67(6)A.~ h c s values
are v e r y close to the unit-cell parameters of
natural jadeite (see Prewitt and Burnham, 1966).
course, have somewhat different characteristics.

The General Electric experiments do, however,
demonstrate that the understanding and technology exist to synthesize polycrystalline gem materials such as jadeite in the laboratory. Although
G.E. has not applied for a patent on the synthetic
jadeite, an essentially identical process has been
patented in Japan by the Suwa Seilzosha Co., Ltd.
(1985).
CONCLUSIONS
Given the published details of these experiments,
anyone with access to high-pressure equipment
could probably produce synthetic jadeite. Several
characteristics should permit the distinction of a
product made by this process from natural jadeite.
These include differences in texture and appearance as well as the greater hardness of the synthetic stones. The more intense and often mottled
color of the synthetic jadeites may also be helpful.
There are no significant differences in indices of
refraction, absorption spectra, fluorescence, or
specific gravity. Note also that the observed craclzing and delamination caused by the uniaxial pressure in .tYe belt-type synthesis apparatus can
probably be avoided by the use of a tetrahedral or
cubic high-pressure apparatus; thus, the absence of
these features is not necessarily diagnostic.
The successful synthesis of jadeite raises the
question of whether the other "jade" mineral,
nephrite-a "double-chain" silicate with the ideal
- could
composition Ca2(Mg,Fe2+)sSis02z(OH)2
be similarly synthesized. Amphiboles have been
grown in the laboratory under pressure (Gilbert et
al., 1982),the aim, however, being to produce single
crystals as opposed to a polycrystalline jade structure. We suspect that such a synthesis would be
feasible, but it would be complicated by the need to
have only ferrous iron and the difficulty of achieving a set hydroxyl content. In view of the lower
value usually attributed to nephrite as compared
to jadeite, a commercial synthesis would be even
less likely.
It should be emphasized that the synthetic
jadeite described in this report is an experimental
product and is not lilzely to be encountered on a
commercial basis. We do not know whether similar materials of improved appearance will be
synthesized in the future, but it seems unlilzely
given the cost of the synthesis process versus the
ready availability of natural jadeite for gemological
purposes. Any such commercial product prepared
and grown under different conditions could, of
Bell P.M., Roseboom E.H. Jr. (1969)Melting relations of jadeite

and albite to 45 kilobars with comments on melting
diagrams of binary systems at high pressures. Mineralogical Society of America, Special Paper No. 2, pp. 151-16 1.
Bradt R.C., Newnham R.E., Biggers J.V. (1973)The toughness of
jade. American Mineralogist, Vol. 58, Nos. 7 and 8, pp.
727-732.
Deer WA., Howie R.A., Zussman J. (1978) Rock-forming Minerals, 2nd ed., Vol. 2A. John Wiley 8: Sons, Ncw York.
DeVries R.C., Flcischer J.F. (1984a) Synthesis of jadeite for
jewelry. In Symposium Proceedings of the Materials
Research Society, Vol. 22, pp. 203-207.
DeVries R.C., Fleischer J.F. (1984b) Synthesis of jadeite for
jewelry Corporate Research and Development Report No.
84CRD282, General Electric'Co., Schenectady, New York.
Gilbert M.C., Helz R.T., Popp R.K., Spear F.S. (1982)Experimental studies of amphibole stability. In D.R. Veblen and PH.
Ribbe, eds., Reviews in Mineralogy, Amphiboles: Petrology and Experimental Phase Relations, Vol. 9B, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC.
Hobbs J.M. (1982)The jade enigma. Gems eS Gemology, Vol. 18,
NO. 1, pp. 3-19.
Nassau K. (1980) Gems Made b y Man. Chilton Book Co.,
Radnor, PA.
Pough F.H. (1985)General Electric's synthetic jadeite. Lapidary
Iournal, Vol. 39, No. 7, pp. 4 2 4 4 .
Prewitt C.T., Burnham C.W. (1966) The crystal structure of
jadeite, NaAISi,Ob. American Mineralogist, Vol. 51, No. 7,
pp. 956-975.
Rossman G.R. (1974) Lavender jade. The optical spectrum of
Fe3+ and Fez+-Fe"+ intervalence charge transfer in jadeite from Burma. American Mineralogist, Nos. 7 and 8, Vol.
59, pp. 868-870.
Roy R., Tuttle O.F. (1956) Investigation under hydrothcrrnal
conditions. In Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Vol. 1,
pp. 141-152.
Salzlza S. (1982)Gel method for making glass. In M. To~nozawa
and R.H. Doremus, eds., 7keatise on Materials, Science,
and Technology, Vol. 22, Glass 111, Academic Press, New
York.
Suwa Seilzosha Co., Ltd. (1985)Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 103,
Abstract Nos. 1 2 5 8 9 2 ~162695c, and 162696d.
Webster R. (1983) Gems, Their Sources, Descriptions, and
Identification, 4th ed. Rev. by B.W. Anderson, Butterworths, Boston, MA.
Williams D.W., Kennedy G.C. (1970)The melting of jadeite to
60 kilobars. American Iournal of Science, Vol. 269, pp.
48 1 4 8 8 .
Yoder H.W (1950)The jadeite problem, parts I and 11. American
/ournnl of Science, Vol. 248, pp. 225-248 and 312-334.
Zoltai T. (1981)Amphibole asbcstos mineralogy. In D.R. Veblen,
ed., Reviews i n Mineralogy, Amphiboles and Other Hydrous Pyriboles- Mineralogy, Vol. 9A, Mineralogical Society of America, Washington, DC.
REFERENCES
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
35
NOTES
NEW TECHNIQUES
A NEW GEM MATERIAL FROM GREENLAND:
IRIDESCENT ORTHOAMPHIBOLE
By Peter W Uitterdijli Appel and Aage Jensen
Orthoomphiboles wiih pronounced iridescence are
found i n eight localities i n the vicinity of Nuuk, the
capital of Greenland. The iridescence, difficult to see
on rough samples, becomes clearly visible when the
material is cut. This iridescent orthoamphibole is
mined b y a company wholly owned b y Nuuk commune, and is sold under the trade name Nuummite.
This orthoamphibole has a composition similar to
that of iridescent orthoamphiboles described earlier
from Greenl~ndas well as from N e w Hampshire and
Massachusetts, but is believed to be the first such orthoamphibole to be regarded as a gemstone.
I n the early 1980s, the Geological Survey of

Greenland had several geologists working the
Nuulz area of West Greenland. The first-named
author joined the field worlz in 1982, and devoted
his attention to mineral deposits. During the worlz,
some peculiar rusty horizons composed essentially of ortheamphiboles with small amounts of
copper and iron sulfides and molybdenite were
discovered. Subsequent microscopic investigations of thin sections revealed that the orthoamphiboles in some of the samples exhibited a
weak iridescence. When pieces of this material
were cut and polished as cabochons, they revealed a
spectacular iridescence in different colors. It was
thus realized that this type of iridescent orthoamphibole had a potential as a gemstone (figure 1;
Appel, 1983).*
*Orthoamphiboleis a group name for amphiboles that
crystallize in the orthorhombic system. Gem-quality
amphiboles are relatively uncommon. The best ltnown are
actinolite (nephrite) and tremolite.
36
Notes and New Techniques
After the initial discovery, the authors conducted an investigation of the gemstone. It was
decided, however, that the results should not be
published internationally before a commercial
production had started. Inasmuch as the material
was recently introduced on the jewelry marlzet in
Greenland under the trade name Nuummite, we
are now able to provide the gemological community with the following information on the location and occurrence of the material, its appearance, chemistry, and gemological properties, and
the lapidary and commercial aspects.
LOCATION AND OCCURRENCE
To date, the iridescent orthoamphiboles have been
found in eight localities within 50 lzm (approximately 30 mi.) of Nuulz, the capital of Greenland.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Dr. Appel is a geologist at the Geological Survey of Greenland,
Oster Voldgade 10, Copenhagen, K., Denmark. Dr. Jensen is a
lecturer at the Institute of Mineralogy, University of
Copenhagen, 0ster Voldgade 10, Copenhagen, K., Denmark.
Acknowledgments: The authors are grateful to J Lautrup,
Geological Survey of Greenland, for photographing the cut and
polished stones. The JEOL Superprobe on which the microprobe
analyses were carried out was purchased with funds from the
Danish Natural Science Research Council, and is operated
under the supervision of J Rernsbo, lnstitute of Mineralogy,
University of Copenhagen, whose assistance with the analyses
is greatly appreciated. Thanks are also due to E. S.
Leonardsen, lnstitute of Mineralogy, University of Copenhagen,
for performing the X-ray investigation, and to Peter Dawes for
kindly improving the English of the manuscript. This article is
published with the permission of the director of the Geological
Survey of Greenland.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 1. The 2.8 c m x 3.7 c m cabochon of

iridescent orthoamphibole that is shown here
mounted i n silver exhibits golden and greenish
iridescencb' ~olors.
I.
Nuummite Nuult AIS, the company responsible

for mining'and distributing the gem material, does
not wish to m a l e the precise localities and mining
operations public at this time.
The iridescent orthoamphiboles are found in a
sequence of Precambrian roclzs called the Malene
supracrustals (figure 2), which are enclosed in
extensive gneisses. Isotopic work shows that these
roclzs are more than three billion years old. The
supracrustals comprise a varied sequence of roclts
which have undergone strong deformation and
metamorphism at temperatures of at least 550C.
In spite of the metamorphism and deformation, it is possible locally to recognize original
sedimentary and volcanic structures, such as sedimentary layering and pillow lava flows. These
structures, as well as the chemistry of the roclzs,
indicate that the depositional environment of the
Malene sediments was very similar to present
conditions on the ocean floor. Most of the roclzs in
the Malene supracrustals have modern counterparts. However, some thin layers occur that have a
Figure 2. This map of the Nuulz area, West
Greenland, shows the rock units (in gray) i n
which iridescent orthoampl~ibolesm a y be
expected to occur.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 3. The first locality

where iridescent
orthoamphiboles were
found. The occurrences
orm lenses uu to one meter
wide in the siightly rusty
band.
rather peculiar chemistry: approximately 50%

SiO,, 10% Al,O,, and roughly equal amounts of
FeO and MgO (about 18%).Modern counterparts
with this chemistry are rare.
These peculiar layers are up to a few meters
wide, and can be traced for several hundred meters
along the strilze. They consist almost exclusively
of orthoamphiboles (anthophyllite-gedrite), with
small amounts of pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite, magnetite, molybdenite, and gahnite. The amphiboles
range in grain size from less than a millimeter to
more than 10 cm. The roclz is generally dull gray to
black in appearance, and is locally slightly rusty
because of weathering of the sulfides.
This roclz type hosts the iridescent orthoamphiboles. In the field, however, it is very diffi-
cult to determine which samples contain the iridescent material. A couple of horizons were
trenched by blasting and subjected to detailed
sampling, but the quality of the material could
only be determined in the field by cutting each
sample with a portable diamond saw. The gemquality material tends to occur as thin bands and
lenses up to one meter wide, pinching and swelling
along the strilze. There is also an apparent tendency for the best-quality material to be situated
in areas of high strain such as fold closures.
At present we do not lznow exactly how much
gem-quality material is in the area. Two showings
with iridescent orthoamphiboles have been found
on the islands south of Nuulz. From one showing
(figure 3) about 1200 kg of raw material has been
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 5. This cabochon of

iridescent orthoamphibole
(4.1 cm x 2.6 cm) is the
largest so far produced. It
displays the whole range of
iridescence colors, from
violet at one end t o green at
the other.
Figure 4. A s is common with the material, this

raw sample of the orthoamphibole displays only
weak iridescence.
mined. Part of this material has been used for

marketing studies and the rest will be used in the
future production of jewelry. Horizons consistiilg
almost of pure anthophyllite-gedrite are extensive,
and there is thus a good possibility that more
deposits will be found.
DESCRIPTION
Raw samples of this orthoamphibole rarely display
iridescence (figure4); this phenomenon is apparent
only when the stone is cut. Cut and polished
cabochons show a sparlcling iridescence that
ranges from green and metallic blue through
yellow to golden, reddish, and (rarely)violet colors
(figures 5-7). Single cabochons may show the
Notes and New nchniques
I
Figure 6, This cabochon of indescent
orthoampl~ibole(3.0cm in diameter, has
slightly reddish t o greenish golden iridescent
colors.
whole range of colors from one end of the cabochon

to the other (figure 5). Most commonly, however,
cut and polished stones exhibit one or two iridescence colors only (figures 1 and 6). In cabochons
with two colors, the colors are usually from the
same end of the spectrum, for example, green-
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
39
metallic blue or yellow-golden. Only a few stones

show contrasting iridescence colors, for example,
blue-golden or green-reddish.
The matrix of the iridescent grains ranges
from light gray to almost black, in rare instances
with a brownish tinge. The individual iridescent
grains range in size from a few millimeters up to a
couple of centimeters. Most grains show one iridescence color only, but a few large grains have
been seen with a core of purple iridescence rimmed
by reddish iridescent orthoamphibole.
There is some correlation between the size of
the orthoamphibole grains and the iridescence
color. Small grains display iridescence of different
colors, whereas large grains (between half a centimeter to a couple of centimeters) most commonly
show golden to reddish iridescence (figure 7). Still
larger grains (up to 15 cm) exhibit no iridescence.
The number of iridescent grains varies from
one or two per square centimeter to dozens per
square centimeter. This feature implies a lower
limit to the size of cabochons. Cabochons less than
0.5 cm long usually have too few iridescent grains
to produce attractive jewelry. The largest cabochon produced to date is 4.1 cm x 2.6 cm (again,
see figure 5).
CHEMISTRY
Previous Studies. Iridescent orthoamphibole was
first mentioned by Bsggild (1905, 19241, who described a specimen collected in the Nuulc area,
West Greenland, by K. L. Gieseclce in 1810. Bsggild
established that the iridescence occurred parallel
to thepinacoid (010).Robinson et al. (1969)showed
that some orthoamphiboles from Massachusetts
and New Hampshire were composed of lamellae
parallel to (010)that were just resolvable at highpower magnification.
The orthoamphiboles are considered to be a
solid-solution series between the end members
anthophyllite' (Mg,Fe)7Si8022(OH)2
and gedrite
Nao.5(Mg,Fe)5.5A11,5(Si,A1)8022(0H)2
(Robinson et
al., 1971). These authors also showed that blue,
green, and yellow iridescence occurs where
lamellae are so thin (less than 0.2 pm) that their
presence can only be seen by X-ray data; samples
with lamellae thick enough to be seen under the
microscope generally have no iridescence. In addition, they showed that gedrite lamellae are coarser
(0.8 pm) than anthophyllite lamellae (0.2pm), and
that the chemical composition of their iridescent
samples is similar to that of the sample that was
Figure 7. The large orthoamphibole grains in

this 2.3 cm x 4.0 c m cabochon exhibit a
striking golden iridescence.
described by Bsggild (1905): Nao,43(Mg,Fe)6.,

Alo.s(All,oSi7.0)022(OH)2
with a trace of Ca (0.13)
and a ratio of FeIMg of 0.45. Christie and Olsen
(1974)report blue iridescence in an orthoamphibole with the composition Nao.33(Mg,Fe)6.4
Alo.6
(All,2Si6,8)022(OH)2
with a trace of Ca (0.10)and a
ratio of FeIMg of 0.69.
The cell dimensions of anthophyllite and gedrite are very similar: a and c values are practically
identical and the differencein the b value is in the
order of 1%. Ross et al. (1969) report for anthophyllite, a = 18.54-18.58 A, b = 17.98-18.11 A,
c = 5.27-5.36a; andforgedrite,a= 18.54-18.60a,
b = 17.76-1 7.88 a , c = 5.27-5.30 a .
Present Investigations. The X-ray powder diffraction pattern of the material from Nuulc showed the
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
presence of an orthoamphibole with a few wealc

lines of an unidentified mineral phase. Most of the
powder lines could be satisfactorily indexed with
the orthorhombic unit cell a = 18.57A, b = 17.77A,
c = 5.28 A (all + 0.02 A), found by the least-squares
refinement of 30 unequivocally indexed powder
lines. This unit cell indicates that the material is
close to gedrite.
Electron microprobe analyses' of the orthoamphibole from Greenland gave a variation from
N a 0 . 1 7 ( M g ~ F e ) 6 . 3 ~ ~ 0 . 7 ( ~)022(OH)2
~ 0 . 9 ~ ~ 7 . 1 Na0.29
(Mg,Fe)6.3A10.7(All.0Si7.0)022(OH)2
with a trace of
Ca (0.07)and an FeIMg ratio varying from 0.59 to
0.62. According to Lealce (1978)) the orthoamphibole with Nao.,7 is an anthophyllite,
whereas the one with Nao.z9is just on the gedrite
side of the border between anthophyllite and
gedrite.
The variation found, however, cannot be expected to represent the composition of anthophyllite and gedrite lamellae, respectively, as
these lamellae, in the iridescent areas, are less than
0.2 pm, and the analyzing spot of the electron
microprob< is slightly less than 2 pm.
Thusih.an attempt to obtain analyses closer to
the composition of the respective anthophyllite
and gedrife lamellae, the electron microprobe
analyses were extended to include noniridescent
areas of the orthoamphibole, inasmuch as the
lamellae are lcnown to be broader in noniridescent
areas than in iridescent areas. The electron microprobe analyses of noniridescent areas did not
result in anthophyllites with a lower Na content
than was already obtained from iridescent areas,
but to the gedrite side the composition was extended to Na0.38(Mg,Fe)6.0All.0(A11.4Si6.6)022(OH)2
with a trace of Ca (0.04)and an FeIMg ratio of 0.58.
That the composition could be extended only to
the gedrite side is in agreement with the earlier
findings that gedrite lamellae are always coarser
than anthophyllite lamellae (Robinson et al., 1971;
Christie and Olsen, 1974; Spear, 1980).
It is therefore concluded that the orthoamphibole from Greenland consists of alternating
anthophyllite-gedrite lamellae and has a composition similar to other iridescent orthoamphiboles
described by B~ggild(1905),Robinson et al. (1971),
and Christie and Olsen (1974).
'Electron microprobe onalyses were carried out with a IEOL
Superprobe ICXA 733 using the PACX-program (WDS) as
well as tlie LINK EDS program 4IFLS +, with 15 It V
accelerating voltage and 20 respectively 1.0 n A .
GEMOLOGICAL PROPERTIES
Refractometer measurements show that the indices of refraction of the orthoamphibole from
Greenland average a = 1.64 and y = 1.66, with a
birefringence of 0.02. Material from the locality
where the material was initially found (figure 3)
has cx = 1.641 and y = 1.663, with a birefringence of
0.022, whereas material from the second locality
has a = 1.635 and y = 1.657, also with a birefringence of 0.022.
The density of the orthoamphibole from the
first locality is generally 3.24 g/cm3 but can vary
between 3.20 gIcm3 and 3.37 gIcm3, while the
density of the material from the second locality is
a rather constant 3.18-3.19 gIcm3,
When exposed to ultraviolet radiation, shortwave as well as long-wave, the orthoamphibole
fluoresces darlc violet.
Cabochons of the orthoamphibole have been
placed in a window and exposed to sunshine for
more than a year without showing any change in
appearance.
It has not bee'n possible to obtain results with
the spectroscope when working on cabochons, but
spectroscopic investigation in transmitted light on
approximately l-mm thin slices has revealed a
general absorption from the blue end to about 485
nm, and two rather broad absorption lines at 505
and 545 nm.
CUTTING AND POLISHING
Orthoamphiboles have a hardness of 6. The iridescent orthoamphiboles from Nuulc are coarse to
medium grained. The crystals have locally a slight
tendency to parallel alignment, as a result of which
the roclc has to be cut in certain specific directions in order to obtain a stone with maximum
iridescence.
Polishing of the orthoamphiboles entails no
special difficulties, inasmuch as the roclc is generally massive with no pervasive craclcs occurring in
fresh material. However, material near the surface
tends to have small craclcs. In spite of the rather
low hardness of the stone, we found that it cannot
be polished satisfactorily with either tin oxide or
cerium oxide, and final polishing is best done with
diamonds 3 pm in size.
COMMERCIAL ASPECTS
The commercial possibilities for the stone have
been discussed since 1982, when the gem potential
of the iridescent orthoamphiboles was determined.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
41
First, the town council of Nuulz gave the stone the

trade name Nuummite, which means "derived
from Nuulz" in Greenlandic. Next, the company
Nuurnmite Nuuk AIS, wholly owned by Nuulz
commune, was established. The government
granted the company an exploration concession for
Nuummite in the Nuulz area, as well as permission
to manufacture and sell Nuummite jewelry. The
company, based in Nuulz, now employs one fulltime goldsmith and three to four lapidaries to cut
and polish the gem material. A continuous production has not yet been established. The stone was
launched on the Greenlandic market before
Christmas 1986, and the jewelry will subsequently be marlzeted in Denmark. The company
plans to introduce Nuuminite internationally at a
later date.
Nuummite Nuulz AIS has so far marlzeted
jewelry with Nuummite mouilted in both gold and
silver, and has sold unmounted cut and polished
cabochons. The most important items are pendants, but some rings have also been produced.
Editor's Note: The moteriol s r ~ b m i t t e dby the a~rthorsto
GIA has a spongled pat ter.11 associnted wit11
nventrrrescence. Eocll "spangle" or bright reflection is
rerniniscel~tof labradorescence.
REFERENCES
Appel I? (1983) Nuulzit -Gronlands nye symlzltesten. Gronland, Vol. 31, No. 6, pp. 157-159.
Boggild O.B. (1905)Mineralogia Groenlandica. Meddelelser oln
Granland, Vol. 32, 625 pp.
Boggild O.B. (1924)On the labradorization of the feldspars. Det
Kongelige Dnnske Videnskrrbernes Selsknb Mathemotisklysiske Meddelelser, Vol. 6, No. 3, 79 pp.
Christie O.H., Olsen A. (1974) Spinoidal precipitation in
minerals: review and some new observations. Bulletill de
la Socie'te' f r a n ~ a i s ed e Minkralogie et d e Cristallogmphie, Vol. 97, pp. 202-205.
Leake B.E. (1978) Nomenclature of amphiboles. Conodion
Mineralogist, Vol. 16, pp. 501-520.
Robinson I?, Jaffe H.W., Klein C, Jr., Ross M. (19691 Equilibriu~n
coexistence of three an~phiboles.Contrib~rtionsto Mineralogy nnd Petrology. Vol. 22, pp. 248-258.
Robinson P., Ross M., Jaffe H.W. (1971) Con~positionof the
anthophyllite-gedrite series, con~parisonsof gedrite and
hornblende, and the anthophyllite-gedrite solvus. Ainericon Miilerologist, Vol. 56, pp. 1005-1041.
Ross M., Rpilze J.]., Shaw K.W (1969) Exsolution textures in
amphiboles as indicators of subsolidus thermal histories.
Mineralogical Society of Arnericn, Specinl Paper 2, pp.
275-299.
Spear F.S. (1980) The gedrite-anthophyllite solvus and the
composition limits of orthoamphiboles from thc Post Pond
Volcanics, Vermont. Americon Mineralogist, Vol. 65, pp.
1103-1 118.
A PACKAGE DEAL from GEMS 83- GEMOLOGY

cclmplete set of the four informationpacked issues published in 1986 is now available. For $22.50 (in the US.) or $27.50 (elsewhere), you can have over 250 pages (with
more than 200 color illustrations) of the most
important articles, lab information, and news
in gemology today.
Or save more than $5.00 and purchase both
the 1985 and 1986 volumes (eight issues) of
GEMS GEMOLOGYfor only $39.50 (u.s.)
or $49.50 (elsewhere).
To order one or both sets, just send your check
or money order to:
Back Issues Department

GEMS & GEMOLOGY
1660 Stewart Street
Santa Monica, CA 90404
Or call (213) 829-2991, ext. 391, and place
your order on your VISA or Mastercard.
Please allow 4-6 weeks after payment for
shipments in the
and 6-8 ~ e e k sfor
shipments e ~ s ~ w h e rAll
e . Payments must be
in U.S. funds. A limited number of back
issues for earlier volumes are also available.
Please write or call the Back Issues Department for information on the availability of
specific issues.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
EDITOR
C. W. Fryer
GIA, Santa Monica
LAB NOTES
CONTRIBUTING EDITORS
Gem Trade Laboratory, New York
Karin N . Hurwit
Gem Trade Laboratory, Los Angeles
Robert E. Kane
Gem Trade Laboratory, Los Angeles
A NOTE FROM THE EDITOR
The strength o f the G e m Trade Lab

Notes column lies i n the willingness
of so many members of the gemological community to bring unusual items to the attention of the
GIA G e m Trade Lnboratory and allow us t o publish our findings. The
following individuals and firms were
particularly helpful during the past
year: Marvin Bonkoff, Alan Broilstein, Tom Chatham, W L. Cotton,
Colin Curtis, lim DAndrea, Pravin
D n v d , Ro;l?ert D u n n i g a n , S y
Ellerhorn, Pete Flusser, G e m Mart,
IZaiser Habib, Roger Kral<owski,Bill
Larson, john R. Latendresse, Reginald Miller, Fred Montezinos,
Mory Murphy, Kurt N a s s a ~Carol
O'Bnugh, ludith A. Osmer, Rima
Investors Corp., Gerald Rogers, Howard Rz~bin,Maurice Shire, and E. l?
Watermelon Co.
Glass Imitation BERYL

In this era of space-age technology,
which has produced sophisticated
synthetics that often require equally
sophisticated skills to detect, some
jewelers and gemologists often fail to
consider one of the oldest gem substitutes known to man: glass. Although some glass imitations look
unnatural and so can be identified
with little more than a "sight i.d.,"
others are deceptively realistic
and require standard gemological
testing.
The Los Angeles laboratory recently encountered one of these realistic glass imitations. The 43.24-ct
light green emerald cut shown in
Gem Trade Lab Notes
Figure 1. This 43.24-ct (23 m m

long) green beryl imitation
proved to be glass.
figure 1 was submitted for identification. A single reading of 1.529 was
obtained on the refractometer. Examination with a polariscope produced a singly refractive reaction,
but with strong anomalous double
refraction that was generally oriented in a straight, parallel pattern
Figure 2. The glass shown i n

figure 1 reveals a stmigllt,
parallel sLmin pattern when
observed between crossed
polaroids.
(figure 2). This strain pattern corresponded directly to the straight, parallel features that were easily visible
when the piece was examined with a
microscope in dark-field illumination. No other inclusions were observed. The piece fluoresced very
weak dull yellow to long-wave ultraviolet radiation ancl very weak
chalky greenish yellow to shortwave U.\! radiation. No bands or
lines were visible when it was examined with a hand spectroscope. On
the basis of these findings, we identified the material as glass.
To the unaided eye, this piece of
glass very closely resembles a light
green beryl, or an aquamarine that
has not yet been heat treated. Since
the piece is quite large, it could easily
be hefted to estimate the specific
gravity, which seemed to be close to
the beryl it resembles. Testing with
heavy liquids revealed that the specific gravity, approximately 2.50, is
indeed relatively close to that of
beryl. Even an experienced gem
dealer could mistakenly purchase
such a piece as beryl if he did not
test it.
We are often told of such things
happening, for example, light blue
glass being represented as aquamarine, or purple glass being offered
as amethyst. I11 fact, some time ago a
Brazilian dealer of fine amethyst purchased a parcel of 5,000 ct, only to
discover that a large percentage of
the pieces were glass.
R IZ
Editor's Note: The initials at the end 01 each
item identify the contributing editor who
provided that item.
O 1987 Gemological Institute 01 America
GEMS 8: GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
43
Figure 3. Bright green crystals of ~znlinown

identity are easily seen in this diamond.
Magnified 10 x .
DIAMOND with Interesting

Inclusions
Two diamonds with interesting inclusions were recently seen in the
New York laboratory. The first stone,
shown in figure 3, contains several
bright green, transparent, nearly
euhedral included crystals. Because
the crystals are completely enclosed
in the diamond, we could not perform the tests needed for definitive
identification. However, these inclusions are almost certainly chromium-bearing minerals in the
pyroxene group, probably diopside or
enstatite.
The second noteworthy inclusion is a knot in the 1.96-ct yellow
pear-shaped diamond shown in figure 4. This knot is in the unusual
form of an irregular rectangular
prism that extends from the pavilion
near the keel (approximately onethird of the distance to the girdle),
across the keel plane, to the edge of
the table. It is most unusual for a thin
columnar knot such as this to extend
through the stone in this manner.
Clayton Welch
Synthetic DIAMOND
On February 18 of this year, two
small diamonds were submitted to
the New York lab for origin-of-color
reports. The 0.46-ct stone was identi-
Gem n a d e Lab Notes
Figure 4. Note the very unusczal rectang~zlar

knot in the pavilion of this 1.96-ct yellow
diamond. Magnified 10 x .
fied as a fancy brown natural-color

diamond. However, the yellow 0.23ct square emerald-cut stone fluoresced medium chalky yellow-green
to short-wave ultraviolet radiation,
but was inert to long-wave U.V No
absorption lines or pattern were observed with the spectroscope. An
hourglass grainingpattern was easily
seen through the pavilion. These
characteristics are typical of those
observed in the new Japanese synthetic diamonds described in the
Winter 1986 issue of Gems d Gemology The stone reacted positively to
the thermal inertia tester, as would
be expected of a diamond. Congratulations to Kathleen Knox, who identified the stone, since this is the first
time we have encountered a true
gem-quality synthetic diamond in
the trade and not just in the research
laboratory.
CF
Angeles lab had the opportunity to

examine two other faceted diaspores
(157.66ct and 26.97 ct) as well as two
large crystals. These four specimens
reportedly came from a locality in
Turkey (see Gems d Gemology,
Spring 1985, p. 59).
Recently, the Los Angeles laboratory identified a 3.68-ct octagonal
mixed-cut diaspore that exhibited a
distinct color change from yellowish
green in daylight to yellow-brown in
incandescent light. Although only
rarely encountered by the gemologist, diaspore is relatively easy to
identify. The 3.68-ct stone shown in
figure 5 revealed typical properties:
refractive indices of a = 1.702, P =
1.722, and 7 = 1.750, with a corre-
Figure 5. This rare 3.68-ct

faceted cliaspore exhibits a
distinct color change from
yellowish green in daylight to
yellow-brown in incandescent
light.
DIASPORE, A Rare Gem Material

In the Fall 1983 issue of Gems d
Gemology (pp. 172-1 73) we reported
on a rare faceted gem material, diaspore. This 1.24-ct square step-cut
stone showed a moderate color
change from light greenish yellow in
daylight to light pinkish yellow in
incandescent light. In 1985, the Los
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
sponding birefringence of 0.048; biaxial positive; specific gravity (with

heavy liquids] of approximately 3.40;
and weak pleochroic colors of yellowish green, orange-brown, and nearcolorless. Examination with a spectroscope unit revealed a very weak
absorption band from about 4500 to
4600 A; an extremely weak, vague
line centered at 4710 A; some absorption in the far red portion of the
spectrum; and moderate absorption
in the violet area, which gradually
tapered off at around 4250 A. Examination with the microscope revealed
several thin white needles and a few
small crystals.
RK
GOETHITE?
On several occasions, South American diamond dealers have submitted
opaque black, apparently waterworn, pebbles to the New York laboratory for i'd$ntification (see, for example, figurC 6).They claim that the
pebbles are found in the same riverbeds as the diamonds.
Examination with overhead illumination revealed that the true color
of the 6.72-ct pebble (reportedly from
Venezuela)shown in figure 6 is a very
dark variegated brown with a few
blaclz veins. Standard gemological
tests gave the following information:
Figure 6. This tumbled stone,

found in the diamond-bearing
riverbeds of South America,
appears to be a rock that is
altering to goethite.
Magnified 10 x .
Gem llade Lab Notes
lodestone. Although hematite can

sometimes be weakly magnetic, it
certainly is not as strongly polarized
as lodestone. Magnetite is a ferrous
and ferric iron oxide in the spinel
group that can change to hematite
when heated in an oxidizing atmosphere. It can also alter in a normal
atmosphere over a period of time, but
what effect, if any, this would have
on surface appearance, especially
luster, is not known.
Clayton Welch
Figure 7. This fnceted table-cut

lodestone measures approximately 9.97 x 7.95 x 2.00 mm.
NEPHRITE Imitation
a refractive index over the limits of

the refractometer, a specific gravity
of approximately 3.50, and a hardness of about 6'12-7 on the Mohs
scale. The stone gave a brown streak
and did not react to either hydrochloric or sulfuric acid. At this point,
we decided to use X-ray diffraction.
The diffraction pattern matched that
of the mineral goethite, which is an
iron hydroxide. However, the properties of goethite (S.G. of 4.28, hardness of 5-5'12) do not match those of
the material in question. We can only
speculate that this is perhaps some
mineral or rock that is in the process
of altering to goethite.
Dave Hargett
The New Yorlz lab recently received

for testing a strand of darlz green 10mm beads that were being represented as imitation nephrite (figure
8). Although darlz green nephrite is
relatively inexpensive and readily
available, there is apparently enough
of a demand for this even less expensive imitation to create a market.
A refractive index of 1.55, Mohs
hardness of 7, specific gravity of
approximately 2.65, and a crystalline
aggregate structure (as seen with
magnification)proved the beads to be
quartzite. A broad absorption band at
6500 A was visible in the hand spectroscope, and a positive color filter
reaction proved the presence of dye.
Green color concentrations in the
interstices were also seen when the
stone was examined with magnification (figure 9).
Dave Hargett
MAGNETITE, Lodestone
The New York lab was asked to
determine whether the 2.55-ct faceted stone shown in figure 7 is hematite. We routinely test suspected hematite for magnetism with a small
horseshoe magnet. In this case, we
found that placing the stone on a
piece of paper and moving the magnet around under the paper caused
the stone to move and to flip over,
proving its strong magnetic polarity.
This fact, together with the results of
other standard tests, indicates that
this material is probably the polarized form of magnetite known as
PEARLS
An Unusual Clam "Pearl"
A jeweler from northern California
sent a round, very dark, approximately 11-mm purple bead to the
Los Angeles laboratory for identification. Since this bead had been found
in a clam, which is a bivalve mollusk, he questioned whether it could
not be called a black pearl. As shown
in figure 10, the dark purple bead
obviously lacks the characteristic
orient required for it to qualify as a
pearl. A sheen-like effect was visible
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
45
Figure 9. The concentration of

dye can be seen i n the
interstices of the quartzite
grains in the beads shown i n
fiure 8.
Figure 8. The 10-mm imitation nephrite beads in this strand proved

to be dyed quartzite.
to the unaided eye, but i t was confined to certain areas. Between those
distinct areas, a flow, or flame-like,
pattern was visible with magnification (figure 11). The whole bead resembled a type of Hexagonaria coral.
The high birefringence and the relative softness of the material indicated that the bead was a carbonate.
When exposed to long-wave ultraviolet radiation, the bead showed a very
faint orangy red fluorescence similar
to that of some natural-color black
pearls. The X-radiograph revealed a
quite homogeneous structure with
one faint circular growth line just
beneath the surface. This proved the
bead to be a calcareous concretion,
but with a unique appearance not
previously encountered in our laboratories.
KH
of light, but rather that it respoilds to

changes in color across boundaries.
Put simply, this means that an object's apparent color can change depending on its surroundings, or color
environment. This phenomenon is
the basis for many popular optical
illusions, but more importantly to
Figure 10. This 11 - m m

calcareous concretion was
thought to be a black pearl.
the jeweler, it explains in part why

pearls look different on different skin
tones, why stones look better on
certain color papers, and why jewelry
looks best on certain color pads.
A short time ago, while preparing a pearl choker for X-radiography
in New Yorlz, we inadvertently demonstrated this pheiloinenon in a very
dramatic manner. Part of the choker
lay on some papers and part lay on
the brown desk top. Our attention
was attracted because the pearls on
the papers appeared to be cream
colored, while those on the brown
desk looked white (figure 12). Because pearls are so strongly affected
by background color, they are usually displayed on a light beige surface
to show their best color, and are graded on a light gray surface to show
their true color.
Clayton Welch
Figure 11. The unusual surface

of the concretion shown i n
figure 10 is evident in this 6 x
magnified view
Pearls and Their Apparent Colors

An article in the September 1986
issue of Scientific American stated
that human color vision is not simply a reaction to specific wavelengths
Gem Trade Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Figure 12. Note how different in color these pearls appear on the
different-colored backgrounds.
QUARTZ
Fossiliferous Chalcedony
The fossilif$ous chalcedony cabochon showd i n figure 13 was donated to the New York laboratory.
Figure 14 shows the numerous
smaller fossils concentrated in each
of the larger fossils in this stone. At
first glance, this material appears to
be one of the various decorative marbles that are used as building facings
or table tops. Marble is a metamorphosed limestone and, as s carbonate, should effervesce when a
small drop of acid is applied to it.
However, this stone did not react to
acid. Routine gemological tests
Fig~lre13. This small
chalcedony cabochon showing
fossil shells is a lkrritella
agate.
r+
Gem Trade Lab Notes
proved this material to be a type of

chalcedony that is commonly known
as Turritella agate. Undoubtedly the
limestone was replaced with quartz
over time by the action of siliceous
ground water. When magnified, this
particular piece showed the presence
of gold in the form of numerous
sectile yellow metallic inclusions.
Such gold is often found in secondary
quartz deposits, but it is not normally associated with limestone.
Clayton Welch
Phenomenal Quartz
Figure 15 shows a trio of quartz
cabochons, ranging from 17.84 to
45.45 ct, that all display phenomena.
Figure 14. At 1 0 ~
magnification, the cabochon in
13 shows numerous
.fiure
small shells inside the larger
shells.
The star quartz on the right was

featured in both the Summer 1977
and Summer 1984 Lab Notes sections, and is actually a multi-star
stone. The other two stones were
submitted together to the New York
laboratory for identification.
Stones lilze the transparent dark
brown cat's-eye shown on the left in
figure 15 are rarely seen in the lab. As
with all brown quartz, the possibility exists that the color has been
enhanced by irradiation, which cannot be detected by standard gemological tests. The star in the middle
stone is particularly interesting because two of its arms are significantly stronger than the other four.
In many lighting conditions, this
stone actually appears to be a cat'seye (figure 16). Such a stone should
probably be identified simply as phenomenal quartz, since it can appear
either as a cat's-eye or a star, dependirig on the viewing conditions.
Clayton Welch
RUBY
Natural Ruby Doublet

When a jeweler damaged a customer's ruby recently, he agreed to
replace the stone. However, when the
replacement stone was submitted for
appraisal, the appraiser suspected
that the stone might be a doublet.
Examination in the New York
lab proved that although the stone is
a doublet, it is no ordinary doublet: it
consists of a natural ruby crown and
a natural ruby pavilion. In Gems,
Their Sources, Descriptions and
Identification, Webster referred to
these stones as "true doublets." Shipley called them "genuine doublets."
Although they are very rarely seen in
the labs, one Far Eastern gem dealer
informed us that these stones have
been seen in Thailand. Fine rubies
over one carat are rare. If the potential fraud went undetected, a true
doublet weighing one carat could be
sold for much more than the value of
two half-carat stones. A bezel setting
could malze the separation plane very
difficult to detect.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
47
'
..,
-
. .
.,;<,
..
1-m..
A-
k..c.i+'
'
.,;..::
, - I .
. -
I*.'"..
.-.
. -
-. -..
Figure 15. These cat's-eye and star quartz cabochons range from
17.84 to 45.45 ct.
When we received this 1.18-ct
stone for testing, it was unmounted.
Overhead vertical illumination easily revealed the separation plane just
below the girdle (figure 17). lmmersion i n methylene iodide showed that
the twinning plane present in each
piece did not meet. Natural inclusioils and standard gemological tests
proved that both crown and pavilion
Dave Hargett
are natural ruby.
With Unusual Cavities
In recent months, the New York laboratory has noted an increasing number of heat-treated rubies with oval
to circular surface cavities (figure
18), especially on the pavilion. They
appear to be areas of spalling, probably caused by the heating. The interior surface df the cavities is not fire
skinned (partly melted), which suggests that the spalling took place at
the end of the heating process. Also,
the cavities are smooth at the bottom, with no evidence of a crystal or
negative crystal as a contributing
factor. Seven of 14 natural rubies in a
lot submitted recently had these
spall cavities. Although these were
the first we noticed, last year we saw
Figure 16. The star quartz

shown i n the middle of figure
15 appears to be a cat's-eye
when-viewed under different
lighting conditions.
several glass-filled cavities that

could have been filled spall cavities.
RC
Heated SAPPHIRE
In the ongoing controversy regarding
disclosure, perhaps one of the greatest concerns is heat-treated corun-
Figure 18. These oval cavities were caused b y spalling i n a heattreated ruby [ " ' " ' ' 0 x .
Figure 17. A separation plane

can be seen just below the
girdle of this doublet, which
consists of a natural ruby
crown and a natural ruby
pavilion. Magnified 20 x .
48
Gem P a d e Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
rreated corundum, the zone of brown

color evident in this stone is rarely
seen. The lack of a spectruln indicates that this stone is not Australian. It was probably originally a
"geuda," the whitish, translucent Sri
Lankan corundum that is most frequently used in heating; we have
seen such a brown color zone a few
times before in geuda material that
has been heated.
lacking. Unlike the heatetl "geuda"

sapphires, which show no iron lines
in the spectroscope, the heated Australian stones display distinct to
strong iron lines both before and
after treatment. The trade should be
aware that a great deal of heated
Australian material is sold mixed in
with Thai stones.
RC
Fig11re 9. Brown
zoning
in
sopphire. M a g n i f i e d
lox.
lS
'
'Ore
Occurrence
One heat treatment that usually

cannot be detected is the lightening
of dark blue Australian sapphire.
The stones are not heated to the
extent that they need repolishing, so
surface evidence of treatment is
FIGURE CREDITS
Figures 1, 2, 5, and 10 were furnished by

Shane McClure. Clayton Welch took the
p~cturesused for figures 3, 4, 7, 12-16, and
18. Dave Hargett supplied figures 6 , 8 , 9,
77, and 79. John Koivula provided the
photomicrograph in figure 7 7
The Gemological Institute of America extends its sincerest appreciation to all of the people
and firms who contributed to the activities of the Institute through donations of gemstones
and other gemological materials. We are pleased to aclznowledge m i n y of you below:
, ,
Ara.Krslanian
Adir Ascalon
Charles Ashbaugh
Curt Berreman
*Thomas H. Berry, Jr.
'Joseph Best
William Billocl<
Gary Bowersox
Chadwick's
Thomas Chatham
Shui-Lung L. Chiu
Ka Keung Chow
Stephanie Cordone
Russ Crawford
Joseph Crescenzi
*Susan Santiago Curren
Charles DeBoer
Jean DeMouthe
Geraldo de Souza
Robert Dunnigan
David S. Epstein
Peter and Roberta Flusser
Helene Fortunoff
Si and Ann Frazier
'Ake Gewers
Ishaia Go1
Arthur Grant
Patricia Gray
Steve Green
Green Park Gems Inc.
Frank I? Harding
David Hargett
William Harville
Heimatmuseum
Don Heimbach
Paul F. Heubert
'George Houston
' 'Carol Isaacs
JDR Diamond, Inc.
Jon Johnston
Teresa Johnston
Bob Kammerling
Larry I? Kelley
Frank Knechtal
'John I. Koivula
Keith A. Lamoreaux
William Larson
Lavulite Co., Inc.
Robert C. S. Lee
Sandy Leffler
Richard T. Liddicoat
Jeff Mason
'Gordon S. MacCorkell
Elizabeth MacGregor
'Marl< Mann
John McVicker
'Susan Mirabella
William Mosandl
William A. Mosher
Chris Nicholas
James Nicholas
Anton G. Nosek, 111
Rudy Pastore
Eckhardt Petsch
William W Pinch
Fred Pough
'Franz F. Pulver
'Ron Ringsrud
Howard Rubin
Gmb. H. Ruppenthal
Jacques Sabbagh
Clement Sabbagh
Kathryn St. Amant
'Henry Scheafer
Carl Schmetzer
Richard Schuster
James Shigley
David B. Sigler
Marshall Smith
Dan Sofia
'Norman Suenaga
Ronald H. Tanaka
Werner K. Theobold
C. Van Der Walt
V R. Venetian
Chin-yi Wang
David Weinstein
Adriana Yanguas
Abdelhakim Zreiqi
'Denotes book donation to GIA Library

"Denotes donation of books and gemstone materials
Gem Trade Lab Notes
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
49
9. Which one of the following

jewelers contributed the most
to Art Nouveau jewelry in
terms of innovative design and
use of materials?
A. Henri Vever
B. RenC Lalique
C. Emile Dubeque
D. Luis Masriera
10. In early literature, the
"Portuguese" diamond was
referred to as the
A. "Star of Brazil."
B. "Portuguese Star."
C. "Star of Portugal."
D. "Regent of Portugal."
11. To date, the largest rough
diamond recovered at the
Changma Diamond District
of China weighed
A. 59.05 ct.
B. 89.07 ct.
C. 119.01 ct.
D. 249.25 ct.
12. Which ope of the following
choices best describes the
annual production of gemquality diamonds in China?
13. In China today, significant

quantities of turquoise are
coming from
A. Henan Province.
B. Hubei Province.
C. Shanxi Province.
D. Yunnan Province.
14. All of the inclusions observed
to date in Chinese peridot have
also been seen in peridot from
A. Burma.
B. Arizona.
C. Zabargad.
D. Sri Lanlza.
Gems & Gemology Challenge
15. Inclusions in emeralds from

the Coscuez mine, Colombia
A, clearly identify the mine.
B, commonly include apatite
and barite.
C. are similar to those in
other Colombian emeralds.
D. include more three-phase
inclusions than other
Colombian emeralds.

instruments is the most useful
in separating natural from
synthetic amethyst?
A. dichroscope
B. polariscope
C, spectroscope
D, refractometer
17. The only lznown in-situ
occurrence of pink topaz is the
locality
A. in Rajasthan, India.
B. near Katlang, Pakistan.
C. near Ouro PrEto, Brazil.
D. in the Ural Mountains,
USSR.
18. The Sumitomo synthetic
yellow diamonds examined by
CIA Research were all
A. Type Ia.
B. Type Ib.
C. Type IIa.
D. Type IIb.
19. The first useful textboolz of
gem identification was
written by
A. J. R. Blum.
B. R. J. Haiiy.
C. John Ellicott.
D. Richard Davis.
20. Most of the scheelite from
Colombage-Ara, Sri Lanlza is
A, gray.
B, pink.
C. yellow.
D. colorless.
21. Currently, the largest yellow

synthetic diamond crystals
produced by Sumitomo weigh
approximately
A. 1.00 ct.
B. 2.00 ct.
C. 3.00 ct.
D. 4.00 ct.
22. The inlay technique that
involves fitting together small
pieces of gem material to
produce an intricate design is
lznown as
A, intaglio.
B, intarsia.
C, cloisonnk.
D, plique-a-jour.

characteristics is an identifying
feature of Sumitomo synthetic
yellow diamonds?
A. Inert to long-wave
ultraviolet radiation only
B. Inert to short-wave
ultraviolet radiation only
C. Blue fluorescence to shortwave ultraviolet radiation
D. Yellow fluorescence to
long-wave ultraviolet
radiation
24. In Sri Lanlza, the Elahera gem
field is
A. of little importance.
B. falling off in production.
C. the most productive gem
mining area.
D. the second most important
gem mining area.
25. The only conclusive proof that
corundum gemstones have
NOT been heat treated is the
presence of
A, color zoning.
B. angular inclusions.
C. CO, fluid inclusions.
D. H,O fluid inclusions.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
51
John I. Koivula, Editor
DIAMONDS
Cubic zirconia coated by synthetic diamond? Over the
past few years, Gem News has reported periodically on
the new technology of coating with synthetic diamond.
Thus far, this technology has been researched and
developed for application in various industries, but not
as a method of gemstone synthesis or enhancement.
Now that may have changed. Bernice Backler, of
Barnscott Gemological & Metallogical Laboratory in
Pinetown, South Africa, reports that a client brought in
a "diamond" ring for laboratory certification. It had been

purchased in Bangkok, Thailand, for $1,000, with a
"guarantee that the stones were white De Beers diamonds cut in Belgium," according to Ms. Baclzler.
The ring was stamped 18K and was bezel set with
seven reportedly 0.20-ct stones and pavC set with 12
reportedly 0.05-ct stones, for a presumed total weight of
2.00 ct of "diamond." The two things that first made the
laboratory personnel suspicious were the unusually low
price paid for the ring and the fact that they "could see
through the stones." The setting was also found to be
gold-plated base metal.
Although a thermal probe indicated that the stones
were diamonds, further testing showed that they were in
fact "cubic zirconias coated with a fairly heavy coating."
When examined with the microscope, the coating was
determined to match that "described by OIDonoghue"
for synthetic diamond (Identifying Man-made Gems,
p. 89). It was "very granular, in some cases almost
mountainous," with "many high heaps and ridges near
the girdle and running right up to the crown and star
facets. . . . The whole appearance was one of an amateurishly performed job." We are most grateful to
Bernice Backler for reporting this item to Gem News.
Editor's Note: To date, neither the GIA Research
Department nor the GIA Gem a a d e Laboratory has
encountered a cubic zirconia layered with any coating
that would fool a thermal diamond probe. However, we
are aware that a number of companies have applied
polycrystalline diamond coatings to a variety of materials, although cubic zirconia was never specifically
cited.
TUCSON '87
From February 7 through 15, the desert city of lbcson,
Arizona, was once again transformed into a gem and
mineral fancier's paradise. Each year this event seems to
get larger and that trend was not broken this year, with
dealers working out of more than a dozen hotels as well
as the convention center.
Without question, Tucson has become the largest
Figure I . For the first time i n m a n y years, fine

iris agate such as this 70.2 x 35.0 x 2.0-mm
piece was available at the 1987 lllcson Gem
and Mineral Show Photo O Tino Hammid.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
gem and mineral show in the world. And again this year,
dealers from virtually every gem-producing country
were present in abundance. As a result, many interesting
and unusual items were there waiting to be discovered.
The following report of new and different items seen at
Tucson this year was compiled by the Gem News editor
with the help of Emmanuel Fritsch, Pat Gray, James
Shigley, and Carol Stockton.
Amber. Dominican amber was available in large
amounts, although pieces with interesting inclusions
were, as usual, difficult to find. Good pieces of the socalled blue (strongly fluorescent) amber were fairly
common this year. A few of the amber dealers also
reported a small but steady market for transparent
Polish amber and for the cloudy, translucent to opaque,
Russian material.
Aquamarine. Zambia is said to be the source for a new
find of aquamarine. The gems are a darker shade of what
has become known in the trade as "aquamarine" blue,
and are very similar in color to some of the fine
aquamarines that have come out of Nigeria over the past
few years. The color in these ~ a m b i a stones,
i
as with
their Nigerian counterparts, is said to be natural and not
the result 04 -heat treatment.
. I.
Chalcedony. For the first time in many years, a few very
fine iris agates were being offered for sale. Acting as a
diffraction grating, the ultra-fine fortification banding in
these agates splits any source of transmitted white light
into a rainbow of bright spectral colors (figure 1). It is
hoped that more of this phenomenal material will be
available in the future.
Chrysoberyl. A number of very fine alexandrite chrysoberyls from Sri Lanka, Brazil, and even the Soviet Union
were available in sizes up to 8 ct. All of the Soviet gems
were said to be from old stock, and their appearance on
the market does not reflect any renewed mining activity.
Diamond. The Tucson Gem and Mineral Show is generally not thought of as a diamond show but each year
more and more diamond dealers are involved. Meleesized diamonds seem to be very popular, usually purchased as accent stones for the major colored gems that
are so abundant at the Tucson show. This year, however,
several major white diamonds were on display, as well as
a number of fancy pink, blue, green, and yellow stones.
Some of these faceted diamonds were as large as 20 ct.
Euclase. Colorless Brazilian euclases can be irradiated
with gamma rays to produce a pale green color. After
hearing a rumor to the effect that colorless euclase was
being enhanced in this manner, Pierre Bariand, curator
of the Sorbonne Collection, personally conducted a
Gem News
Figme 2. These I I -mm color-zoned fluorite

beads were sold as "multi-color amethyst."
Photo 0 Tino Hammid.
euclase-irradiation experiment and verified that this
color change will take place.
Fluorite. Strands of typical purple-to-colorless colorzoned fluorite beads were being sold as "multi-color
amethyst." As shown in figure 2, these beads are
obviously fluorite and should not fool the competent
gemologist.
Garnet. Intense green grossular garnets from East Africa
in sizes over one carat have all but disappeared from the
gem marlzetplace. Apparently, the deposits that produce
this beautiful gem are no longer producing it in large
quantities. Some feel that the mines may be played out,
while others speculate that they simply are not being
worlzed as heavily as they were in the past.
Kornerupine. Some cat's-eye kornerupines from an unknown locality were being sold by one gem dealer as
cat's-eye quartz.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
53
Opal. The breakup of a large old collection of small but

very fine Australian black opals resulted in a number of
these gems being offered for sale at Tucson this year. The
opals had a medium-gray to jet-black body color, which
was ideal to show off their intense play of spectral colors.
Peridot. Peridot was available from a number of both
classic and new localities. Fine large Burmese gems up to
75 ct were reportedly at the show. One Burmese gem of
note was a 5 +-ct star. Both cut and rough peridot from
Nordfjordeid, Norway, was available in faceted sizes up
to 6 ct. Two relatively new localities for gem peridotTanzania and Zambia - were also represented by small
faceted gems. The gem peridot potential of these two
sources is unlznown. A few specimens of well-formed
peridot crystals in matrix were available at the main
coilvention center show. Nodules of peridot in basalt
from San Carlos, Arizona, were also available.
Figure 3. Harold Van Pelt created this unuszlal

fluted three-piece rock crystal quartz container
(36.8 c m high) in honor of this year's show
mineral. Photo 0 Harold d Erica Van Pelt.
Moonstone. For the second year in a row, so-called

"rainbow" moonstone from India was being marketed at
the show. Last year it was virtually unknown, but this
year it was one of the popular new gems. Only small
stones of 2 ct or less were available last year, but this year
gems as large as 15 ct were being sold. The most
expensive of these was cut in a well-polished highdomed cabochon that brought out a reddish adularescence. Other moonstones displayed green, blue, orange,
and yellow adularescence.
Gem News
Quartz. The official theme mineral of this year's Tucson

show was quartz, and to celebrate this fact the world's
largest linown doubly terminated quartz crystal, found
in Africa, was on display. This remarkable specimen was
more than 2 m (6 ft.) long and weighed 3,454 kg (7600
lbs.).
Also on display in honor of the show mineral was
the most recent piece created by Harold Van Pelt (seethe
article by John Sinlzanlzas in the Winter 1982 issue of
Gems d Gemology on his unusual carving techniques):
a three-piece fluted rock crystal container (figure 3).
This unusual container is 36.8 cm (14.5 in.) high; the
body has 72 flutes and is only 3-4 m m thick at any point.
The body was carved, using special long-shafted tools
because of the depth, from a single piece of quartz.
Bi-colored gems of amethyst and citrine quartz,
linown in the trade as Ametrine, have been marketed for
several years. Yet the precise locality of these mixed
crystals has been in question until now. Kirby Siber, of
Siber and Siber, Switzerland, has purchased gem rough
at the mines and provided Gem News with the following
updated locality information. The confusion about the
exact location of this gem deposit resulted from the fact
that it is situated in Bolivia near the Brazilian border
about 650 lim southeast of Santa Cruz, far inside a
highly restricted military area. To compound this problem, the terrain is very rough and the area is difficult to
access. The locality is actually a crescent-shaped mining
area covering about 60 lzm.
More "Witches' Brew" quartz, with supposed magical powers, was also seen at Tucson. In actuality, these
pieces are manufactured by sawing the tips off crystals
of Arkansas rock crystal quartz near their bases, and
then gluing an intensely colored slice of glass or small
dark-colored transparent stone to the sawed end. The
quartz crystal tip would then appear to be brightly
colored when a light was shone into it through the colorcapped end.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
Ruby. A new find of gem-quality ruby was also reported.

The eluvial rubies are being mined from an area midway
along the border between Laos and Cambodia (Kampuchea). The stones range up to about 1.5 ct and are of
good-to-fine gem quality. The internal characteristics of
these rubies are very similar to rubies from Thailand and
are probably from a similar basaltic source.
Sapphire. Unusually large amounts of intense pink
sapphire were seen at this year's show. We did not learn
the geographic source of these "hot-pink" gems but it is
probable that they are from Sri Lanlza. It was rumored
that pink sapphires were being heat treated to intensify
their color or even to produce ruby, but we were unable
to verify these speculations. If such a treatment were
possible, then it might involve a heat-induced change in
the valence state of preexistent chromium ions.
Scapolite. A number of large faceted intense reddish
purple scapolites were available this year (figure 4).
These gems ranged up to 27 ct and were said to come
from Tanzania. most purple scapolites are generally
rather small, and these are the largest that we have seen
to date.
~~odumerik.'Sometranslucent pale pink to white cabochon-cut kpodumenes were being offered as "sheen
phenalzite."
Turquoise. "Stabilized" natural turquoise, primarily
from Cannanea, Mexico, is probably the most available
form of turquoise on the marlzet today, even eclipsing
Gilson's man-made turquoise. However, both could be
found at this year's Tucson show together with a
turquoise substitute imported from Germany. T h e
low-priced substitute is composed primarily of the
aluminum hydroxide mineral gibbsite. It is dyed, stabilized with a polymer, and used either alone or mixed
with some natural turquoise. Some color stability problems have been mentioned in connection with this
turquoise substitute: After a year or so of normal
jewelry wear, the blue color reportedly shifts toward
gray. This color change is probably due to the slow
degradation of the dyed polymer under the influence of
the ultraviolet rays of sunlight and many common
artificial light sources.
Zircon. Zircons in virtually every color were available
this year, including some heat-treated blue stones. One
Sri Lankan stone of particular interest was an 11-ct cat'seye that had the body color of a fine chatoyant chrysoberyl and a sharp bluish eye.
In addition to the opportunity i t provides to view a full
range of gems and minerals, the Tucson show is also a
good place to pick up current gem-related news. This
Gem News
Figure 4. This intense reddish

scapolite
(8.94 ct) was one of a number of zinusually fine
Tanzanian scapolites seen at lkcson this year.
photo 0 Tjno Hammid. Stone courtesy of
B, Alex Bahtiorian,
year, Mr. Gordon T Austin, the gemstone commodity

specialist with the United States Bureau of Mines,
provided a variety of useful information. Mr. Austin
informed u s that many of the East African nations are
pushed for hard currency. They have been gearing up
their production of gemstones, most notably tanzanite
and all varieties of garnet, to help solve their currency
problems.
He also informcd us that while reading through the
government's monthly import statistics he noted that
Ecuador has suddenly become a significant exporter of
ruby, sapphire, emerald, aquamarine, and amethyst. He
has no explanation for this. Perhaps Ecuador is becoming
some sort of a pipeline for gems into the United States.
Another very interesting bit of information provided by Mr. Austin concerns Chinese diamonds. Within
the last few months, China and De Beers have signed a
joint contract to handle the output from the four
currently producing Chinese diamond mines. China,
with De Beers's help, hopes to train 500,000 diamond
cutters within the next five years and plans to compete
with India in the small goods market.
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
GEMOLOGICAL ABSTRACTS
Dona M. Dirlam, Editor
REVIEW BOARD
William E. Boyajian
GIA, Santa Monica
Jeffrey M. Burbank
Santa Monica
Stephanie L. Dillon
San Clemente, California
Bob F. Effler
GIA, Santa Monica
Emmanuel Fritsch
GIA, Santa Monica
Joseph 0. Gill
Gill & Shortell Ltd., San Francisco
Fred L. Gray
Richter's, Georgia
Mahinda Gunawardene
Idar-Oberstein, Germany
Gary S. Hill
GIA, Santa Monica
Steve C . Hofer
Kensington, Connecticut
Karin N . Hurwit
Gem Trade Lab, Inc., Los Angeles
Robert C . Kammerling
GIA, Santa Monica
Neil Letson
Palm Beach, Florida
Shane F. McClure
Gem Trade Lab., Inc., Los Angeles
COLORED STONES AND

ORGANIC MATERIALS
Formation of tourmaline-rich gem pockets in miarolitic
pegrnatites. D. London, American Mineralogist,
Vol. 71, No. 314, 1986, pp. 396-405.
The conditions of formation of tourmaline-rich gem
poclzets in miarolitic (small, irregular poclzets with
protruding crystals) pegmatites are evaluated on the
basis of both experimental data on the stability of
aluminosilicate pocket minerals (e.g., spodumene) and
an analysis of fluid inclusions in crystals from gem
-
This section is designed to provide as complete a record as

practical of the recent literature on gems and gemology. Articles
are selected for abstracting solely at the discretion of the section
editor and her reviewers, and space limitations may require that we
include only those articles that we feel will be of greatest interest to
our readership.
Inquiries for reprints of articles abstracted must be addressed to
the author or publisher of the original material.
The reviewer of each article is identified by his or her initials at the
end of each abstract. Guest reviewers are identified by their full
names. Opinions expressedin an abstract belong to the abstracter
and in no way reflect the position of Gems & Gemology
or GIA.
a7987 Gemological Institute of America
56
GIA, Santa Monica
Michael P. Roach
Andin International, New York
Gary A. Roskin
GIA, Santa Monica
James E. Shigley
GIA, Santa Monica
Franceye Smith
GIA, Santa Monica
Carol M. Stockton
GIA, Santa Monica
Sally A. Thomas
GIA, Santa Monica
pockets. The development of pockets in tourmalinerich, rare-element pegmatites occurs during the latter
stage of formation at temperatures between approximately 475" and 425C and between 2800 and 2400 bars
pressure. This range of temperature and pressure conditions is comparable to that of late-stage crystallization
in geochemically similar, massive (nonmiarolitic)rareelement pegmatites. Whether or not gem poclzets form
during crystallization seems to depend largely on the
timing of tourmaline crystallization. Crystallization of
tourmaline at some point during pegmatite formation
removes both allzali elements (sodium, lithium) and
boron from the residual pegmatite melt. It is suggested
that the removal of these components within the crystallized tourmaline has a profound influence on subsequent mineral formation within the pegmatite. Tourmaline formation is rapidly followed by the deposition of
other allzali aluminosilicate minerals (e.g., albite) and
the release of large volumes of water from the residual
pegmatite silicate melt. Exsolution of water from the
melt in the form of an aqueous fluid phase then
contributes to the formation of miarolitic pocltets and
their mineral contents during the late stages of pegmatite genesis. This model of poclzet formation is
discussed in relation to the famous gem pegmatites of
Afghanistan and of San Diego County, California, as
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
well as the large, nonmiarolitic, massive, rare-element

Tanco pegmatite in Manitoba, Canada.
JEs
Jadeite-kosmochlor solid solution and chromian sodic
amphiboles in jadeites and associated rocks from
Tawmaw (Burma). C. MCvel and J.-R. KiCnast,
Bulletin de Mine'ralogie, Vol. 109, 1986, pp.
6 17-632.
This article presents mineralogic data and chemical
analyses on the unusual and visually striking chromian
pyroxenes and amphiboles from the jade deposits of
Tawinaw, Burma. These deposits are world famous for
their production of high-quality jadeite.
Most of the jadeite is whitish, grayish, or greenish,
but some pieces contain small bright green spots.
Detailed study of these pieces reveals that these spots
contain not only minor chromite, but also pyroxenes and
amphiboles with the highest chromium concentrations
ever found in terrestrial rocks. Among the pyroxene
minerals described is lzosmochlor, which is the chromium equivalent of jadeite, containing up to 30%
Cr,O,. There exists a wide range of solid solution
between ltosmochlor and jadeite, but also a miscibility
gap of 25%-50% lzosmochlor component at temperatures of several hundred degrees Celsius and pressures of
10 kbars. Unusual amphiboles with up to 10% Cr,O,
include lzatophorite, glaucophanc, and eclzermannite.
The exceptional compositions of these minerals result
from their formation in a particular chemical environment caused by metasomatic reaction (duringmetamorphism) between an albitite dilze containing chromite
xenocrysts and the enclosing serpentinites.
JEs
Notes on fluid inclusions of vanadiferous zoisite (tanzanite) and green grossular in Merelani area,
Northern Thnzania. E. Malisa, K. Kinnunen, and T.
Koljonen, Bulletin of the Geological Society of
Finland, Vol. 58, No. 2, 1986, pp. 53-58.
The authors describe the properties of tanzanite, the
gem-quality vanadium-bearing variety of zoisite, from
the Merelani area of Tanzania. Crystals of tanzanite
occur mainly in boudinaged pegmatitic veins and hydrothermal fracture fillings in a brecciated and hydrothermally altered graphite-bearing diopside gneiss. Associated minerals include quartz, diopside, graphite, calcite,
hematite, and sphene, as well as green vanadian grossular garnet. The authors also report compositional data
for tanzanite. The material has refractive indices of
1.693, 1.694, and 1.702, and a specific gravity of 3.35.
Tanzanite has a striking pleochroism, with red-violet,
deep blue, and yellow-green.
Two apparent generations of tanzanite are found at
this locality-an older brown type and a younger type
that is blue. The brown-to-blue color change brought
about by heat treatment is attributed to changes in the
valence state of vanadium. The inclusions in tanzanite
are described in detail. Studies of these inclusions

suggest that the tanzanites crystallized from a hydrocarbon-rich fluid. Solid inclusions noted in tanzanite include calcite, gypsum, graphite, rutile, sphene, xenotime, quartz, diopside, and tremolite-actinolite. Some of
these minerals occur as acicular needles which could
IES
impart a cat's-eye effect to some tanzanites.
Red and pink tourmaline. C. R. Marcusson, Jewelers
Quarterly, Fourth Quarter, 1986, pp. 24-27,
and 30.
The use of tourmaline in jewelry dates back as far as
1000 A.D. to a Nordic ring set with a red tourmaline
cabochon. Another historic tourmaline is the 250-ct red
egg-shaped cabochon, dated to the 1500% that was
bestowed as a gift to Kaiser Rudolf 11. In 1925, the famous
Russian mineralogist Alexander Fersman proved that
this gem, originally thought to be ruby, was actually
Burmese red tourmaline; it is now located in the
Kremlin Treasure Room.
Tourmaline often occurs in spectacular crystals
which are highly prized by collectors. Smaller crystals
mounted as simple pendants are popular with crystal
healers as well as the general public. It is thought by
some that wearing tourmaline crystals increases one's
charisma. Pink tourmaline in particular is said to be
associated with joyfulness, vivacity, and the release of
emotional pain.
Tourmaline is generally found in pegmatite dikes,
probably the most prolific of the gem-bearing rock types.
Marcusson gives an excellent, brief description of how
crystals form within a pegmatite body
Tourmaline rarely occurs in a true red. Usually it is
pinltish in hue and often modified by orange or brown.
The causes of color in tourmaline are very complex.
Generally, pink and red tourmaline are colored by
manganese and iron combined with exposure to lowlevel radiation emitted by other minerals associated
with pegmatites. The higher the iron content, the less
saturated the color tends to be.
Color enhancement has become more prevalent in
recent years. Irradiation can produce dark pink and red
stones from very pale material. In general, these colors
are darker and less saturated than their natural counterparts. Large pink and red tourmalines rarely are free of
inclusions, and the color of extremely clean large stones
is often the result of laboratory irradiation. Thus far,
treatment of tourmalines by this method is not detectablej consequently, with the greater amount of irradiated tourmaline on the market, the price of natural-color
material has dropped.
The author also discusses major localities for red
and pink tourmaline, including Brazil, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, and North America.
Marcusson has presented a well-rounded article
that delivers interesting as well as useful information on
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
57
this beautiful gem. She concludes with some tips on the

use of red and pink tourmaline in today's fashions.
Barton C. Crrrren
Saphire aus Nigeria und von Sta. Terezinha de Goias,
Brasilien (Sapphire from Nigeria and Santa Terezinha de Goias, Brazil). U. Henn, Zeitschrift der
Deutschen Cemmologischen Gesellschaft, Vol.
35, NO. 112, 1986, pp. 15-19.
Blue sapphire from Nigeria has appeared recently on the
gem marltet. The locality is reportedly 50 ltm north of
Jos in northern Nigeria. The sapphires are dark to inky,
with strong color zoning. Fluid inclusions and two-phase
inclusions, which are sometimes very elongated, have
been observed, as well as idiomorphic apatite and
rounded zircon.
Blue sapphire has also been found at Santa Terezinha de Goias, Brazil. The clarity seems poor, and the
color is reported to be bluish gray, sometimes in a strong
color zonation with dark blue. Muscovite and margarite
inclusions oriented along the cleavage are prevalent in
these stones; some fluid inclusions are also present.
EF
Stars and stripes forever. R. I? Rohrback, Lapidary

Journal, Vol. 40, No. 7, 1986, pp. 20-30.
When the term phenomenal is applied to gems, certain
stones immediately come to mind: cat's-eye chrysoberyl, and star rubies and sapphires. Few lay people have
ever heard of a star alexandrite or cat's-eye tsavorite.
Having collected and studied phenomenal stones for
the past 20 years, Rohrbach laments the fact that
standard reference books on gems pay little attention to
all the other gemstones that have been found with these
effects-and in an incredible diversity of colors. These
include topaz, tourmaline, garnet, beryl, spinel, and
obsidian, among others. He explains what causes
chatoyancy and the cat's-eye effect, describes how such
stones are formed, and gives tips on orientation during
cutting. There is also an insert describing a jewelry
designer's use of asteriated rose quartz and blue cat's-eye
tourmaline in her designs. This article has valuable
information for students of gemology and the jewelry
Anne Riswold
arts.
world average. This high tenor ensures the mine's

continued profitability in spite of the relatively low
price obtained for the bulk of its rough [about $8 per
carat).
The Argyle joint venture has agreed to sell 75% of
its production to De Beers. Because of the relatively low
price of Australian rough, sales to the Central Selling
Organization are expected to be less than $200 million
annually. Since this represents only 10% of its total
sales, the C.S.O. should have no trouble absorbing the
diamond production of Argyle.
Considerable attention was generated by the establishment of Argyle Diamond Sales, an independent
cutting and polished marketing operation, in Perth.
Reports suggest that it was established as part of an
agreement with the local state government and is not
really intended to malte inroads into the polished
market. However, some Australians feel that their
country is losing potential export revenue by selling
uncut stones. Efforts are being made by various groups to
expand the local jewelry industry in order to talze better
advantage of Australia's abundant gemstones and gold.
Barton C. Curren
GEM LOCALITIES
Kunzite from the Haapaluoma pegmatite quarry, western Finland. S. I. Lahti and R. Sailtltonen, Bzrlletin
of the Geological Society of Finland, Vol. 58, No. 2,
1986, pp. 47-52.
Small amounts of ltunzite occur with common suodumene at the Haapaluoma pegmatite quarry near Peraseinajolci, western Finland. This is the first reported
occurrence of gem-quality spodumene in Finland. The
typical zoned lithium-rich pegmatite is emplaced in
granodioritic country roclzs. Small transparent crystals
of morganite and red tourmaline are also found at this
The authors studied one 7-cm-long purple crystal in
detail. The ltunzite has refractive indices of 1.660, 1.665,
and 1.679; a specific gravity of 3.19; and shows a weak
orange fluorescence to both long- and short-wave ultraviolet radiation. Additional mineralogic data are presented, as is a discussion of mineral paragenesis in this
IEs
pegmatite.
DIAMONDS
Argyle-A year on. Diamond World Review No. 39,
Summer 1986, pp. 48-49.
The 1986 production of the AK1 pipe at the Argyle mine,
in Western Australia, is expected to reach 28 million
carats, three million more than the original estimate.
Argyle is now the world's largest diamond mine, accounting for 8% of the annual world production of
rough. The AK1 pipe yields about 6.8 ct of diamonds per
ton of ore, which is five or six times higher than the
58
INSTRUMENTS AND TECHNIQUES

Application de la resonance magnktique nuclkaire ?I
l'etude des gemmes (Application of nuclear magnetic resonance to the study of gems). I. Mallez,
J.-M.Dereppe, C. Moreaux, Revue de Gemmologie
a.jg., No. 88, 1986, pp. 7-8.
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)is a nondestructive
and potentially quantitative method of observing light
elements [e.g., hydrogen, boron, beryllium, lithium,
GEMS 8: GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
sodium) in gemstones. However, it cannot be applied to

trace elements. The characteristics of the signals emitted by different elements vary from stone to stone, and
so can be used to establish the identity of a particular
gem. NMR can also help in separating natural from
synthetic gemstones; the example of emeralds is
discussed.
EF
JEWELRY ARTS
Guilloche-engine turning. J. Wolters, Aurum, No. 27,
1986, pp. 40-56.
Guilloche, or engine turning, is defined as "the engraving, by means of a machine, of precise, regular patterns
and ornamentation consisting of straight or curved
lines." This technique has been practiced since the 16th
century, initially only on soft, easily carved materials
such as ivory, wood, horn, coconut, and some soft stones.
Engine turning on metal began to appear in the late 18th
century, when it was applied to a variety of objects
including snuff boxes, watchcases, and locltets. In the
19th century, Carl FabergC coupled g~lilloche with
transparent coloreci enamels, achieving a pinnacle of
perfection for the art.
This extensive article, by the director of the
Pforzheim"~Co1dsmiths School, gives the history of
guilloche-dith descriptions of the machinery involved
and the different types of ornamentation that can be
produced. Well researched and concisely written, the
article is handsomely embellished with 53 photos and
plates; even the figure legends are very informative.
EBM
Mokume-gane. S. D. Kretchmer, Aurum, No. 25, Spring
1986, pp. 24-33.
The goldsmith's art of molzume-gane ("wood-grain
metal") is re-emerging after centuries of neglect. The
textured, patterned metals are the progeny of swordmalting techniques developed in medieval Damascus,
where iron and steel were folded and forged to form a
strong, tensile laminate. Nonferrous mokume-gane
originated in Japan about 300 years ago utilizing gold,
silver, copper, and shalzudo, a gold-copper alloy.
Today's gold mokume-gane is formed using the
traditional Japanese techniques of material removal and
subsequent forging, rolling, forming, or twisting of the
laminated layers. The metals are further contrasted by
chemical patination, which maltes the piece appear "as
though a trail of small black ants had treltlted over it
while it was still soft."
Kretchmer has experimented with both soldering
and bonding his own laminates (for details of the
author's techniques, see the Spring 1983 issue of Metalsmith]. Since soldering limits the quality and workability of the material, he bolts billets of 18K gold and
lzuromido (99% copper, 1% arsenic) together and heats
them in a reducing atmosphere to 40"-50C below the
lowest melting point of the metals in the stack. Preformed laminates of different-colored carat gold in stripes
and patterns are now available commercially, primarily
from Japanese manufacturers.
Pattern development with this technique seems
almost limitless, including stripes, whorls, checlzs, and
microscopic chevrons. Kretchmer has also engraved
layered billets to create exotic, multicolored panoramas.
This technique is a costly one, however, since a
great deal of noble metal must often be removed in order
to create a pattern, and must then be refined before it can
be reused. Despite the labor and the cost, molzume-gone
is alluring to the eye and hand, a fusion of the legendary
past and a fantastic future.
SAT
JEWELRY RETAILING
Display-setting the stage for jewelry sales. S. S .
Jensen, Modern leweler, Vol. 85, No. 1I, 1986, pp.
54-57.
Jensen offers advice on jewclry display compiled from
interviews with 13 presentation and packaging companies located around the U.S. The article's premise, as
voiced by Margaret Furman of Visual Dynamics in San
Francisco, is that the store should be viewed as a theater
stage, artfully designed to set the mood for the audience
(the customers) and enhance the jewels at center front.
With this premise in mind, the jeweler should lavish
special attention on store windows, which can entice a
new generation of shoppers who are already attuned to
visually stimulating displays. Today's windows are uncluttered, skillfully lighted, and changed as often as
every two weelts. Clever seasonal or story themes are
very effective in window displays, and should be carried
through to the inside of the store. Props need not be
expensive, and can substantially add to the romance of
the jewels. Neutral colors, such as soft grays and pastels,
malze versatile display bacltdrops, especially given the
present popularity of colored stones.
Accompanied by many photos of professional jewelry displays, this article provides practical, proven advice
on jewelry display.
SAT
A jeweler's guide to female complexion. J. S. Philby,
Modern Teweler, Vol. 85, No. 9, 1986, pp. 48-57.
The third in a series of articles on female hands, face, and
complexion, this article suggests that jewelers take
advantage of the art of color consulting to match jewelry
to a woman's face and hands. Color consulting involves
categorizing a woman into one of the four seasons on the
basis of her complexion, hair, and eye color. The author
explains how to determine a woman's season and how to
use the color palette within that season to coordinate her
jewelry. Outlines are given to help jewelers identify
stone preferences for each appropriate season.
J~ldiFioti
Men's jewelry - tradition and quality sells. S. Mitchell,

American Jewelry Manufacturer, Vol. 34, No. 12,
1986, pp. 32-36.
AJM investigates the marltet for men's jewelry through
queries of fashion editors, menswear designers, and shirt
and jewelry manufacturers.
Now that American men are spending more on
vanity items such as skin care products, fragrances and
face lifts, can we assume the same will hold true for
jewelry?
The consensus is guarded but hopeful. The emphasis in men's jewelry must be on function, quality, and
classic styling. Watches are the number one jewelry item
bought for and by men. Tie pins, tie bars, cuff links, stud
sets, key rings, money clips, signet rings, luggage tags all these can appeal to even the most conservative men.
Gold chains are pass6 and forget about earrings, as those
men so inclined can always buy from the far greater
selection of women's earrings. Given that women buy
50% to 70% of men's jewelry and that sterling is hot in
women's jewelry, it stands to reason that sterling must
be seriously considered.
Anne Riswold
New: JVC's action of the month. Jewelers' CircularKeystone, Vol. 157, No. 9, 1986, pp. 40-51.
The Jewelers Vigilance Committee is taking a strong
stance by publishing each month the details of a legal
action talien against a member of the trade who has
failed to follow honest business practices. Executive
vice-president of the JVC, Joel Windman, hopes that
publicizing an "action of the month" will help lieep the
jewelry industry "more alert and more informed" about
malpractices in the trade and the function the JVC
performs in curbing these malpractices. Windman also
stresses the responsibility of retail jewelers to stay
informed gemologically so that they can check gems and
hallmarks on incoming goods, and not have a "blind
reliance" on what they are given or told.
This month's publicized action, prompted by written complaints from dissatisfied parties, exposes a
misleading advertising campaign to promote diamond
sales. It is hoped that publication of this and future
actions will focus the trade's attention on how well the
JVC has been performing the task of jewelry industry
watchdog for the last 75 years.
EUM
SYNTHETICS AND SIMULANTS

Is diamond the new wonder material? A. L. Robinson,
Science, Vol. 234, No. 4780, 1986, pp. 1074-1076.
The laboratory synthesis of polycrystalline diamond
films on semiconductor metal or polymer substrates has
been successfully achieved by Russian, Japanese, and
American researchers during the last few years. Because
of the exceptional physical properties of diamond,
should this process become economical for industrial
60
applications, it would open the door to tremendous

advances in cutting tools, optics, and electronics.
The two published manufacturing procedures have
the same basis: An organic molecule is dissociated, via a
high-energy or catalytic process, and the carbon is
deposited as diamond on the substrate. However, the
growth process itself is not yet understood. Growth rates
range from 1 to 10 p m per hour, and continuous films of
more than 1 m m thicli have been reported. Although
millions of dollars have been invested in this research,
some key steps in certain applications are still missing.
The author emphasizes that while all the possibilities
still appear to be viable, there are "numerous taslts yet
to be mastered before potential applications can be
actualized."
EF
Differenciation entre les gemmes naturelles et les materiaux synthktiques par microspectromCtrie
Raman a laser (Separation of natural gems from
synthetic materials by laser Raman microspectrometry). M.-L. Dele-dubois, J.-l?Poirot, H.-J.
Schubnel, Revue de Gemmologie a.jg., No. 88,
1986, pp. 13-14.
Raman spectroscopy is a nondestructive method that
identifies molecules and ~olyatomicstructures on the
basis of their vibration spectra. The Raman microprobe
makes the identification of inclusions in gemstones
~ossiblewith some restrictions: Neither the inclusion
nor the host crystal should be too opaque or fluorescent,
and the inclusion should be large enough (at least 1 pm)
and close enough to the surface of the gem to give a
signal that can be differentiated from that of the matrix.
Examples are given of inclusions in natural stones that
have been identified by this means.
This article (which was originally published in
English in the Journal of Molecular Str~~cture],
is followed by a separate piece that discusses how to identify
inclusions in synthetic rubies and emeralds by means of
Raman spectroscopy.
EF
A
TREATMENTS
Farbung und Bestrahlungsschaden in elektronenbestrahlten blauen Topasen (Coloration and irradiation damage in electron irradiated blue topaz). K.
Schmetzer, Zeitschrift der D e ~ ~ t s c h eGemmon
logischen Gesellschaft, Vol. 35, No. 112, 1986, pp.
27-38.
Nigerian topaz that is electron irradiated and then
heated to produce a blue color is investigated and
compared with blue topaz colored by other treatment
methods (gamma ray and neutron irradiation] as well as
with natural blue stones from Brazil, Nigeria, and
Zimbabwe. The polarized optical absorption spectra of
the Nigerian material reveal three strongly polarized
absorptions bands, caused by two "X-centersNand one
"Y-center." The relative intensity of the bands may vary
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987
according to the type of treatment used; however, no

distinctive feature between natural and treated blue
topaz can be ascertained. Unfortunately, Dr. Schmetzer
discusscs spectroscopic results without showing any
related spectra.
The electron-irradiated samples exhibit cracks and
parting planes parallel to the cleavage plane, as well as a
zoned structure: a light blue outer shell, an intermediate
zone with a high concentration of macroscopic defects,
and a colorless core. This shell-lilze structure is attributed to the temperature gradient caused by the water
used to cool the crystals during irradiation. A patchy
dark blue-violet color is sometimes superimposed on the
light blue outer shell, and is thought to be related to
EF
trace elements because of its patchy pattern.
Glass fillings in sapphire. K. Scarratt, R. R. Harding, and
V. K. Din, Iournal of Gemmology, Vol. 20, No. 4,
1986, pp. 203-207.
The recent occurrence of glass-filled surface cavities in
natural rubies has been well documentecl in the gemological literature. In this article, the authors analyze
the glass filling of a surface cavity in a faceted sapphire,
and attempt to establish the origin of such glass fillings.
They postulate that they may be (1)a volcanic glass, (2)a
man-made \glass, or (3) the result of the melting of
natural inclusions.
The authors conclude that the glass fillings in rubies
and sapphires represent a range of compositions, some of
which could be natural. It is unlilzely, however, that any
of the glass inclusions reported thus far are natural
volcanic glass. In the sapphire studied, the glass filling
was man-made.
The article is well written, and contains a nice list
David C. LeRose
of references on related topics.
MISCELLANEOUS
Evaluation/decision process for small-scale placer gold
mining. M. J. Richardson, Mining Magazine, vol.
154, No. 4, 1986, pp. 312-317,319, and 321.
Richardson analyzes the process of evaluating smallscale placer gold mining operations. Sampling, feasibility, and equipment selection are among the topics
discussed.
Most small-scale placer gold mines fail because of
the lack of competent evaluation prior to the purchase of
equipment and the commitment to mine the property.
First the presence of gold in quantities that will allow
profitable mining must be established. Next the overall
size and type of deposit must be evaluated. Only then
should the miner determine which process he will use to
recover the gold and the equipment he will need.
Equipment selection is discussed in detail.
The author also discusses specific operations such
as excavation and personnel. A backhoe augmented with
a bulldozer and/or front-end loader is the most efficient
piece of equipment for excavation. In the search for

personnel, Richardson stresses the importance of finding people who have experience in successful smallscale placer gold mining.
Finally, the author presents four questions for prospective miners. If he answers them accurately and
honestly, the miner can significantly reduce the risk of
his gold mining venture.
Barton C . Curren
A former-king's ransom. B. Hillier, Los Angeles Times
Magazine, February 22, 1987, pp. 30-31.
This article, which appeared in a magazine with a
circulation of well over a million, proves that the April
1987 auction of the Duchess of Windsor's jewelry-by
the renowned London auction house Sothebyrs-captured the interest of not only the gemological community but also the popular press. Although brief, the
article does serve up a few details about the actual pieces
being auctioned, even if it dwells primarily on romantic
anecdotes surrounding the famous courtship between
Icing Edward VIIl and Wallis Warfield Simpson, the
American divorcee he married in 1936 at the expense of
his throne. On April 2 and 3,1987, almost a year after the
death of the Duchess, Sotheby's auctioned a jewelry
collection that included some 87 pieces by Cartier, the
Windsors' "court jeweler," and 23 pieces by Van Cleef &
Arpels. The author singles out the Duchess's engagement ring- "a large emerald mounted in gold with small
diamonds on the shouldersu-as an item of particular
interest. Also described and illustrated are a charm
bracelet hung with nine jewel-studded gold crosses and a
group of Cartier "great cat" jewels-bracelets in the form
of panthers and tigers. The author also cites the royals'
penchant for engraving personal messages on the jewelry, including some in facsimile of Edward's handwriting and others that are actually clever puns. The author
notes that one of the "most touching mementos of the
royal couple" is a diamond-studded gold medallion
memorializing their cairn terrier, nicknamed "Mr. Loo."
This is certain to be one of many popular articles dealing
with the well-publicized Windsor auction.
IMB
40 years in the hot seat-Dick
Frankovich retires.
American Iewelry Manufacturer, Vol. 34, No. 105,
1986, pp. 28-34, 36, 38-40, 42, 44, 46-47, 50.
This extensive interview with George R. (Dick)Frankovich, recently retired vice-president and executive director of the Manufacturing Jewelers and Silversmiths
Association, reveals the development of the association
from a small regional group of 200 members to a major
national organization.
Frankovich originally joined the group in 1946 as an
industrial engineer. He used his expertise in this area to
help the jewelry industry convert from war-time production of items such as buttons, buckles, and bullets to the
peace-time manufacture of jewelry.
In just two years, Frankovich became head of the
GEMS&GEMOLOGY
Spring1987
61
association. He was responsible for the creation of

American Jewelry Manufacturer, a technical publication
designed to reach thousands of nonmembers with the
MJ&SA message. In time, it became a strong tool for
promoting growth for the organization. During the
1950s, MJ&SA gained a stronghold in Washington,
resulting in the passage of legislation beneficial to the
industry. One major victory in Washington was the
lifting of an excise tax that had been placed on luxuries
during the war. Although they only managed to reduce
the tax by half (from 20% to 10%))it was an important
step for the entire jewelry industry.
MJ&SAhas also addressed such issues as free trade,
the dropping of tariffs and how it would affect the U.S.
industry, the purchasing and pricing of gold after the
Treasury closed the door on gold in 1968, as well as the
issue of correct gold refinement. The organization has
also been extremely influential in the marlzing and
stamping of gold, and headed the action for "plumb gold"
in the 1970s.
The organizations with which the Mj&SA has been
closely associated, such as the Jewelers of America, and
the accomplishments in which they have jointly succeeded are also brought into the interview. The article
ends on a note about the future of the organization:
Matthew Runci is Dick Frankovich's successor at
MJ&SA.The idea of new leadership seems exciting, but
Dick Frankovich is definitely a tough act to follow.
Mary Hanns
The Homestake - America's greatest gold mine. J. C.
Zeitner, Lapidary lournal, Vol. 40, No. 8, 1986, pp.
48-52.
Rumors of gold in the Black Hills of South Dalzota
started as early as 1833, and in 1863 the G. T Lee party
actually did mine some gold. But because the area was so
isolated and the Sioux Indians were at war much of the
time, development did not start until 1874, when a party
led by General George C. Custer discovered gold on
French Creek. After this discovery, little could stop
ambitious prospectors.
In February 1876, a party of prospectors led by
Moses and Fred Manuel filed lode claims in Bobtail
Gulch. That spring, they began work at the open-cut
mine they called the Homestalze. The mine grew quiclzly
and more.claims were filed. Gold camps began to spring
up, including the present-day towns of Lead (pronounced
leed) and Deadwood. The camps grew quiclzly and
attracted many soldiers of fortune, resulting in a rash of
gunfights, train and stage robberies, and hangings.
Meanwhile, the Manuels and their partners eventually sold the expanded Homestalze mine (then 4'/2 acres)
to Senator George Hearst of California for' $70,000.
Hearst and his partners continued to develop the mine
and expand to adjacent properties, until their best claims
formed a strip 1'17. miles long and '12 mile wide. By the
late 1 8 0 0 ~1,500
~ people were employed by Homestalze.
The growing mine suffered many problems. Water

was either scarce or overly abundant, cave-ins were
frequent, and fires wreaked havoc. Still the mine continued to produce.
The ore body of the Lead-Deadwood area is PreCambrian and consists of six major formations. The
bottom of the ore body has still not been reached,
although the mine is now 8,000 ft. deep. During its 100
years of existence, the Homestalze mine milled
115,491,582 tons of ore to produce 31,5 10,612 oz. of gold
and 7,285,784 oz. of silver. Currently, exploration continues more than 1'12 milcs beneath the surface.
Homestake Mining Company now has mining interests in several states as well as in Canada, Australia,
Peru, and the Philippines. It has also diversified outside
of the mining industry.
Zeitner has presented a fascinating article on the
colorful history of America's greatest gold mine, which
has been in continuous operation longer than any other
Barton C. Curren
gold mine in the world.
Treasure houses of the world. l? Bancroft, Lapidary
lournal, Vol. 40, No. 5, 1986, pp. 21-26.
Subtitled 'A traveler's guide to outstanding mineralogical museums abroad," Dr. Bancroft considers the merits
of seven museums, four in Western Europe, two in
Australia, and one in New Zealand. For each, he gives a
brief historical overview and describes the main emphasis of the collection.
Nine color pictures depict specimens in the collections as well as interior shots of the exhibits.
Patricia Gray
Utilisation gemmologique des mindraux des timbres
Franqais (Gemological use of the minerals from
the French stamps). j.-I? Poirot, Monde et Minkraux, No. 75, 1986, pp. 28-36.
The French government recently issued four postage
stamps featuring quartz, calcite, fluorite, and marcasite,
and Poirot took the opportunity to describe the gemological use of these four minerals. Poirot, a specialist in
gem history, describes in detail the origins of quartz lore,
and relates the history of quartz carving. The use of
quartz to substitute for other gemstones or in doublets
dates from antiquity, and now treatment (especially
irradiation) is quite common. Poirot emphasizes that
quartz is presently malzing a come-back in fine jewelry.
Calcite is briefly discussed, mainly for its polarizing
properties. Fluorite is primarily used for decorative
purposes, although cut green fluorites are very much
sought after. Poirot insists that what is commonly called
marcasite in jewelry is, in fact, pyrite, and that the
mineral marcasite has never been cut as a gem. The
misnomer arose from the French name marcassin,
which has been applied by miners to describe both
sulfides.
EF
GEMS & GEMOLOGY
Spring 1987

Gems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gems

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Gems

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

VOLUME XXlll

The quarterly journal of the Gemological Institute of America

Editor, Gem Trade Lab Notes

The Gems & Gemology Most Valuable Article Award

"Modern" Jewelry:Retro to Abstract

Infrared Spectroscopy in Gem Identification

A Study of the General Electric Synthetic Jadeite

A New Gem Material from Greenland: Iridescent

Gem Trade Lab Notes

All rights reserved

THE GEMS & GEMOLOGY

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

T h e period between the onset of World

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

he roughly 30 years between the onset of World War I1

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

This article, then, traces the evolution of

affected the design and production of jewelry. In

had a chunky, sculptural quality, accompanied by

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

A number of these diamonds were purchased by

Figure 2. This assortment of jewels illustrates m a n y

such as Buccellati, Castelli, and Bulgari all created

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

of the 1940s. Two clips worn together often served

jewelry of the late 1940s and the 1950s was an

Gemstones at the Forefront. As the world left the

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Courtesy of Harry Winston, Inc.

ponderous amount of metal still dominated the

the leaves of the holly wreath on his front door gave

ents, and remains a hallmark of Winston jewelry.

Legendary Designers. The nouveau riche of the

Figure 5. During the 1950s, gemstones could

Winston's earrings were shimmering cascades of

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

emigrated to the United States during World War I1

spines of gold amid a profusion of faceted jewels.

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

preted with Braque's cubist vision (figure 12).

Figure 10. Verdura's sensitivity t o natural

Paladin of a new Renaissance, I too refuse to be

Although he was influenced by Picasso in the

stream art world and the applied art of jewelry

and the reemergence of artisans who possessed the

Figure 12. By French artist Georges Braque,

strove to establish a school in the U.S. that,

the piece. Andrew Grima, who is most famous for

Figure 15. Individualism in the 1960s empliasized

turn, their individualistic jewelry has encouraged

NadelhofferH. (1984)Cortier: Iewelers Extraordinary. Harry N .

GEMS & GEMOLOGY

Infrared spectroscopy i s a powerful tool

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

nfrared spectroscopy in itself is not new, having become