(Chapter 1: Review) 1.

31

TOPI C 3: TRI GONOMETRY I I

PART A: FUNDAMENTAL TRI GONOMETRI C I DENTI TI ES

Memorize these in both directions (i.e., left-to-right and right-to-left).

Reciprocal Identities

cscx=
1
sinx
secx=
1
cosx
cotx=
1
tanx

sinx=
1
cscx
cosx=
1
secx
tanx=
1
cotx


WARNI NG 1: Remember that the reciprocal of

sinx is cscx, not secx.

TI P 1: We informally treat 0 and undefined as reciprocals when we are
dealing with basic trigonometric functions. Your algebra teacher will not
want to hear this, though!

Quotient Identities


tanx=
sinx
cosx
and

cotx=
cosx
sinx



Pythagorean Identities


sin
2
x+ cos
2
x= 1
1 + cot
2
x= csc
2
x
tan
2
x+ 1 = sec
2
x


TI P 2: The second and third Pythagorean Identities can be obtained from the
first by dividing both of its sides by

sin
2
x and

cos
2
x, respectively.

TI P 3: The squares of

cscx and

secx, which have Up-U, Down-U
graphs, are all alone on the right sides of the last two identities. They can
never be 0 in value. (Why is that? Look at the left sides.)
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.32


Cofunction Identities

If x is measured in radians, then:


sinx= cos

2
x

cosx= sin

2
x

We have analogous relationships for tangent and cotangent, and for
secant and cosecant; remember that they are sometimes undefined.
Think: Cofunctions of complementary angles are equal.

Even / Odd (or Negative Angle) Identities

Among the six basic trigonometric functions, only cosine (and its
reciprocal, secant) are even:

cos x
( )
= cosx
sec x
( )
= secx


However, the other four are odd:


sin x
( )
= sinx
csc x
( )
= cscx
tan x
( )
= tanx
cot x
( )
= cotx

If f is an even function, then the graph of y= f x
( )
is symmetric about the
y-axis.
If f is an odd function, then the graph of

y= f x
( )
is symmetric about the
origin.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.33

PART B: DOMAI NS AND RANGES OF THE SI X BASI C TRI GONOMETRI C
FUNCTI ONS



f x
( )

Domain Range

sinx


,
( )



1,1

cosx


,
( )



1,1

tanx
Set-builder form:

xe x=
r
2
+ rn ne
( )

,
( )


cscx
Set-builder form:

x x n n
( )
{ }

, 1
(

1,

)


secx
Set-builder form:

xe x=
r
2
+ rn ne
( )

, 1
(

1,

)


cotx
Set-builder form:
x x n n
( )
{ }

,
( )



The unit circle approach explains the domain and range for sine and cosine, as
well as the range for tangent (since any real number can be a slope).


(Chapter 1: Review) 1.34
Domain for tangent: The Xs on the unit circle below correspond to an
undefined slope. Therefore, the corresponding real numbers (the corresponding
angle measures in radians) are excluded from the domain.


Domain for tangent and secant: The Xs on the unit circle above also correspond
to a cosine value of 0. By the Quotient Identity for tangent

tan =
sin
cos

and the
Reciprocal Identity for secant

sec =
1
cos

, we exclude the corresponding

radian measures from the domains of both functions.


Domain for cotangent and cosecant: The Xs on the unit circle below
correspond to a sine value of 0. By the Quotient Identity for cotangent

cot =
cos
sin

and the Reciprocal Identity for cosecant

csc =
1
sin

, we
exclude the corresponding radian measures from the domains of both functions.



Range for cosecant and secant: We turn inside out the range for both sine and
cosine, which is 1,1

.

Range for cotangent: This is explained by the fact that the range for tangent is

,
( )
and the Reciprocal Identity for cotangent:

cot =
1
tan

. cot is 0 in
value tan is undefined.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.35

PART C: GRAPHS OF THE SI X BASI C TRI GONOMETRI C FUNCTI ONS

The six basic trigonometric functions are periodic, so their graphs can be
decomposed into cycles that repeat like wallpaper patterns. The period for tangent
and cotangent is ; it is

2 for the others.

A vertical asymptote (VA) is a vertical line that a graph approaches in an
explosive sense. (This idea will be made more precise in Section 2.4.) VAs on
the graph of a basic trigonometric function correspond to exclusions from the
domain. They are graphed as dashed lines.

Remember that the domain of a function f corresponds to the x-coordinates
picked up by the graph of y= f x
( )
, and the range corresponds to the
y-coordinates.

Remember that cosine and secant are the only even functions among the six, so
their graphs are symmetric about the y-axis. The other four are odd, so their
graphs are symmetric about the origin.




(Chapter 1: Review) 1.36

We use the graphs of

y= sinx and

y= cosx (in black in the figures below) as
guide graphs to help us graph

y= cscx and

y= secx.



Relationships between the graphs of y= cscx and

y= sinx
(and between the graphs of y= secx and y= cosx):

The VAs on the graph of

y= cscx are drawn through the
x-intercepts of the graph of

y= sinx. This is because

cscx is
undefined

sinx= 0.

The reciprocals of 1 and

1 are themselves, so

cscx and

sinx take
on each of those values simultaneously. This explains how their
graphs intersect.

Because sine and cosecant are reciprocal functions, we know that,
between the VAs in the graph of

y= cscx, they share the same sign,
and one increases the other decreases.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.37

PART D: SOLVI NG TRI GONOMETRI C EQUATI ONS

Example 1 (Solving a Trigonometric Equation)

Solve:

2sin 4x
( )
= 3

Solution


2sin 4x
( )
= 3 Isolate the sine expression.



sin 4x
( )
=

=
3
2
Substitution: Let = 4x.



sin =
3
2
We will now solve this equation for .

Observe that sin

3
=
3
2
, so

3
will be the reference angle for our solutions
for . Since
3
2
is a negative sine value, we want coreference angles
of

3
in Quadrants I I I and I V.

Our solutions for are:

=
4
3
+ 2n, or =
5
3
+ 2n n
( )


From this point on, it is a matter of algebra.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.38

To find our solutions for x, replace with

4x, and solve for x.


4x=
4
3
+ 2n, or 4x=
5
3
+ 2n n
( )
x=
1
4
4
3

+
2
4
n, or x=
1
4
5
3

+
2
4
n n
( )
x=

3
+

2
n, or x=
5
12
+

2
n n
( )


Solution set:

xe x=
r
3
+
r
2
n, or x=
5r
12
+
r
2
n ne
( )

.


PART E: ADVANCED TRI GONOMETRI C I DENTI TIES

These identities may be derived according to the flowchart below.


for cosine
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.39


GROUP 1: SUM IDENTITI ES

Memorize:

sin u + v ( ) = sinu cosv + cosu sinv

Think: Sum of the mixed-up products
(Multiplication and addition are commutative, but start with the
sinu cosv term in anticipation of the Difference Identities.)

cos u + v ( ) = cosu cosv sin u sinv

Think: Cosines [product] Sines [product]

tan u + v ( ) =
tanu + tanv
1 tanu tanv


Think: "
Sum
1 Product
"


GROUP 2: DI FFERENCE I DENTI TI ES

Memorize:

Simply take the Sum Identities above and change every sign in sight!

sin u v ( ) = sin u cosv cosu sinv
(Make sure that the right side of your identity
for sin u + v ( ) started with the sinu cosv term!)


cos u v ( ) = cos u cosv + sin u sinv

tan u v ( ) =
tanu tanv
1 + tanu tanv


Obtaining the Difference Identities from the Sum Identities:

Replace v with (v) and use the fact that sin and tan are odd, while cos is even.

For example,

sin u v ( ) = sin u + v ( )
[ ]
= sin u cos v ( ) + cos u sin v ( )
= sin u cosv cosu sinv

(Chapter 1: Review) 1.40

GROUP 3a: DOUBLE-ANGLE (Think: Angle-Reducing, if u >0) IDENTITIES

Memorize:

(Also be prepared to recognize and know these right-to-left.)


sin 2u ( ) = 2 sinu cosu

Think: Twice the product

Reading right-to-left, we have:

2 sinu cos u = sin 2u ( )

(This is helpful when simplifying.)


cos 2u ( ) = cos
2
u sin
2
u

Think: Cosines Sines (again)

Reading right-to-left, we have:

cos
2
u sin
2
u = cos 2u ( )

Contrast this with the Pythagorean Identity:

cos
2
u + sin
2
u =1


tan 2u ( ) =
2 tan u
1 tan
2
u


(Hard to memorize; well show how to obtain it.)


Notice that these identities are angle-reducing (if u >0) in that they allow you to go
from trigonometric functions of (2u) to trigonometric functions of simply u.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.41
Obtaining the Double-Angle Identities from the Sum Identities:
Take the Sum Identities, replace v with u, and simplify.
sin 2u ( ) = sin u + u ( )
= sin u cos u + cosu sinu (From Sum Identity)
= sin u cos u + sin u cosu (Like terms!!)
= 2 sinu cosu



cos 2u ( ) = cos u + u ( )
= cosu cosu sin u sin u (From Sum Identity)
= cos
2
u sin
2
u



tan 2u ( ) = tan u + u ( )
=
tanu + tanu
1 tanu tanu
(From Sum Identity)
=
2 tan u
1 tan
2
u



This is a last resort if you forget the Double-Angle Identities, but you will need to
recall the Double-Angle Identities quickly!

One possible exception: Since the tan 2u ( ) identity is harder to remember, you may prefer
to remember the Sum Identity for tan u + v ( ) and then derive the tan 2u ( ) identity this
way.
If youre quick with algebra, you may prefer to go in reverse: memorize the
Double-Angle Identities, and then guess the Sum Identities.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.42

GROUP 3b: DOUBLE-ANGLE I DENTITIES FOR cos

Memorize These Three Versions of the Double-Angle Identity for cos 2u ( ) :


Lets begin with the version weve already seen:

Version 1: cos 2u ( ) = cos
2
u sin
2
u


Also know these two, from left-to-right, and from right-to-left:

Version 2: cos 2u ( ) =1 2 sin
2
u

Version 3: cos 2u ( ) = 2 cos
2
u 1


Obtaining Versions 2 and 3 from Version 1


Its tricky to remember Versions 2 and 3, but you can obtain them from Version 1 by
using the Pythagorean Identity sin
2
u + cos
2
u =1 written in different ways.


To obtain Version 2, which contains sin
2
u , we replace cos
2
u with 1 sin
2
u ( )
.


cos 2u
( )
= cos
2
u sin
2
u (Version 1)
= 1 sin
2
u
( )
from Pythagorean
Identity

sin
2
u
= 1 sin
2
u sin
2
u
= 1 2sin
2
u ( Version 2)



To obtain Version 3, which contains cos
2
u , we replace sin
2
u with 1 cos
2
u ( )
.

cos 2u
( )
= cos
2
u sin
2
u (Version 1)
= cos
2
u 1 cos
2
u
( )
from Pythagorean
Identity

= cos
2
u 1+ cos
2
u
= 2cos
2
u 1 ( Version 3)

(Chapter 1: Review) 1.43

GROUP 4: POWER-REDUCING IDENTI TI ES (PRIs)

(These are called the Half-Angle Formulas in some books.)

Memorize: Then,


sin
2
u =
1 cos 2u ( )
2
or
1
2

1
2
cos 2u ( ) tan
2
u =
sin
2
u
cos
2
u
=
1 cos 2u ( )
1 + cos 2u ( )


cos
2
u =
1 + cos 2u ( )
2
or
1
2
+
1
2
cos 2u ( )


Actually, you just need to memorize one of the sin
2
u or cos
2
u identities and then
switch the visible sign to get the other. Think: sin is bad or negative; this is a
reminder that the minus sign belongs in the sin
2
u formula.


Obtaining the Power-Reducing Identities from the Double-Angle Identities for cos 2u ( )


To obtain the identity for sin
2
u , start with Version 2 of the cos 2u ( ) identity:

cos 2u ( ) =1 2 sin
2
u
Now, solve for sin
2
u.
2 sin
2
u =1 cos 2u ( )
sin
2
u =
1 cos 2u ( )
2



To obtain the identity for cos
2
u , start with Version 3 of the cos 2u ( ) identity:

cos 2u ( ) = 2 cos
2
u 1
Now, switch sides and solve for cos
2
u.
2 cos
2
u 1 = cos 2u ( )
2 cos
2
u =1 + cos 2u ( )
cos
2
u =
1 + cos 2u ( )
2

(Chapter 1: Review) 1.44

GROUP 5: HALF-ANGLE I DENTI TIES

Instead of memorizing these outright, it may be easier to derive them from the Power-Reducing
Identities (PRIs). We use the substitution

= 2u. (See Obtaining below.)

The Identities:

sin

2

=
1 cos
2
cos

2

=
1+ cos
2
tan

2

=
1 cos
1+ cos
=
1 cos
sin
=
sin
1+ cos


For a given , the choices among the signs depend on the Quadrant that

2
lies in.
Here, the symbols indicate incomplete knowledge; unlike when we handle the Quadratic
Formula, we do not take both signs for any of the above formulas for a given . There are no
symbols in the last two tan

2

formulas; there is no problem there of incomplete knowledge

regarding signs.

One way to remember the last two tan

2

formulas: Keep either the numerator or the

denominator of the radicand of the first formula, place sin in the other part of the fraction, and
remove the radical sign and the symbol.
(Chapter 1: Review) 1.45
Obtaining the Half-Angle Identities from the Power-Reducing Identities (PRIs):

For the sin

2

identity, we begin with the PRI:

sin
2
u=
1 cos 2u
( )
2

Let u=

2
, or = 2u.

sin
2

2

=
1 cos
2
sin

2

=
1 cos
2
by the Square Root Method
( )


Again, the choice among the signs depends on the Quadrant that

2
lies in.

The story is similar for the cos

2

and the tan

2

identities.
What about the last two formulas for tan

2

? The key trick is multiplication by

trigonometric conjugates. For example:


tan

2

_
,

=
1 cos
1+ cos
=
1 cos
( )
1+ cos
( )

1 cos
( )
1 cos
( )
=
1 cos
( )
2
1 cos
2

=
1 cos
( )
2
sin
2

=
1 cos
sin

_
,

2
=
1 cos
sin
because a
2
= a
( )

(Chapter 1: Review) 1.46.

Now,

1 cos 0 for all real , and tan

2

has the same

sign as

sin (can you see why?), so

=

1 cos
sin


To get the third formula, use the numerators (instead of the
denominators) trigonometric conjugate,

1+ cos , when multiplying into
the numerator and the denominator of the radicand in the first few steps.


GROUP 6: PRODUCT-TO-SUM IDENTI TI ES

These can be verified from right-to-left using the Sum and Difference Identities.

The Identities:


sinusinv=
1
2
cos u v
( )
cos u+ v
( )

cosucosv=
1
2
cos u v
( )
+ cos u+ v
( )

sinucosv=
1
2
sin u+ v
( )
+ sin u v
( )

cosusinv=
1
2
sin u+ v
( )
sin u v
( )

GROUP 7: SUM-TO-PRODUCT IDENTI TI ES

These can be verified from right-to-left using the Product-To-Sum Identities.

The Identities:


sinx+ siny= 2sin
x+ y
2

cos
x y
2

sinx siny= 2cos

x+ y
2

sin
x y
2

cosx+ cosy= 2cos

x+ y
2

cos
x y
2

cosx cosy= 2sin

x+ y
2

sin
x y
2