Q1. Explain all design issues for several layers in Computer. What is connection oriented and connectionless service?

Various key design issues are present in several layers in computer networks. The important design issues are: 1. Addressing: Mechanism for identifying senders and receivers, on the network need some form of addressing. There are multiple processes running on one machine. Some means is needed for a process on one machine to specify with whom it wants to communicate. 2. Error Control: There may be erroneous transmission due to problem in communication circuits, physical medium, due to thermal noise and interference. Many error detecting and error correcting codes are known, but both ends of the connection must agree on which one being used. In addition, the receiver must have some mechanism of telling the sender which messages have been received correctly and which has not. 3. Flow control: If there is a fast sender at one end sending data to a slow receiver, then there must be flow control mechanism to control the loss of data by slow receivers. Some process will not be in position to accept arbitrarily long messages. Then, there must be some mechanism to disassembling, transmitting and then reassembling messages. 4. Multiplexing / Demultiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission media separately, it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate connection for each pair of communicating processes. So, multiplexing is needed in the physical layer at sender end and demultiplexing is need at the receiver end. 5. Routing: When data has to be transmitted from source to destination, there may be multiple paths between them. An optimized (shortest) route must be chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing algorithms, which chooses optimized route to the destination. Connection oriented service: * The service user first establishes a connection, uses the connection and then releases the connection. * Once the connection is established between source and destination, the path is fixed. * The data transmission takes place through this path established. * The order of the messages sent will be same at the receiver end.

* Services are reliable and there is no loss of data. * Most of the time, reliable service provides acknowledgement is an overhead and adds delay. Connectionless Services: * In this type of services, no connection is established between source and destination. * Here there is no fixed path. Therefore, the messages must carry full destination address and each one of these messages are sent independent of each other. * Messages sent will not be delivered at the destination in the same order. Thus, grouping and ordering is required at the receiver end. * The services are not reliable. * There is no acknowledgement confirmation from the receiver. * Unreliable connectionless service is often called datagram service, which does not return an acknowledgement to the sender.

Q2. Discuss OSI Reference model.

The OSI model is based on a proposal developed by the International Standards Organization as a first step towards international standardization of the protocols used in the various layers. Its main objectives were to: * Allow manufacturers of different systems to interconnect equipment through a standard interfaces. * Allow software and hardware to integrate well and be portable on different systems. The principles that were applied to arrive at the seven layers are as follows:

The Physical Layer * The Physical layer coordinates the function required to carry a bit (0s and 1s) stream over a physical medium. * It defines electrical and mechanical specifications of cables, connectors and signaling options that physically link two nodes on a network. The Data Link Layer * The main task of the data link layer is to provide error free transmission. * The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer. The Network Layer * The network layer ensures that each packet travels from its sources and destination successfully and efficiently. * The Network Layer deals with packets of data. The Transport Layer * The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from the session layer, split it up into smaller units if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at other end. * Furthermore, all this must be done efficiently, and in a way that isolates the upper layers from the inevitable changes in the hardware technology. Transport layer provides location and media independent end-to-end data transfer service to session and upper layers. The Session Layer * The session layer allows users on different machines to establish sessions between them. * A session allows ordinary data transport, as does the transport layer, but it also provides enhanced services useful in some applications. * A session might be used to allow a user to log into a remote timesharing systems or to

transfer a file between two machines. The Presentation Layer * The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information transmitted. * In order to make it possible for computers with different representations to communicate, the data structure to be exchanged can be defined in an abstract way, along with a standard encoding to be used on the wire. The Application Layer * The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user. It means that both the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. * Application layer supports functions that control and supervise OSI application processes such as start/maintain/stop application, allocate/deallocate OSI resources, accounting, and check point and recovering.

Q3. Describe different types of Data transmission modes.

The different types of Data Transmission modes are: 1. Serial and Parallel Transmission Serial Transmission: In serial transmission one bit follows another, so we need only one communication channel rather than n to transmit data between two communicating devices. The advantage of serial over parallel transmission is that with only one communication channel, serial transmission reduces cost of transmission over parallel by roughly a factor of n. Parallel Transmission Binary data, consisting of 1 s and 0 s, may be organized into groups of n bits each. Computers produce and consume data in groups of bits much as we conceive of and use spoken language in the form of words rather than letters. By grouping, we can send data n bits at a time instead of 1. This is called parallel transmission. The mechanism for parallel transmission is a simple one: Use n wires to send n bits at one time. 2. Simplex, Half duplex and Full duplex Simplex In simplex communication mode, there is a one-way communication transmission. Television transmission is a good example of simplex communications. Half-duplex: In half-duplex mode, both units communicate over the same medium, but only one unit can send at a time. While one is in send mode, the other unit is in receiving mode.

Full duplex In Full-duplex transmission, data is transferred in both directions. Use of a full-duplex line improves efficiency as the line turn-around time required in a half-duplex arrangement is eliminated. It requires four wires. 3. Synchronous and Asynchronous transmission Synchronous Transmission In synchronous transmission, data transmission is tied to a clock. The bit stream is combined into longer frames, which may contain multiple bytes. Each byte, however, is introduced onto the transmission link without a gap between it and the next one. It is left to the receiver to separate the bit stream into bytes for decoding purpose. Timing becomes very important, therefore, because the accuracy of the received information is completely dependent on the ability of the receiving device to keep an accurate count of the bits as they come in. Asynchronous Transmission Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant. Instead, information is received and translated by agreed upon patterns. Patterns are based on grouping the bit stream into bytes. Extra bits are used to mark the beginning and end of bytes. This bit, usually a 0, is called the start bit. To let the receiver know that the byte is finished, 1 or more additional bits are appended to the end of the byte. These bits, usually 1s, are called stop bits.

Q4. Define Switching. What is the difference between circuit switching and Packet Switching?
Switching is defined a technique that inspects data packets as they are received, and forward them to destination. A switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and controlled in such a way as to setup a communication path between any two distant points. A switching center of a telephone network comprising a switching network and its control and support equipment is called a central office. In computer communication, the switching technique used is known as packet switching or message switch (store and forward switching). In telephone network the switching method used is called circuit switching. Differences between circuit switching and packet switching: Circuit Switching Circuit switching is scheme in which the network sets up a circuit between nodes and terminals before the communication starts. Packet Switching Packet switching is a network communication method in which the data get transmitted in blocks, regardless of type and content, called packets.

Required dedicated transmission path The system decides on which route to follow, based on a resource-optimizing algorithm, and transmission goes according to the path. Messages are not stored The route is dedicated and exclusive Fixed bandwidth use No overhead bits after call setup Once connection is established, communication is fast and less error free

No dedicated path required Each packet has to find its own route to the destination, determined using the source and destination address Packets may be stored until delivered to destination There is no dedicated route. Each packet travels independent of each other. Dynamic use of bandwidth Overhead bits in each packet The packet needs to be re-transmitted every time when it gets lost, damaged before it is received in this method

Q5. Classify Guided medium (wired).Compare fiber optics and copper wire.
Guided Transmission Medium can be classified into Twisted Pair A twisted pair consists of two insulted copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form, just like a DNA molecule. Twisting is done because two parallel wires constitute a fine antenna. When the wires are twisted, the waves from different twists cancel out, so the wire radiates less effectively. Coaxial Cable The coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely-woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath. The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable give it a good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. Optical Fiber A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light. Fiber optic cables are similar to coax. At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates.

The core is surrounded by a glass cladding with a lower index of refraction than the core, to keep all the light in the core. Comparison of Fiber Optics and Copper Wire Fiber Optics It can handle much higher band widths than copper. Fiber is not being affected by the power surges, electromagnetic interference, or power failures Fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap. This gives them excellent security against potential wire tappers Fiber interfaces cost more Copper Wire Copper Wires handles lesser bandwidth than Fiber Optics Copper Wires could be attract electromagnetic interferences Lesser security against wire tapping Less Costlier

Q6. What are different types of satellites?

Four different types of satellite orbits can be identified depending on the shape and diameter of the orbit: GEO (Geostationary orbit) LEO (Low Earth Orbit) MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit) HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits The following figure clearly depicts their differencesOrbit Geostationary Altitude 36000 km above earth surface Coverage Suited for continuous, regional coverage using a single satellite. Can also be used equally effectively for global coverage using a minimum of three satellites Multi-satellite Visibility Mobile to satellite visibility decreases with increased latitude of the user. Poor Visibility in built-up, urban regions

GEO

LEO

Low Earth

500 -

The use of satellite diversity, by

orbit

1500 km

constellations of upwards of 3050 satellites are required for global, continuous coverage. Multi-satellite constellations of between 10 and 20 satellites are required for global coverage. Three or four satellites are needed to provide continuous coverage to a region

MEO Medium Earth 6000 orbit 20000 km

which more than one satellite is visible at any given time, can be used to optimize the link. This can be achieved by either selecting the optimum link or combining the reception of two or more links. Good to excellent global visibility, augmented by the use of satellite diversity techniques Particularly designed to provide high guaranteed elevation angle to satellite for Northern and Southern temperate latitudes

HEO

Highly elliptical orbit

Apogee: 40 000 50 000 km, Perigee: 1000km