SpiraxSarco-B14-Condensate Recovery
SpiraxSarco-B14-Condensate Recovery
SpiraxSarco-B14-Condensate Recovery
Module 14.1
Introduction to
Condensate Recovery
Saturated steam used for heating gives up its latent heat (enthalpy of evaporation), which is a
large proportion of the total heat it contains. The remainder of the heat in the steam is retained
in the condensate as sensible heat (enthalpy of water) (Figure 14.1.2).
Total heat
Latent heat
Steam used in
heating the
process Sensible heat
Condensate
Fig. 14.1.2 After giving up its latent heat to heat the process, steam turns to water containing only sensible heat
As well as having heat content, the condensate is basically distilled water, which is ideal for use
as boiler feedwater. An efficient steam system will collect this condensate and either return it to
a deaerator, a boiler feedtank, or use it in another process. Only when there is a real risk of
contamination should condensate not be returned to the boiler. Even then, it may be possible to
collect the condensate and use it as hot process water or pass it through a heat exchanger where
its heat content can be recovered before discharging the water mass to drain.
Condensate is discharged from steam plant and equipment through steam traps from a higher to
a lower pressure. As a result of this drop in pressure, some of the condensate will re-evaporate
into flash steam. The proportion of steam that will flash off in this way is determined by the
amount of heat that can be held in the steam and condensate. A flash steam amount of 10% to
15% by mass is typical (see Module 2.2). However, the percentage volumetric change can be
considerably more. Condensate at 7 bar g will lose about 13% of its mass when flashing to
atmospheric pressure, but the steam produced will require a space some 200 times larger than
the condensate from which it was formed. This can have the effect of choking undersized trap
discharge lines, and must be taken into account when sizing these lines.
14
ar g
ar g
ar g
ar g
ar g
rg
13
0 ba
2.0 b
2 .5 b
0.5 b
1.0 b
1.5 b
12
11
10
9
Pressure on traps bar
4
Atmospheric pressure
3
0
0 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22
10%
kg Flash steam/kg condensate
Fig. 14.1.3 Quantity of Flash Steam Graph
Steam produced in a boiler by the process of adding heat to the water is often referred to as live
steam. The terms live steam and flash steam are only used to differentiate their origin. Whether
steam is produced in a boiler or from the natural process of flashing, it has exactly the same
potential for giving up heat, and each is used successfully for this purpose. The flash steam
generated from condensate can contain up to half of the total energy of the condensate. An
efficient steam system will recover and use flash steam. Condensate and flash steam discharged
to waste means more make-up water, more fuel, and increased running costs.
This Module will look at two essential areas condensate management and flash steam recovery.
Some of the apparent problem areas will be outlined and practical solutions proposed.
Note: The term trap is used to denote a steam-trapping device, which could be a steam trap, a
pump-trap, or a pump and trap combination. The ability of any trap to pass condensate relies
upon the pressure difference across it, whereas a pumping trap or a pump-trap combination will
be able to pass condensate irrespective of operational pressure differences (subject to design
pressure ratings).
Condensate return
An effective condensate recovery system, collecting the hot condensate from the steam using
equipment and returning it to the boiler feed system, can pay for itself in a remarkably short
period of time. Figure 14.1.4 shows a simple steam and condensate circuit, with condensate
returning to the boiler feedtank.
Steam
Condensate
Make-up
water
Vat Vat
Condensate
Steam
Feedtank
Boiler
Feedpump
Fig. 14.1.4 A typical steam and condensate circuit
Effluent restrictions
In the UK for example, water above 43°C cannot be returned to the public sewer by law, because
it is detrimental to the environment and may damage earthenware pipes. Condensate above this
temperature must be cooled before it is discharged, which may incur extra energy costs. Similar
restrictions apply in most countries, and effluent charges and fines may be imposed by water
suppliers for non-compliance.
Maximising boiler output
Colder boiler feedwater will reduce the steaming rate of the boiler. The lower the feedwater
temperature, the more heat, and thus fuel needed to heat the water, thereby leaving less heat to
raise steam.
Boiler feedwater quality
Condensate is distilled water, which contains almost no total dissolved solids (TDS). Boilers need
to be blown down to reduce their concentration of dissolved solids in the boiler water. Returning
more condensate to the feedtank reduces the need for blowdown and thus reduces the energy
lost from the boiler.
Summary of reasons for condensate recovery:
o Water charges are reduced.
o Effluent charges and possible cooling costs are reduced.
o Fuel costs are reduced.
o More steam can be produced from the boiler.
o Boiler blowdown is reduced - less energy is lost from the boiler.
o Chemical treatment of raw make-up water is reduced.
Figure 14.1.5 compares the amount of energy in a kilogram of steam and condensate at the
same pressure. The percentage of energy in condensate to that in steam can vary from 18% at
1 bar g to 30% at 14 bar g; clearly the liquid condensate is worth reclaiming.
3000
Total energy in steam
Specific enthalpy (kJ / kg)
2500
2000
1500
1000
Total energy in
500 condensate
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Pressure bar g
Fig. 14.1.5 Heat content of steam and condensate at the same pressures
The following example (Example 14.1.2) demonstrates the financial value of returning condensate.
Example 14.1.2
A boiler produces:
10 000 kg /h of steam 24 hours /day, 7 days/week and 50 weeks/year (8 400 hours / year).
Raw make-up water is at 10°C. Currently all condensate is discharged to waste at 90°C.
Raw water costs £0.61 / m3, and effluent costs are £0.45 / m3
The boiler is 85% efficient, and uses gas on an interruptible tariff charged at £0.01 / kWh (£2.77/GJ).
Where:
Q = Quantity of energy (kJ)
m = Mass of the substance (kg)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the substance (kJ /kg °C )
DT = Temperature rise of the substance (°C)
m is unity; DT is the difference between the cold water make-up and the temperature of returned
condensate; cp is the specific heat of water at 4.19 kJ / kg °C.
1 kg x 4.19 kJ / kg °C x 80°C = 335 kJ / kg
Basing the calculations on an average evaporation rate of 10 000 kg / h, for a plant in operation
8 400 h / year, the energy required to replace the heat in the make-up water is:
10 000 kg / h x 335 kJ / kg x 8 400 h / year = 28 140 GJ / year
If the average boiler efficiency is 85%, the energy supplied to heat the make-up water is:
*- \HDU
*- \HDU
With a fuel cost of £2.77 / GJ, the value of the energy in the condensate is:
If water costs are £0.61 per m³, the annual water cost is:
Annual water cost = 84 000 m3 / year x £0.61 / m3 = £51 240
On this basis, it follows that for each 1% of condensate returned per 10 000 kg / h evaporated as
in Example 14.1.2, a saving of 1% of each of the values shown in Table 14.1.1 would be possible.
Example 14.1.3
If it were decided to invest £50 000 in a project to return 80% of the condensate in a similar
plant to Example 14.1.2, but where the total evaporation rate were only 5 000 kg / h, the savings
and simple payback term would be:
6DYLQJV
[ [
6DYLQJV
\HDU
3D\EDFN
\HDU
3D\EDFN \HDUZHHNV
This sample calculation does not include a value for savings due to correct TDS control and
reduced blowdown, which will further reduce water losses and boiler chemical costs. These can
vary substantially from location to location, but should always be considered in the final analysis.
Clearly, when assessing condensate management for a specific project, such savings must be
determined and included.
TDS control and water treatment have already been discussed in Block 3.
The routines outlined in Examples 14.1.2 and 14.1.3 may be developed to form the basis of a forced
path calculation to assign a monetary value to projects intended to improve condensate recovery.
Equation 14.1.1 can be used to calculate the fuel savings per year:
;$%&'
)XHOVDYLQJV \HDU Equation 14.1.1
(
Where:
X = Expected improvement in condensate return expressed as a percentage between 1 and 100
A = Cost of fuel to provide 1 GJ of energy:
If gas on an interruptible tariff costs £0.01/kWh (1 kWh = 3.6 MJ)
&RVWRI*-RIHQHUJ\ [
0-
Similarly, if oil has a calorific value of 42 MJ / l, and costs £0.15 / l
&RVWRI*-RIHQHUJ\ [
0-
B = Energy required per kilogram of make-up water to reach condensate temperature (kJ/kg).
This is determined by Q in Equation 2.1.4 (Q = m cp DT)
C = Average evaporation rate (kg / h)
D= Operational hours per year (h / year)
E = Boiler efficiency (%)
;&'
6DYLQJVLQZDWHUFRVWV \HDU [&RVWRIZDWHU P Equation 14.1.2
;&'
6DYLQJVLQHIIOXHQWFRVWV \HDU [&RVWRIHIIOXHQW P Equation 14.1.3
Where:
X = Expected improvement in condensate return expressed as a percentage between 1 and 100
C = Average evaporation rate (kg / h)
D= Operational hours per year (h / year)
Example 14.1.2
A major condensate management project costing £70 000 expects to recover an additional 35%
of the condensate produced at a plant.
The average boiler steaming rate is 15 000 kg / h, and the plant operates for 8 000 h / year.
The fuel used is gas on a firm tariff of £0.011 / kWh, and the boiler efficiency is estimated as 80%.
Make-up water temperature is 10°C and insulated condensate return lines ensure that condensate
will arrive back at the boiler house at 95°C.
Consider the water costs to be £0.70 / m3 and the total effluent costs to be £0.45 / m3.
o Determine the payback period for the project.
;$%&'
)XHOVDYLQJV \HDU Equation 14.1.1
(
Where:
X = Expected improvement in condensate return = 35%
$ &RVWRISURYLGLQJ*-RIHQHUJ\ [
0-
B = Energy required per kilogram of make-up water to reach condensate temperature (kJ/kg).
This is determined by Q in Equation 2.1.4 (Q = m cp DT)
Q = m x cp x DT
Q = 1 x 4.19 x (95°C - 10°C)
Q = 356.15 kJ / kg
B = Q in Equation 2.1.4 = 356.15kJ / kg
C = Average evaporation rate = 15 000 kg / h
D = Steaming hours per year = 8 000 h
E = Boiler efficiency = 80%
Substituting the values for X, A, B, C, D, and E into Equation 14.1.1
[[[ [
)XHOVDYLQJV \HDU
[
)XHOVDYLQJV \HDU
;&'
6DYLQJVLQZDWHUFRVWV \HDU [&RVWRIZDWHU P Equation 14.1.2
;&'
6DYLQJVLQHIIOXHQWFRVWV \HDU [&RVWRIHIIOXHQW P Equation 14.1.3
Total water and effluent savings / year = £29 400 + £18 900
Total water and effluent savings / year = £48 300
Questions
2. 10 kg of steam condenses at 14 bar g. What proportion of the total heat in the steam is
held in the condensate?
a| 5% ¨
b| 10% ¨
c| 20% ¨
d| 30% ¨
3. A boiler produces 1 000 kg / h of steam at 7 bar g, but none of the condensate is recovered.
Approximately at what rate is energy being wasted ? (Steam tables are required).
a| 20 kW ¨
b| 40 kW ¨
c| 200 kW ¨
d| 1 000 kW ¨
5. If in Question 4, the cost of this project were £2 000, what would be the simple payback
term?
a| 3 weeks ¨
b| 33 weeks ¨
c| 18 months ¨
d| 47 weeks ¨
Answers
1: a, 2: d, 3: c, 4: b, 5: d
Module 14.2
Layout of Condensate
Return Lines
No single set of recommendations can cover the layout of condensate pipework. Much depends
on the application pressure, the steam trap characteristics, the position of the condensate return
main relative to the plant, and the pressure in the condensate return main. For this reason it is
best to start by considering what has to be achieved, and to design a layout which will ensure
that basic good practice is met.
The prime objectives are that:
o Condensate must not be allowed to accumulate in the plant, unless the steam using apparatus
is specifically designed to operate in this way. Generally apparatus is designed to operate
non-flooded, and where this is the case, accumulated condensate will inhibit performance,
and encourage the corrosion of pipes, fittings and equipment.
o Condensate must not be allowed to accumulate in the steam main. Here it can be picked
up by high velocity steam, leading to erosion and waterhammer in the pipework.
The subject of condensate piping will divide naturally into four basic types where the
requirements and considerations of each will differ. These four basic types are defined and
illustrated in Figure 14.2.1.
Steam main
Steam flow
Condensate flow
Fig. 14.2.1 A steam main trap set discharging condensate into a common return line
Example 14.2.1
A 30 kW air heater is to be fitted with a DN15 thermostatic steam trap, which releases condensate
at 13°C below saturation temperature. The normal working pressure is 3 bar g, the ambient
temperature is 15°C, and the heat loss from the drain line to the environment is estimated to be
20 W / m2 °C.
Determine the minimum required length of 15 mm drain line to the thermostatic trap.
From steam tables, at 3 bar g:
Saturation temperature of steam = 144°C
Trap discharge temperature = 144 - 13°C = 131°C
Enthalpy of evaporation (hfg) = 2 133.24 kJ / kg
Equation 2.8.1 can be used to calculate the steam flow from the heat load:
/RDGLQN:[
6WHDPIORZUDWHNJ K = Equation 2.8.1
KIJ DWRSHUDWLQJSUHVVXUH
[
6WHDPIORZUDWHNJ K =
Steam flowrate = 50.6 kg / h (= 0.014 1 kg / s)
As the trap discharges at 131°C, the drain line has to emit enough heat such that the condensate
at the heater outlet is at saturation temperature, and that condensate will not back-up into the
heater. The required heat loss from the drain line can be calculated from Equation 2.6.5.
Where:
Q = Mean heat transfer rate (kW)
m = Mean secondary fluid flowrate (kg /s)
cp = Specific heat capacity of the secondary fluid (kJ / kg K) or (kJ / kg °C) = 4.19 for water
DT = Temperature rise of the secondary fluid (K or °C)
DT in Equation 2.6.5 is the required temperature drop along the drain line of 13°C.
NJ V[N- NJ &[&
N:
This heat loss will be achieved from the mean condensate temperature along the drain line.
0HDQFRQGHQVDWHWHPSHUDWXUHLQWKHGUDLQOLQH &
The surface area of the drain line to provide the required heat loss can be calculated using
Equation 2.5.3.
Where:
Q = Heat transferred per unit time (W ( J /s))
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient (W/m² K or W/m² °C)
A = Heat transfer area (m²)
DT = Temperature difference between the primary and secondary fluid (K or °C)
Note:
Q will be a mean heat transfer rate (QM) if DT is a mean temperature difference (DTLM or DTAM).
DT in Equation 2.5.3 is the difference between the mean condensate temperature and the ambient
temperature = 137.5°C - 15°C = 122.5°C
N:
8 :P &
From Equation 2.5.3:
0.768 x 103 watts = 20 watts / m2 °C x A x 122.5°C
Therefore, A = 0.313 m2
The length of pipe required to provide this surface area can be calculated using information from
Table 2.10.3.
Table 2.10.3 Nominal surface areas of steel pipes per metre length
Nominal bore mm 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
Surface area (m²/m) 0.067 0.085 0.106 0.134 0.152 0.189 0.239 0.279 0.358
This length of pipe (4.7 m) is probably impractical in the field. Two alternatives remain. One is to
increase the diameter of the drain line, which is still usually impractical; the other is much
simpler, to fit the correct trap for this type of application; a float-thermostatic trap which discharges
condensate at steam temperature and hence requires no cooling leg.
Should a thermostatic trap be considered essential, and fitted no more than 2 metres away from
the heater outlet, it would be necessary to calculate the required diameter of drain line. The heat
loss required from the pipe remains the same, along with the total surface area of the pipe, but
the surface area per metre length must increase.
P
7KHVXUIDFHDUHDUHTXLUHG PHWUHOHQJWK
P
7KHVXUIDFHDUHDUHTXLUHG PHWUHOHQJWK P P
From Table 2.10.3, it can be seen that the minimum sized pipe to give this area per metre is a
50 mm pipe, which, again, may be construed as being impractical and expensive to fabricate.
The moral of this is that it is usually easier and cheaper to select the correct trap for the job, than
have the wrong type of trap and fabricate a solution around it.
Thermodynamic steam traps
Traps that discharge intermittently, such as thermodynamic traps, will accumulate condensate
between discharges. However, they are extremely robust, will tolerate freezing ambient
temperatures and have a relatively small outer surface area, meaning that heat loss to the
environment is minimised. They are not suitable for discharging condensate into flooded return
lines, as will be explained later in this Block.
Mechanical steam traps
Mechanical steam traps with a continuous discharge characteristic, for example float-thermostatic
traps, often prove to be the best option, and have the additional advantage of being able to vent
air.
Most float traps are available in two basic flow configurations, either horizontal or vertical flow
through the trap. Some inverted bucket traps have bottom inlet and top outlet connections.
Clearly, the trap connections will affect the path of connecting pipework.
The drain line should be kept to a minimum length, ideally less than 2 metres. Long drain lines
from the plant to the steam trap can fill with steam and prevent condensate reaching the trap.
This effect is termed steam locking. To minimise this risk, drain lines should be kept short
(see Figure 14.2.2). In situations where long drain lines are unavoidable, the steam locking
problem may be overcome using float traps with steam lock release devices. The problem of
steam locking should be tackled by fitting the correct length of pipe in the first place, if possible.
✓
✗
Fig. 14.2.2 Keep drain lines short
The detailed arrangements for trapping steam-using plant and steam mains drainage are different
as is explained in the following paragraphs.
With steam-using plant, the pipe from the condensate connection should fall vertically for about
10 pipe diameters to the steam trap. Assuming a correctly sized ball float trap is installed, this will
ensure that surges of condensate do not accumulate in the bottom of the plant with its attendant
risks of corrosion and waterhammer. It will also provide a small amount of static head to help
remove condensate during start-up when the steam pressure might be very low. The pipework
should then run horizontally, with a fall in the direction of flow to ensure that condensate flows
freely (see Figure 14.2.3).
Steam main
Steam
10 D
➤
➤
➤
D Condensate
Fig. 14.2.3 Ideal arrangement when draining a steam plant
With steam mains drainage, provided drain pockets are installed as recommended in Module 10.3,
then the drain line between the pocket and the steam trap may be horizontal. If the drain pocket
is not as deep as the recommendation, then the steam trap should be fitted an equivalent distance
below it (see Figure 14.2.4).
d
d2 Drain
pocket
Strainer
Sight glass
Condensate
Condensate
Condensate
High pressure Check Isolating Low pressure and flash
drain line Float trap valve valve discharge line steam
Fig. 14.2.5 Trap discharge lines pass condensate, flash and incondensibles
Swept tee
Diffuser
Condensate Condensate in
flooded line
Condensate
Float-thermostatic trap
Another alternative is to use a thermostatic trap that holds back condensate until it cools below
the steam saturation temperature; this reduces the amount of flash steam formed (Figure 14.2.8).
To avoid waterlogging the steam main, the use of a generous collecting pocket on the main, plus
a cooling leg of 2 to 3 m of unlagged pipe to the trap is essential. The cooling leg stores condensate
while it is cooling to the discharge temperature.
If there is any danger of waterlogging the steam main, thermostatic traps should not be used.
Diffuser
Condensate Condensate in
flooded line
Condensate
Steam Steam main
Balanced pressure
thermostatic trap
Fig. 14.2.8 Balanced pressure thermostatic trap with cooling leg into a flooded line
Temperature controlled plant with steam traps draining into flooded lines
Processes using temperature control provide an example where the supply steam pressure is
throttled across a control valve. The effect of this is to reduce steam trap capacity to a point
where the condensate flow can stop completely, and the system is said to have stalled. The
subject of stall is discussed in greater depth in Block 13.
Stall occurs as a result of insufficient steam pressure to purge the steam plant of condensate, and
is more likely when the plant has a high turndown from full-load to part load.
Not all temperature controlled systems will stall, but the backpressure caused by the condensate
system could have an adverse effect on the performance of the trap. This in turn, might impair
the heat transfer capability of the process (Figure 14.2.9).
Condensate drain lines should, therefore, be configured so that condensate cannot flood the
main into which they are draining as depicted in Figure 14.2.10.
Lifting common line
causing backpressure
and flooding
Steam
Steam trap
Flooded common line
Fig. 14.2.9 Discharge from steam traps on temperature controlled equipment into flooded lines
should be avoided if possible
✓
Vacuum breaker
Steam
Heat exchanger
o Sized to cater for the cumulative effects of any flash steam from each of the branch lines at full-load.
The concept of connecting the discharges from traps at different pressures is sometimes
misunderstood.
If the branch lines and the common line are correctly sized, the pressures downstream of each
trap will be virtually the same. However, if these lines are undersized, the flow of condensate
and flash steam will be restricted, due to a build up of backpressure caused by an increased
resistance to flow within the pipe. Condensate flowing from traps draining the lower pressure
systems will tend to be the more restricted.
Each part of the discharge piping system should be sized to carry any flash steam present at
acceptable steam velocities. The discharge from a high-pressure trap will not interfere with that
from a low-pressure trap if the discharge lines and common line are properly sized and sloped in
the direction of flow. Module 14.3, Sizing of condensate return lines gives further details.
Condensate
pumped
to boiler
feedtank High level
condensate
Steam Steam Steam Condensate main
receiver
MFP
Pump
Flow in a pumped return line is intermittent, as the pump starts and stops according to its needs.
The pump discharge rate will be higher than the rate at which condensate enters the pump. It is,
therefore, the pump discharge rate which determines the size of the pump discharge line, and
not the rate at which condensate enters the pump.
The pumping of condensate is discussed in further detail in Module 14.4, Pumping condensate
from vented receivers.
Questions
2. Why are thermostatic traps not recommended for draining steam mains?
a| They tend to waterlog the drain line ¨
b| They tend to waterlog the process ¨
c| Long drain lines are necessary to cool the condensate ¨
d| All of the above ¨
4. When are thermodynamic traps not recommended for draining steam mains?
a| They are not intended to drain steam mains ¨
b| When draining into flooded condensate lines ¨
c| When fitted outside and there is a danger of freezing ¨
d| When fitted to large drain pockets ¨
5. What will a trap discharge line normally carry that a drain line does not?
a| The weight of the trap ¨
b| Live steam ¨
c| A mixture of live steam and condensate ¨
d| A mixture of flash steam and condensate ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: d, 3: c, 4: b, 5: d, 6: a
Module 14.3
Sizing Condensate
Return Lines
25 mm pipe
✓ DN25
trap
Fig. 14.3.1 The drain line should not be sized on the plant connection
Regarding the conditions inside the drain line, as there is no significant pressure drop between the
plant and the trap, no flash steam is present in the pipe, and it can be sized to carry condensate only.
When sizing the drain line, the following will need consideration:
o The condensing rate of the equipment being drained during full-load.
o The condensing rate of the equipment at start-up.
At plant start-up, the condensing rate can be up to three times the running load this is where
the temperature difference between the steam and colder product is at its maximum.
The drain line, trap, and discharge line also have to carry the air that is displaced by the
incoming steam during this time.
The sizing routine for the steam trap will have to consider both of these variables, however, in
general:
o For steam mains drainage, the condensate load for each drain trap is typically 1% of the steam
capacity of the main based on drain points at 50 m intervals, and with good insulation.
For most drain points, sizing the trap to pass twice the running load at the working pressure
(minus any backpressure) will allow it to cope with the start-up load.
o On constant steam pressure processes such as presses, ironers, unit heaters, radiant panels
and boiling pans, sizing the traps on approximately twice the running load at the working
pressure (less any backpressure) will provide sufficient capacity to cope with the start-up load.
o On temperature controlled applications, the steam pressure, the plant turndown, the set
temperature and steam trap location need to be considered in detail, and the trap needs to be
sized to cater for both the full and minimum load conditions. If these conditions are not known
it is recommended that the steam trap be sized on 3 x the running load at the running differential
pressure. This should satisfy the start-up condition and provide proper drainage at minimum
loads.
When the trap is sized in this way, it will also cater for the start-up load. Consequently, if the
drain line to the trap is sized on the trap size, it will never be undersized.
For practical purposes, where the drain line is less than 10 m, it can be the same pipe size as the
steam trap selected for the application. Drain lines less than 10 m long can also be checked
against Appendix 14.3.1 and a pipe size should be selected which results in a pressure loss at
maximum flowrate of not more than 200 Pa per metre length, and a velocity not greater than
1.5 m / s. Table 14.3.2 is an extract from Appendix 14.3.1.
On longer drain lines (over 10 m), the pressure loss at maximum flowrate should not be more
than 100 Pa /m, and a velocity not greater than 1 m / s.
Table 14.3.2 Flow of water in heavy steel pipes
Flowrate Capacity kg / h
Pipe size Ø 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm 50 mm 65 mm 80 mm 100 mm
Pa / m mbar / m <0.15 m / s 0.15 m / s 0.3 m / s
90.0 0.900 173 403 745 1 627 2 488 4 716 9 612 14 940 30 240
92.5 0.925 176 407 756 1 652 2 524 4 788 9 756 15 156 30 672
95.0 0.950 176 414 767 1 678 2 560 4 860 9 900 15 372 31 104
97.5 0.975 180 421 778 1 699 2 596 4 932 10 044 15 552 31 500
1.0 m / s
100.0 1.000 184 425 788 1 724 2 632 5 004 10 152 15 768 31 932
120.0 1.200 202 472 871 1 897 2 898 5 508 11 196 17 352 35 100
140.0 1.400 220 511 943 2 059 3 143 5 976 12 132 18 792 38 160
160.0 1.600 234 547 1 015 2 210 3 373 6 408 12 996 20 160 40 680
180.0 1.800 252 583 1 080 2 354 3 589 6 804 13 824 21 420 43 200
200.0 2.000 266 619 1 141 2 488 3 780 7 200 14 580 22 644 45 720
220.0 2.200 281 652 1 202 2 617 3 996 7 560 15 336 23 760 47 880
240.0 2.400 288 680 1 256 2 740 4 176 7 920 16 056 24 876 50 400 1.5 m / s
260.0 2.600 306 713 1 310 2 855 4 356 8 244 16 740 25 920 52 200
280.0 2.800 317 742 1 364 2 970 4 536 8 568 17 388 26 928 54 360
300.0 3.000 331 767 1 415 3 078 4 680 8 892 18 000 27 900 56 160
Example 14.3.1
An item of plant, using steam at constant pressure, condenses 470 kg of steam an hour at full-
load. The pipework between the plant item and the steam trap has an equivalent length of 2 m.
Determine the size of pipe to be used.
Revised load allowing for start-up = 470 kg / h x 2 = 940 kg / h.
As the pipe length is less than 10 metres, the maximum allowable pressure drop is 200 Pa /m.
Using Table 14.3.1, by looking across from 200 Pa /m it can be seen that a 25 mm pipe has a
capacity of 1 141 kg / h, and would therefore be suitable for the expected starting load of 940 kg /h.
Checking further up the 25 mm column, it can be seen that a flowrate of 940 kg / h will incur an
actual pressure drop of just less than 140 Pa /m flowing through a 25 mm pipe.
Where:
P1 = Initial pressure
P2 = Final pressure
hf = Specific liquid enthalpy (kJ /kg)
hfg = Specific enthalpy of evaporation (kJ /kg)
3URSRUWLRQRIIODVKVWHDP = [
Clearly, if 7.9% is flashing to steam, the remaining 100 7.9 = 92.1% of the initial mass flow will
remain as water.
Part 2 - Determine the proportions by volume
Based on an initial mass of 1 kg of condensate discharged at 4 bar g saturation temperature, the
mass of flash steam is 0.079 kg and the mass of condensate is 0.921 kg (established from Part 1).
Water:
The density of saturated water at 0.5 bar g is 950 kg / m3,
DQGWKHYROXPHRFFXSLHGE\NJ P
Steam:
From steam tables, specific volume (vg) of steam at 0.5 bar g = 1.15 m3 / kg
The volume occupied by the steam is 0.079 kg x 1.15 m3 / kg = 0.091 m3
The total volume occupied by the steam and condensate mixture is:
0.001 m3 (water) + 0.091 m3 (steam) = 0.092 m3
By proportion (%):
7KHZDWHURFFXSLHV [ VSDFH
7KHVWHDPRFFXSLHV [ VSDFH
From this, it follows that the two-phase fluid in the trap discharge line will have much more in
common with steam than water, and it is sensible to size on reasonable steam velocities rather
than use the relatively small volume of condensate as the basis for calculation. If lines are
undersized, the flash steam velocity and backpressure will increase, which can cause waterhammer,
reduce the trap capacity, and flood the process.
Steam lines are sized with attention to maximum velocities. Dry saturated steam should travel no
faster than 40 m /s. Wet steam should travel somewhat slower (15 to 20 m /s) as it carries moisture
which can otherwise have an erosive and damaging effect on fittings and valves.
Trap discharge lines can be regarded as steam lines carrying very wet steam, and should be sized
on similarly low velocities.
Condensate discharge lines from traps are notoriously more difficult to size than steam lines due
to the two-phase flow characteristic. In practice, it is impossible (and often unnecessary) to
determine the exact condition of the fluid inside the pipe.
Although the amount of flash steam produced (see Figure 14.3.2) is related to the pressure difference
across the trap, other factors will also have an effect.
14
ar g
ar g
ar g
ar g
ar g
rg
13
0 ba
2.0 b
2 .5 b
0.5 b
1.0 b
1.5 b
12
11
10
9
Pressure on traps bar
4
Atmospheric pressure
3
0
0 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22
10%
kg Flash steam / kg condensate
Fig. 14.3.2 Quantity of flash steam graph
o On longer lines, radiation losses from the line may condense some of the flash steam, reducing
its volume and velocity, and there may be a case for reducing the line size. But at what point
should it be reduced and by how much?
o If the discharge line lifts up to an overhead return line, there will be times when the lifting line
will be full of cool condensate, and times when flash steam from the trap may evaporate some
or all of this condensate. Should the rising discharge line be sized on flash steam velocity or
the quantity of condensate?
o Most processes operate some way below their full-load condition for most of their running
cycle, which reduces flash steam for most of the time. The question therefore arises: is there a
need for the system to be sized on the full-load condition, if the equipment permanently
runs at a lower running load?
o On temperature controlled plant, the pressure differential across the trap will itself change
depending on the heat load. This will affect the amount of flash steam produced in the line.
Vent
Pump
Vent
Pump
Fig. 14.3.4 Keep rising lines short and connect to the top of return lines
It is sensible to consider using a slightly larger riser, which will produce a lower flash steam velocity.
This will reduce the risk of waterhammer and noise caused by steam trying to force a path
through the liquid condensate in the riser.
Important: A rising line should only be used where the process steam pressure is guaranteed
to be higher than the condensate backpressure at the trap outlet. If not, the process will
waterlog unless a pumping trap or pump-trap combination is used to provide proper drainage
against the backpressure.
3. Common return lines should also slope down and be non-flooded (Figure 14.3.4). To avoid
flash steam occurring in long return lines, hot condensate from trap discharge lines should
drain into vented receivers (or flash vessels where appropriate), from where it can be pumped
on to its final destination, via a flooded line at a lower temperature.
Condensate pumping is dealt with in more detail in Module 14.4.
80
20000
65
10000 50
5000 40
32
2000 25
5
1000
20
500 15
10
200
100 6
50
20
10
1
3 4 2
250 50
40
Condensate system pressure bar g
Steam system pressure bar g
20 30
Steam temperature °C
200 2
20
10
180 10
5 1
160 5
4
140
2 3 2
120 1 1
0.5 0.5
100 0 0
Fig. 14.3.5 Condensate pipe sizing chart
Using the condensate pipe sizing chart (Also available in Appendix 14.3.2)
Establish the point where the steam and condensate pressures meet (lower part of the chart,
Figure 14.3.5). From this point, move vertically up to the upper chart to meet the required
condensate rate. If the discharge line is falling (non-flooded) and the selection is on or between
lines, choose the lower line size. If the discharge line is rising, and therefore likely to be flooded,
choose the upper line size.
Note: The reasoning employed for the sizing of a steam trap is different to that used for a discharge
line, and it is perfectly normal for a trap discharge line to be sized different to the trap it is serving.
However, when the trap is correctly sized, the usual ancillary equipment associated with a steam
trap station, such as isolation valves, strainer, trap testing chamber, and check valve, can be the
same size as the trapping device selected, whatever the discharge line size.
6 bar g
Condensate
Fig. 14.3.6 A non-flooded pressurised trap discharge line (refer to Example 14.3.3)
18 bar g
High pressure steam 3.5 bar g
Air vent
Float trap
Discharge line being sized
Pipeline size selected by use of the
SA control valve acting as an air vent chart, Figure 14.3.5, is Ø32 mm
and condensate drain on start-up
2 bar g
High pressure steam
Plate heat exchanger
Fig. 14.3.8 A non-flooded vented trap discharge line (refer to Example 14.3.5)
Air flow
Pumped
condensate out
(1 200 kg / h)
Fig. 14.3.10 A discharge line from the condensate pump (refer to Example 14.3.7)
Example 14.3.8
Figure 14.3.11 shows three heat exchangers, each separately controlled and operating at the
same time. The condensate loads shown are full loads and occur with 3 bar g in the steam space.
The common line slopes down to the flash vessel at 1.5 bar g, situated in the same plant room.
Condensate in the flash vessel falls via a float trap down to a vented receiver, from where it is
pumped directly to the boiler house.
The trap discharge lines are sized on full-load with steam pressure at 3 bar g and condensate
pressure of 1.5 bar g, and as each is not flooded, the lower line sizes are picked from the graph.
Determine the condensate line sizes for the falling discharge lines and common lines.
To receiver
Fig. 14.3.11 Refer to Example 14.3.8
Because the common line is rising, it can be seen that each of the discharge lines is a size larger
than in Example 14.3.8 even though the backpressure is the same at 1.5 bar g.
The bore of the common line connecting two discharge lines can be found by calculating the
square root of the sum of the squares of the bores of the two discharge lines, as shown below:
Common line for 1 + 2 , = Ö 25² + 25² = 36 mm : Pick a DN40 pipe
Common line for ( 1 + 2 )+ 3 = Ö 36² + 20² = 42 mm : Pick a DN50 pipe
Note: For rising lines, the chosen nominal bore pipe should always be larger than the calculated
bore.
A B D F H K
C E G J L
? ? ? ? ?
Falling line to
termination
Rising line to
Ø20 mm Ø50 mm Ø32 mm Ø25 mm Ø32 mm Ø40 mm termination
A B D F H K
C E G J L
? ? ? ? ?
The procedure shown in Examples 14.3.10 and 14.3.11 can be simplified by using Appendix 14.3.3.
For example, where pipes A and B (20 mm and 50 mm) join, the minimum required pipe diameter
is shown as 54 mm. Clearly, the user would fit the next largest size of commercial pipe available,
unless the calculated bore is close to a nominal bore size pipe.
80
20000
65
10000 50
5000 40
32
2000 25
1000
20
500 15
10
200
100 6
50
20
10
250 50
40 Condensate system pressure bar g
Steam system pressure bar g
20 30
Steam temperature °C
200 20
10
180 10
160 5 5
140 2 2
120 1 1
0.5 0.5
100 0 0
Questions
2. For steam mains and constant pressure processes, how is start load estimated?
a| Twice the running load at the rated pressure ¨
b| Three times the running load at a third of the rated pressure ¨
c| Ten times the running load at half the rated pressure ¨
d| The running load at twice the rated pressure ¨
4. What is the major factor that influences the size of the trap discharge lines?
a| The size of the trap ¨
b| The size of the drain line ¨
c| The amount of flash steam produced in the discharge line ¨
d| The amount of condensate flowing ¨
5. Using Appendix 14.3.1, which size of drain line 1.5 m long should be chosen for a constant
pressure process with a maximum running load of 450 kg / h?
a| 20 mm ¨
b| 32 mm ¨
c| 25 mm ¨
d| 15 mm ¨
6. Three discharge lines 25 mm, 50 mm, 65 mm are to branch into a common line discharging
into a vented receiver. What should be the nominal size of the common line into the
receiver?
a| 100 mm ¨
b| 80 mm ¨
c| 65 mm ¨
d| 50 mm ¨
Answers
1: c, 2: a, 3: d, 4: c, 5: a, 6: a
Module 14.4
Pumping Condensate from
Vented Receivers
The justification for returning condensate has already been made and, often, this will entail
lifting condensate by a pump into the boiler feedtank.
Before looking at the types of pump available for returning condensate, it may be helpful to
discuss some basic pumping terminology.
Pumping terminology
Vapour pressure - This term is used to define the pressure corresponding to the temperature at
which a liquid changes into vapour. In other words, it is the pressure at which a liquid will boil.
o At 100°C, water will boil at atmospheric pressure.
o At 170°C, water will boil at a pressure of 7 bar g.
o At 90°C, water will boil at a pressure of 0.7 bar a.
The vapour pressure is a very important consideration when pumping condensate. Condensate
is usually formed at a temperature close to its boiling point, which may cause difficulties where
a centrifugal pump is concerned. This is because centrifugal pumps have an area of lower pressure
at the centre, or eye, of the impeller. This produces the suction effect, which draws the liquid
into the pump. Although the drop in pressure is small, if the condensate is already very close to
its vapour pressure, a proportion of the liquid will flash to steam in the form of small bubbles.
These steam bubbles occupy a significantly greater volume than the equivalent mass of water,
and have a high ratio of surface area to mass.
As the bubbles travel through the impeller passageways towards its outer edge, they experience
increasing pressure. At some point during this journey, the vapour pressure is exceeded, and the
steam bubbles implode with considerable force. This is termed cavitation and the implosions
are both noisy and destructive. The noise is similar to gravel being shovelled and the implosions
will, in time, damage the pump internals.
For this reason, it is recommended that condensate be pumped by electrical pumps specifically
built for the task, and that condensate temperatures in atmospheric systems do not exceed 98°C.
Some pumps will have limits as low as 94°C or 96°C, depending on the design of the pump, the
speed of rotation and the height of the receiver above the pump.
Head (h) - Head is a term used to describe the potential energy of a fluid at a given point. There
are several ways that head can be measured: pressure head, static head and friction head. Pressure
head and static head are essentially the same thing, but tend to be measured in different units.
Pressure head is measured in pressure units such as pascal or bar g; whilst static head is referred
to in terms of height, usually in metres (or metres head).
For water, a static head of 10 metres is approximately equivalent to a pressure head of 1 bar g
(see Figure 14.4.1).
Pressure head (hp) - Pressure head is the fluid pressure at the point in question. For example: A
pump is required to discharge water against a static head of 30 metres, which approximately
equals a pressure head of 3 bar g. The pump fills from a static head of 1 metre, which equals a
pressure head of 0.1 bar g. (See Figure 14.4.2).
Static head (hs) - Static head is the equivalent vertical height of fluid above a datum. The following
example explains the measure of static head. Example: the pump inlet in Figure 14.4.2 is subjected
to a static head (known as the suction or filling head) of 1 m, and discharges against a static head
(known as the static delivery head) of 30 m. Note that in this case, the water being pumped is
above the pump inlet (this situation is called a flooded suction).
10 m
Collecting tank
Net static head - This depends upon whether the pump is a centrifugal type pump or a positive
displacement, mechanical type pump.
With an electrical centrifugal pump (Figure 14.4.3), the pressure exerted by the suction head is
always present in the pump. The net static head, against which the pump has to work, is the
difference between the suction head and the delivery head.
Collecting tank
Static suction
head 1 m
Pump inlet
With a mechanical displacement pump (Figure 14.4.4), the suction head only provides the energy
to fill the pump during the filling cycle. It is not present in the pump body during pumping and
has no effect on the delivery head against which the pump has to operate. The net static head is
simply the delivery head.
Collecting tank
Static delivery
Header tank head 30 m
Filling
head
Static suction
head 1 m
Fig. 14.4.4 Net static head for a mechanical pump equals static delivery head
Friction head (hf) - The friction head (or head loss to friction) is more accurately defined as the
energy required to move the fluid through the pipe. This is discussed in further detail in
Module 10.2, Pipes and pipe sizing.
Pressure loss can be calculated using the procedures shown in Block 4, Flowmetering and
Block 10, Steam distribution, but is more usually found from tables that correlate liquid flowrate,
pipe diameter and velocity. To be precise, the resistance to flow encountered by the various
pipeline fittings must also be taken into account. Tables are available to calculate the equivalent
length of straight pipe exerted by various pipe fittings.
This extra equivalent length for pipe fittings is then added to the actual pipe length to give a
total equivalent length. However, in practice, if the pipe is correctly sized, it is unusual for the
pipe fittings to represent more than an additional 10% of the actual pipe length.
A general rule, which can be applied, is:
Total equivalent length (le ) = Actual length + 10%
In most cases, the Steam Plant Engineer will be designing a system with a proprietary manufactured
pump arrangement, which has appropriate factors built in. Bearing this in mind, the figure of
10% will be used in this Block as the equivalent length for calculating pressure loss due to friction.
This pressure loss due to friction is greatly dependent on the velocity of the water in the pipe. In
simple terms, the pressure loss due to friction increases by a factor proportional to the square of
the velocity.
Tables are available which give head loss per metre of pipe for various flowrates and pipe diameters.
Table 14.4.1 Flow of water in black steel pipes (kg / h)
Pressure drop Pipe size (mm)
Pa / m mbar / m 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
100 1.00 184 425 788 1 724 2 632 5 004 10 152 15 768 31 932
114 1.14 194 450 845 1 832 2 790 5 366 10 841 16 828 34 247
118 1.18 198 457 857 1 890 2 830 5 443 11 022 17 055 34 746
Example 14.4.1
The 50 mm discharge pipework on a pumped condensate line rises vertically for 29 metres to a
vented tank. The line is 150 m long and the pumping rate is 5 000 kg / h of water. What is:
(A) the pressure head loss due to friction (the friction head), and
(B) the total delivery head?
A - Calculate the pressure head loss due to friction (the friction head)
Total equivalent length (le) = 150 + 10 % = 165 metres
From Table 14.4.1, it can be seen that a 50 mm pipe carrying 5 004 kg / h of water will experience
a pressure drop of 1.0 mbar / m. The flowrate in this example is marginally less, and, although a
more accurate estimate could be obtained by interpolation, take the pressure drop as 1 mbar / m.
Pressure head loss due to friction is therefore:
165 metres x 1 mbar / m = 165 mbar (0.165 bar)
Taking 1 bar to be equivalent to 10 metres of water head the equivalent friction head loss in
terms of metres is:
0.165 bar x 10m / bar = 1.65 metres.
B - The total delivery head
Total delivery head (hd) - The total delivery head hd against which the pump needs to operate is
the sum of three components as can be seen in Equation 14.4.1:
Where:
hd = Total delivery head
hs = Pressure required to raise the water to the desired level (static head)
hf = Pressure required to move the water through the pipes (friction head)
hp = Pressure in the condensate system (zero in this example as the condensate tank is vented to
atmosphere).
Condensate movement
Total
discharge
head
Total filling
head
Fig. 14.4.5 Net static head for a mechanical pump equals static delivery head
Condensate receiver
Level sensor
Centrifugal
pump
Fig. 14.4.6 A typical electrical condensate recovery unit (CRU)
Example 14.4.2 Sizing discharge pipework for an electric condensate recovery unit
Where:
Temperature of condensate = 94°C
Condensate to be handled = 1 000 kg / h
Static lift (hs) = 30 m
Length of pipework = 150 m
Condensate backpressure = friction losses only (hf)
An initial selection of a condensate recovery unit can be made by using the manufacturers sizing
chart (an example of which is shown in Figure 14.4.7). From the chart, CRU1 should be the
initial choice subject to frictional losses in the delivery pipework.
CRU1
Pump delivery head in metres
CRU2
CRU3
From the chart in Figure 14.4.7, it can be seen that CRU1 is actually rated to handle 2 000 kg / h
of condensate against a maximum delivery head of 35 m.
However, on CRUs with pumps that work intermittently, in order to be able to handle the rated
amount of condensate, the pump has to actually move the condensate at some higher flowrate
during the time it is pumping. It is important to know this to be able to size the discharge pipe
correctly.
Consider that the manufacturers data shows that the CRU will actually pump at a rate of
1.5 times the amount of condensate being handled as shown on the sizing chart i.e.:
Actual pumping rate = 1.5 x 2 000 kg / h = 3 000 kg / h
It is this figure, 3 000 kg / h, that must be used to size the discharge pipework.
It is now possible to calculate the optimum size for the return line.
Actual length of pipework = 150 m
Equivalent length of pipework = 150 m + 10% = 165 m
Table 14.4.2 A section of a typical friction loss table for fully flooded pipelines (flowrates in kg / h)
Flowrate kg / h
Pipe size Ø 15 mm 20 mm 25 mm 32 mm 40 mm 50 mm 65 mm 80 mm 100 mm
Pa / m mbar / m <0.15 m / s 0.15 m / s 0.3 m / s
10.0 0.100 50 119 223 490 756 1 447 2 966 4 644 9 432
12.5 0.125 58 133 252 554 853 1 634 3 348 5 220 10 656
15.0 0.150 65 151 277 616 943 1 807 3 708 5 760 11 736
17.5 0.175 68 162 302 670 1 026 1 966 4 032 6 264 12 744
20.0 0.200 76 176 328 720 1 105 2 113 4 320 6 732 13 680
22.5 0.225 79 187 349 770 1 177 2 254 4 608 7 164 14 580 0.5
25.0 0.250 83 198 371 814 1 249 2 387 4 860 7 596 15 408 m/s
27.5 0.275 90 209 389 857 1 314 2 513 5 112 7 992 16 200
30.0 0.300 94 220 410 900 1 379 2 632 5 364 8 352 16 956
32.5 0.325 97 230 428 940 1 440 2 747 5 616 8 712 17 712
35.0 0.350 101 241 446 979 1 498 2 858 5 832 9 072 18 432
37.5 0.375 104 248 464 1 015 1 555 2 966 6 048 9 396 19 116
40.0 0.400 112 259 479 1 051 1 609 3 071 6 264 9 720 19 764
42.5 0.425 115 266 497 1 087 1 663 3 175 6 480 10 044 20 412
45.0 0.450 119 277 511 1 123 1 717 3 272 6 660 10 368 21 024
47.5 0.475 122 284 526 1 156 1 768 3 370 6 876 10 656 21 636
50.0 0.500 126 292 540 1 188 1 814 3 463 7 056 10 944 22 212
52.5 0.525 130 299 558 1 220 1 865 3 553 7 236 11 232 22 788
55.0 0.550 130 306 572 1 249 1 912 3 636 7 416 11 520 23 364
57.5 0.575 133 317 583 1 282 1 958 3 744 7 596 11 808 23 904
60.0 0.600 137 324 598 1 310 2 002 3 816 7 776 12 060 24 444
62.5 0.625 140 331 612 1 339 2 048 3 888 7 920 12 312 24 984
65.0 0.650 144 338 626 1 368 2 092 3 996 8 100 12 600 25 488
67.5 0.675 148 346 637 1 397 2 131 4 068 8 280 12 852 25 992
70.0 0.700 151 353 652 1 422 2 174 4 140 8 424 13 068 26 496
72.5 0.725 151 356 662 1 451 2 218 4 212 8 568 13 320 27 000
75.0 0.750 155 364 677 1 476 2 257 4 284 8 748 13 572 27 468
77.5 0.775 158 371 688 1 505 2 297 4 356 8 892 13 788 27 972
80.0 0.800 162 378 698 1 530 2 336 4 464 9 036 14 040 28 440 1
82.5 0.825 166 385 709 1 555 2 372 4 536 9 180 14 256 28 872 m/s
85.0 0.850 166 389 724 1 580 2 412 4 608 9 324 14 472 29 340
87.5 0.875 169 396 734 1 606 2 448 4 680 9 468 14 724 29 772
90.0 0.900 173 403 745 1 627 2 488 4 716 9 612 14 940 30 240
92.5 0.925 176 407 756 1 652 2 524 4 788 9 756 15 156 30 672
95.0 0.950 176 414 767 1 678 2 560 4 860 9 900 15 372 31 104
97.5 0.975 180 421 778 1 699 2 596 4 932 10 044 15 552 31 500
100.0 1.000 184 425 788 1 724 2 632 5 004 10 152 15 768 31 932
120.0 1.200 202 472 871 1 897 2 898 5 508 11 196 17 352 35 100
140.0 1.400 220 511 943 2 059 3 143 5 976 12 132 18 792 38 160
160.0 1.600 234 547 1 015 2 210 3 373 6 408 12 996 20 160 40 680
180.0 1.800 252 583 1 080 2 354 3 589 6 804 13 824 21 420 43 200 1.5
200.0 2.000 266 619 1 141 2 488 3 780 7 200 14 580 22 644 45 720 m/s
220.0 2.200 281 652 1 202 2 617 3 996 7 560 15 336 23 760 47 880
240.0 2.400 288 680 1 256 2 740 4 176 7 920 16 056 24 876 50 400
260.0 2.600 306 713 1 310 2 855 4 356 8 244 16 740 25 920 52 200
280.0 2.800 317 742 1 364 2 970 4 536 8 568 17 388 26 928 54 360
300.0 3.000 331 767 1 415 3 078 4 680 8 892 18 000 27 900 56 160
Receiver
Condensate
out
Pump
Condensate
manifold Vent
Reservoir
Filling head
* Note: Steam supply to pump not shown * 0.3 m
5.2 bar g
Pump operating
pressure
Fig. 14.4.9 Sizing a mechanical condensate recovery unit (see Example 14.4.3)
Calculate the total backpressure (delivery head hd), against which the condensate must be pumped:
Total backpressure (hd) = lift (hs) + condensate pressure (hp)
Note: The friction loss is neglected because the pipeline is shorter than 100 m.
Condensate lift (hs) = 9.2 m
Condensate pressure (hp) = 1.7 bar g = 17 m head
Total delivery head (hd) = 9.2 m + 17 m
Total delivery head (hd) = 26 m
With reference to the sizing chart shown in Figure 14.4.10: a DN50 pump at 5.2 bar g motive
pressure will pump 2 600 kg / h against a 26 m head. A DN50 pump will thus be an adequate
choice for this example, where the condensate handling load is 2 100 kg / h.
40 m lift
30 m lift
20 m lift
10 m lift
80 m lift
4 m lift
13
12
11
Example 14.4.4
Example 14.4.3
10
9
Motive pressure bar g
5.2
5
0
1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000
2 100 2 600
DN50 size capacities kg / h Note: The pump is sized on the filling rate
Fig. 14.4.10 Mechanical condensate recovery unit sizing chart - DN50 pump
The effect of inertia loss on pump delivery lines longer than 100 metres.
On lines over 100 m, a considerable volume of liquid will be held within the pump discharge
pipe. The sudden acceleration of this mass of liquid at the start of the pump discharge can
absorb some part of the pump energy and result in a large amount of waterhammer and noise.
This needs to be considered within the calculation by reducing the allowable friction loss of
60 000 Pa in Example 14.4.4 by 50%, thus:
Total allowable friction loss = 50% × 60 000 Pa = 30 000 Pa
Consider delivery pipe length to be 250 m + 10% for additional fittings = 275 m
3D
Consequently, maximum frictional resistance allowable / metre =
P
Maximum frictional resistance » 109 Pa / m
For this type of pump the delivery flowrate is taken as 6 times the filling rate = 6 × 2 100 kg / h
Therefore, the delivery rate of condensate from the pump = 12 600 kg / h
Total allowable friction loss
With a frictional resistance of 109 Pa / m, Table 14.4.2 reveals that an 80 mm pipe (minimum) is
required to give an acceptable flowrate of 12600 kg / h. In fact, Table 14.4.2 indicates that an
80 mm pipe will pass 16 480 kg / h with a frictional resistance of 109 Pa / m.
By rising up the 80 mm column in the table, it can be seen that, by interpolation, the flowrate
of 12 600 kg / h actually induces a frictional loss of 65 Pa / m in an 80 mm pipe.
Fully loaded pumps and longer lines
In Example 14.4.4, Figure 14.4.10 shows that the maximum pump filling rate with a motive
pressure of 5.2 bar g and a delivery head of 26 metres is 2 600 kg /h. Had the filling rate been
close to this maximum, (perhaps 2 500 kg / h), then less delivery head would have been available
for friction loss. For the same size DN50 pump, this would mean a larger delivery pipeline as
shown in Example 14.4.5
Example 14.4.5 Consider the same DN50 pump as described in Example 14.4.4, but
having a condensate filling rate of 2 500 kg / h. Now determine the size of the delivery
pipeline.
27 metres lift
14
50 m lift
40 m lift
30 m lift
20 m lift
10 m lift
80 m lift
4 m lift
13
12
11
10
9
Motive pressure bar g
5.2
5
0
1 000 2 000 2 500 3 000 4 000 5 000
DN50 size capacities kg / h
Fig. 14.4.11 Mechanical condensate recovery unit sizing chart (DN50 pump)
Sizing on a filling rate of 2 500 kg / h, and a steam pressure of 5.2 bar, referring to Figure 14.4.11,
for the DN50 pump, it can be seen that a condensate filling rate of 2 500 kg / h equates to a
maximum backpressure of about 27 m, so in this instance:
With an actual delivery head of 26 m:
Available head left for friction losses = 27 - 26 m
Available head left for friction losses = 1 m
The conversion tables in the Engineering Support Centre reveal that a head of 1 metre is equivalent
to 9 806.65 Pa.
For an equivalent length line of 275 m:
3D
The frictional resistance allowable =
P
= 35.7 Pa / m
Minus allowance of 50% for inertia loss = 50% × 35.7 Pa / m
Maximum frictional resistance allowable = 18 Pa / m
As before, the discharge pipework has to be sized on the instantaneous flowrate from the pump
outlet, which is taken as 6 × the filling rate. In this instance, the pipe would have been sized on
6 × 2 500 kg / h = 15 000 kg / h with a friction loss of 18 Pa / m.
Table 14.4.2 shows that this would require a pipe larger than 100 mm (actually 125 mm) to allow
the pump to operate within its capability.
Although the system would certainly work with this arrangement, it is probably more economical
to consider a larger pump in conjunction with a smaller pipeline.
50 m lift
40 m lift
30 m lift
20 m lift
10 m lift
80 m lift
13
12
11
10
9
Motive pressure bar g
4 m lift
5.2
5
0
1 000 2 000 3 000 4 000 5 000 6 000
2 500
DN80 x DN50 size capacities kg / h
Fig. 14.4.12 Mechanical condensate recovery unit sizing chart (DN80 pump)
Figure 14.4.12 shows that a DN80 pump under the same conditions of 5.2 bar g motive steam
and 2 500 kg / h flowrate would allow a maximum delivery head of 35 m.
From Example 14.4.4, the actual delivery head = 26 m
At a filling rate of 2 500 kg / h, maximum allowed = 35 m
Head available for friction loss = 35 m - 26 m = 9 metres
The conversion tables in the Engineering Support Centre reveal that a head of 9 m is equivalent
to 88 259.9 Pa.
3D
Therefore 88 259.9 Pa over 275 m and including inertia loss = 50% ×
P
Maximum frictional resistance allowable = 160 Pa / m
The delivery pipe is again sized to carry 6 x 2 500 kg / h = 15 000 kg / h of condensate. By
interpolation, Table 14.4.2 shows that an 80 mm pipe will accommodate 20 160 kg / h with a
friction loss of 160 Pa / m, flowing at about 1 m / s.
In this instance, the larger DN80 pump will comfortably allow a pipe two sizes smaller than that
for the smaller pump, and with a velocity of about 1 m / s, which is within recommendations. The
80 mm pipe is therefore suitable for the DN80 pump.
Note: The DN80 pump would cost about 10% more than the DN50 pump, but the extra cost
would be justified by the difference in installation costs on long delivery lines; which in this
instance would mean the difference in cost between a 80 mm and 125 mm pipe; installation,
fittings, and insulation.
Condensate velocities
Equation 14.4.2 can be used to check the condensate velocity.
&RQGHQVDWHYHORFLW\PV
&RQGHQVDWHIORZUDWHNJ K[&RQGHQVDWHVSHFLILFYROXPHP NJ Equation 14.4.2
SLSHERUH [ PP ] [
NJ K[P NJ
&RQGHQVDWHYHORFLW\PV
PP [
In Equation 14.4.2, the specific volume of water is taken to be 0.001 m3 / kg. This value varies
slightly with temperature but not enough to make any significant difference on condensate lines.
The condensate velocity can be checked for the 80 mm pipework in Example 14.4.4.
The pumping rate = 15 000 kg / h
Condensate specific volume = 0.001 m³ / kg
Pipe bore = 80 mm
[
&RQGHQVDWHYHORFLW\
[
Condensate velocity = 0.83 m / s
From Table 14.4.3 the maximum velocity for an 80 mm bore pipe is 1.8 m / s.
Table 14.4.3 Maximum recommended velocities for pipe bores (based on a maximum friction loss of 450 Pa/ m)
Pipe bore, mm 15 20 25 32 40 50 65 80 100
Velocity, m/s 0.62 0.8 1.0 1.23 1.27 1.5 1.8 1.84 2.4
Fig. 14.4.13 An additional check valve 1 pipe length from the pump body to reduce
the effect of backflow
If there is any choice, it is always best to lift immediately after the pump to a height allowing a
gravity fall to the end of the line (Figure 14.4.14). If the fall is enough to overcome the frictional
resistance of the pipe (Table 14.4.4), then the only backpressure onto the pump is that formed
by the initial lift. A vacuum breaker can be installed at the top of the lift not only to assist the flow
along the falling line but also to prevent any tendency for backflow at the end of the stroke.
Should the falling line have to fall anywhere along its length to overcome an obstruction, then an
automatic air vent fitted at the highest point will reduce air locking and assist flow around the
obstruction, see Figure 14.4.14.
Automatic air vent
Vacuum breaker
fall
fall due to
obstruction
Mechanical pump
Alternatively, any question of backpressure caused by the horizontal run can be entirely eliminated
by an arrangement as in Figure 14.4.15 in which the pump simply lifts into a vented break tank.
The pipe from the tank should fall in accordance with Table 14.4.4.
Vent
Break tank
Condensate
Mechanical pump
Condensate
Fig. 14.4.15 Alternative choice - lift after the pump to a break tank
Condensate passing through pumping traps and pump-trap combinations in closed loop
applications will often be at higher pressures and temperatures and flash steam will be formed in
the discharge line.
Because of this, discharge lines from pumping traps and pump-trap combinations are sized on
the trapping condition at full-load and not the pumping condition, as the line has to be sized to
cater for flash steam. Sizing on flash steam will ensure the line is also able to cope with the
pumping condition.
Questions
2. What is the important factor to consider when sizing a pump discharge line?
a| The pump filling rate ¨
b| The pump discharge rate ¨
c| The size of the pump discharge connection ¨
d| The size of the pump inlet connection ¨
4. As a general rule, what equivalent length is added to pipe length to account for pipe
fittings?
a| 5% ¨
b| 10% ¨
c| 15% ¨
d| 20% ¨
5. What is a good arbitrary pressure drop to choose to initially size a pumped delivery line?
a| 10 to 20 Pa / m ¨
b| 50 to 100 Pa / m ¨
c| 500 to 1 000 Pa / m ¨
d| 100 to 200 Pa / m ¨
6. In Figure 14.4.7, what is the maximum capacity of a CRU3 pumping unit against a
15 metre delivery head?
a| 2 000 kg / h ¨
b| 100 kg / h ¨
c| 500 kg / h ¨
d| 1 400 kg / h ¨
Answers
1: d, 2: b, 3: a, 4:b, 5: d, 6: d
Module 14.5
Lifting Condensate and
Contaminated Condensate
Trap
Drain to waste
Fig. 14.5.1 Use of a liquid expansion trap
The discharge line from the trap to the overhead return line, preferably discharges into the top of
the main rather than simply feed to the underside, as shown in Figure 14.5.1. This assists operation,
because although the riser is probably full of water at start-up, it sometimes contains little more
than flash steam once hot condensate under pressure passes through. If the discharge line were
fitted to the bottom of the return line, it would fill with condensate after each discharge and
increase the tendency for waterhammer and noise.
It is also recommended that a check valve be fitted after any steam trap from where condensate
is lifted, preventing condensate from falling back towards the trap.
The above general recommendations apply not just to traps lifting condensate from steam mains,
but also to traps draining any type of process running at a constant steam pressure.
Temperature controlled processes will often run with low steam pressures. Rising condensate
discharge lines should be avoided at all costs, unless automatic pump-traps are used.
Contaminated condensate
Occasionally, condensate is discharged from sources where it might have become contaminated
by corrosive process liquids. This is unsuitable for boiler feedwater because of the dangers of
foaming, scaling, and corrosion which it can cause in the boiler and distribution pipes.
However, although contaminated, the condensate still carries the same useful heat as clean
condensate which could be recovered if proper contamination detection equipment were
employed.
Such equipment detects changes in condensate conductivity. When a change from the desired
conductivity occurs then this may mean that the condensate is contaminated. A controller signals
a dump valve to open, allowing the condensate to flow to drain.
In some countries, continuous monitoring of condensate is a legal requirement.
Controller
Dump valve
Sensor
Contaminated
condensate
to waste
Drain
Questions
2. What type of steam trap can assist in draining steam mains at start-up?
a| Thermodynamic type ¨
b| Float-thermostatic type ¨
c| Thermostatic type ¨
d| Liquid expansion type ¨
4. Why is it good practice to run a trap discharge line into the top of any condensate
return main?
a| It is cheaper ¨
b| It removes the backpressure ¨
c| It helps to keep the rising line free of residual condensate ¨
d| It removes the static lift ¨
Answers
1: b 2: d, 3: d, 4: c
Module 14.6
Flash Steam
Flash Steam
The formation of flash has already been discussed in Module 2.2, What is steam, and a major
flash steam application has been covered in Module 3.13, Heat recovery from boiler blowdown.
This Module will provide a brief reminder of these earlier Modules; discuss how flash steam is
formed, and focus on how flash steam can be used effectively to improve steam plant efficiency.
Ball valve
Air vent
Condensate at 0 bar g
hf = 419 kJ / kg
Steam at 7 bar g
The heat needed to produce 1 kg of saturated steam from water at the same temperature, at
0 bar gauge, is 2 257 kJ. An amount of 302 kJ can therefore evaporate:
N-
NJRIVWHDPSHUNJRIFRQGHQVDWH
N-
From each kilogram of condensate in this example, the proportion of flash steam generated
therefore equals 13.4% of the initial mass of condensate.
If the equipment using steam at 7 bar g were condensing 250 kg / h, then the amount of flash
steam released by the condensate at 0 bar g would be:
0.134 x 250 kg / h of condensate = 33.5 kg / h of flash steam
Alternatively, the chart in Figure 14.6.2 can be read directly for the moderate and low pressures
encountered in many plants.
The example shown in Figure 14.6.1 is depicted in Figure 14.6.2 and shows that 0.134 kg of
flash steam is produced per kg of condensate passing through the trap.
15
14
ar g
ar g
ar g
ar g
ar g
rg
13
0 ba
2.0 b
2.5 b
1 .0 b
1 .5 b
0 .5 b
12
11
10
9
Pressure on traps bar g
0
0 0.02 0.06 0.10 0.14 0.18 0.22
0.134 (See Example 14.6.1)
kg Flash per kg condensate
Fig. 14.6.2 Flash steam graph
Sub-cooled condensate
If the steam trap is of a thermostatic type, the discharged condensate is sub-cooled below saturation
temperature. The heat in the cooler condensate will be slightly less, and the amount of flash
steam produced would be less.
If the trap in Example 14.6.1 discharged condensate at 15°C below the steam saturation
temperature, then the available heat in the condensate would be less.
Example 14.6.2 Consider condensate discharging at 7 bar g and with 15°C of subcooling
Temperature of saturated condensate at 7 bar g = 170°C
Amount of sub cooling = 15°C
Temperature of sub-cooled condensate at 7 bar g = 155°C
From steam tables:
Amount of heat in condensate at 155°C = 654 kJ / kg
At 0 bar g, saturated condensate can only hold = 419 kJ / kg
Surplus heat in saturated condensate at 0 bar g = 235 kJ / kg
Heat in steam at 0 bar g = 2 257 kJ / kg
N- NJ
Proportion of flash steam
N- NJ
Proportion of flash steam from the condensate = 0.104 (10.4%)
Therefore, in this example, condensate discharging at a temperature lower than the saturation
temperature has reduced the proportion of flash steam from 13.4% to 10.4%.
Pressurised condensate
Example 14.6.3 Consider the condensate in Example 14.6.1 discharging to a flash vessel
pressurised at 1 bar g
If the return line were connected to a vessel at a pressure of 1 bar g, then it could be seen
from steam tables that the maximum heat in the condensate at the trap discharge would be
505 kJ / kg and the enthalpy of evaporation at 1 bar g would be 2 201 kJ / kg.
The proportion of the condensate flashing off at 1 bar g can then be calculated as follows:
Heat in condensate at 7 bar g = 721 kJ / kg
At 1 bar g saturated condensate can only hold = 505 kJ / kg
Surplus heat in saturated condensate at 1 bar g = 216 kJ / kg
Heat in steam at 1 bar g = 2 201 kJ / kg
N- NJ
Proportion of flash steam
N- NJ
Proportion of flash steam from the condensate = 0.098 (9.8%)
In this example, if the equipment using steam at 7 bar g were condensing 250 kg / h of steam,
then the amount of flash steam released by the condensate at 1 bar g would be
0.098 x 250 kg / h = 24.5 kg / h of flash steam.
Therefore, the amount of flash steam produced can depend on the type of steam trap used, the
steam pressure before the trap, and the condensate pressure after the trap.
Condensate in
Condensate out
Fig. 14.6.3 A typical flash vessel constructed to European standards
Example 14.6.4 Determine the size of a flash vessel to suit the following conditions:
The pressure onto the steam traps is 12 bar g with a total condensate flow of 2 500 kg / h. The
flash steam from the vessel is to be supplied to equipment using low pressure steam at 1 bar g.
Method:
1. From the Pressure on steam traps axis at 12 bar g, move horizontally to the 1 bar g flash
steam pressure curve at point A.
2. Drop down vertically to the condensate flowrate level of 2 500 kg / h, point B, and follow the
curved line to point C.
3. Move right from point C to meet the 1 bar g flash line at point D.
4. Move upwards to the flash vessel size and select the vessel.
For this example, an FV8 flash vessel would be selected.
Flash steam pressure bar g
7 65 4 3 2 1
20
0.5
18
0.2
Pressure on steam traps bar g
16
0
14
12 A Example
10
FV
FV
FV
FV
FV
6
15
18
8
12
4
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20%
0
500 2
3
4
1 000 5
7
C D
2 000
B
3 000
4 000
5 000
10 000
15 000
20 000
30 000
Fig. 14.6.4 Flash vessel sizing chart
o Care must be taken when attempting flash steam recovery with condensate from temperature
controlled equipment. At less than full-load, the steam space pressure will be lowered by
the closing action of the steam control valve. If the steam pressure in the equipment approaches
or falls below the specified flash steam pressure, the overall amount of flash steam formed
will be marginal, and one must question whether recovery is worthwhile in this instance.
o It is important that there is a demand for low pressure flash steam that either equals or exceeds
the flash steam being produced. Any deficit of flash steam can be made up by live steam from
a pressure reducing valve. If the supply of flash steam exceeds its demand, surplus pressure
will be created in the flash steam distribution system, which will then have to be vented to
waste through a surplussing valve.
o It is possible to utilise the flash steam from condensate on a space heating installation - but
savings will only be achieved during the heating season. When heating is not required, the
recovery system becomes ineffective. Wherever possible, the best arrangement is to use
flash steam from process condensate to supply process loads - and flash steam from heating
condensate to supply heating loads. Supply and demand are then more likely to remain in-step.
o It is preferable to actually use the flash steam close to the high pressure condensate source.
Relatively large diameter pipes are used for low pressure steam, to reduce pressure loss and
velocity, which can mean costly installation if the flash steam has to be piped any distance.
Control of flash steam pressure
Another consideration is a method of controlling the pressure of the flash steam.
In some cases, flash pressure will find its own level and nothing more needs to be done. When
supply and demand are always in-step, and particularly if the low pressure steam is used on the
same equipment producing the high pressure condensate, it is only neccessary to pipe the flash
steam to the low pressure plant without any other control.
Figure 14.6.5 shows the application of flash steam recovery to a multi-bank air heater battery,
which is supplying high temperature air to a process. Condensate from the high pressure sections
is taken to the flash vessel, from where the low pressure flash steam is used, to preheat the cold
air entering the battery via the frost coil (preheater). The surface area of the preheater section,
and the relatively low temperature of the incoming air, will mean that the low pressure flash
steam is readily condensed.
Flash steam
Air flow
High
pressure
traps
Flash vessel
Low pressure
condensate
Depending on operating temperatures, the flash steam will condense at some low pressure,
perhaps even sub-atmospheric. If site conditions and layout permit, the flash vessel and the
steam trap draining the preheater should be located far enough below the preheater condensate
outlet to give enough hydrostatic head to push the condensate through the trap. If this is not
possible, pumping traps can be used to drain both the preheater coil and the flash vessel.
Steam condensing in the preheater at sub-atmospheric pressure will generally mean that a vacuum
breaker is required on the flash steam supply to the preheater. This will prevent the pressure in
the battery becoming sub-atmospheric, thereby assisting condensate flow to the trap. Drainage
from the preheater trap is induced by gravity flow.
Figure 14.6.6 shows an application where the flash steam system is kept at a specified constant
pressure by steam fed from a reducing valve. This ensures a reliable source of steam to the low
pressure system if there is a lack of flash steam to meet the load.
Low
High pressure
pressure traps
traps
Flash vessel
Flash vessel bypass line
Low
pressure
Trap set condensate
Fig. 14.6.6 Flash steam supply and demand in step
Another example where supply and demand are in step is the steam heated hot water storage
calorifier. Some of these incorporate a second coil, fitted close to the bottom of the vessel adjacent
to where the cold feedwater enters.
Condensate and flash steam from the trap on the primary coil is passed directly to the secondary
coil. Here, any flash steam produced by the drop in pressure across the trap is condensed, while
giving up its heat to the feedwater. A typical arrangement is shown in Figure 14.6.7.
Steam
Return water in
Low temperature condensate
Another example of this idea is shown in Figure 14.6.8. Here, a normal steam-to-water calorifier
drains condensate through a float trap to a smaller shell-and-tube heat exchanger (called a flash
condenser), in which the flash steam is condensed to sub-cooled condensate. The unit is fitted
such that the secondary flow pipework is in series with both calorifier and condenser. This enables
the secondary return water to be preheated by the condenser, thereby reducing the demand for
live steam in the first instance.
If the condensate in the flash condenser is likely to be sub-atmospheric, a mechanical pump is
required to lift the condensate to any higher return line. The motive steam exhausting from the
pump is itself condensed in the flash condenser. The pumping of the condensate is then achieved
at virtually no cost.
Consideration must be given to the pump filling head in that it needs to be greater than the
pressure drop across the flash condenser tubes under full-load conditions. A minimum head of
600 mm will usually achieve this.
Secondary flow
Steam
Heating calorifier
Temperature control
Steam trap Secondary
flow path
Shell-and-tube heat
* Balance line Air vent exchanger (flash condenser)
*
Receiver Secondary return
Condensate return
Filling head > 600 mm
Motive
steam
Pump
Steam
Condensate Flash steam
Medium
pressure
steam
Condensate
Condensate
Flash
Condensate vessel
Condensate
Fig. 14.6.9 Flash steam supply and demand not in-step
Cold Level
water Make-up tank controller
Condensate
Boiler feedtank
Steam
supply to
injector
Flash vessel
Steam
Blowdown
Float trap valve Boiler
Heat
exchanger
Feedpump
Drain
Fig. 14.6.10 Typical heat recovery from boiler blowdown
Spray condensing
Finally, consideration should be given to those cases where flash steam is unavoidably generated
at low pressure, but where no suitable load is available which can make use of it.
Rather than simply discharge the flash steam to waste, the arrangement in Figure 14.6.11 can
often be adopted.
This arrangement can be useful where the condensate receiver vent cannot be piped to outside,
and where the presence of flash steam would be detrimental if left to discharge in a plant room.
A lightweight stainless steel chamber is fitted to the receiver tank vent. Cold water is sprayed into
the chamber in sufficient quantities to just condense the flash steam. The flow of cooling water is
controlled by a simple self-acting temperature control, adjusted so that minimal amounts of flash
steam appear from the vent. The process will use roughly 6 kilograms of cooling water per
kilogram of flash steam condensed.
If the cooling water is of boiler feed quality, then the warmed water is added to the condensate
in the receiver and re-used. This will continue to make water savings throughout the year.
If the cooling water is not suitable for recovery, the spray pipework can be installed as shown by
the dotted arrangement. The cooling water and condensed flash will then fall to waste.
Vented to atmosphere
Water in
Self-acting
temperature Alternative
control arrangement
Condensate
Condensate receiver
Condensed water
to waste
Overflow with U seal
Pumped condensate
Centrifugal pump
Fig 14.6.11 Flash steam condensing and water saving by spray
Questions
2. What percentage of flash steam is made from condensate at 10 bar g passing into a flash
vessel at 0.5 bar g?
a| 12% ¨
b| 13% ¨
c| 14% ¨
d| 5% ¨
3. What is the effect on the production of flash steam from sub-saturated condensate?
a| The flash steam produced is less than that with saturated condensate ¨
b| The flash steam produced is more than that with saturated condensate ¨
c| There is no effect at all ¨
d| Live steam is always at a higher pressure than flash steam ¨
4. With reference to Example 14.6.1, what would be the proportion of flash steam produced
if the flash pressure were 2.5 bar g?
a| 3% ¨
b| 6% ¨
c| 8% ¨
d| 10% ¨
5. In a steam system, the trap pressure is 15 bar g, the flash pressure is 0.5 bar g, and the
condensate flowrate is 1300 kg / h. Which flash vessel is required?
a| FV6 ¨
b| FV8 ¨
c| FV12 ¨
d| FV16 ¨
Answers
1: c 2: c, 3: a, 4: b, 5: b, 6: d