1

6 Design, Installation, Inspection, Maintenance and Selection Criteria for

Refractory Materials:
6.1 Introduction:
Service life of the industrial furnace refractory linings mainly depend on
their design and installation procedures as well as selection of the refractory
materials adequate for service conditions. Each group of these materials; namely,
shaped or unshaped and dense or lightweight requires specific design and
installation techniques.
The design of furnace linings is known as the clear illustration of technical
characteristics and structural shapes in drawings, supplemented by written
documentation, which are essential for installation. Today, design work is mainly
done by computer and computer aided design (CAD) has been established.
6.1.1 The data should be available for design:
Before starting designing and installation of refractory linings for industrial
furnaces, the following data concerning service conditions should be available:
- Type of industry, process and furnace used
- Type of furnace operation: continuous or intermittent
- Type of fuel and maximum service temperature
- Maximum and minimum temperature limits of the furnace parts
2
- Furnace atmosphere and operation pressures
- Heat losses and ambient conditions
- Type of the aavailable measuring and control equipment to be installed
6.1.2 Selection criteria for the refractory materials:
Selection criteria for the refractory materials are based on the following data:
- Properties of the refractory materials and its storage conditions
- State of the materials to be heated in the furnace: solid, liquid and/or gas
- Thermo chemical and mechanical effects exist at each part of the furnace lining
during service
- Available space and technical possibilities for installation
- Regulations and conditions on site: these include special regulations and
conditions, standard specifications as well as safety and environmental instructions
3
6.2 Design and installation for the shaped refractories:
Dense and lightweight shaped refractory materials are generally manufactured
as standard (rectangular or other shapes according to ISO 5019) and nonstandard
types, including pre-fabricated unshaped materials. The latter types are used in case
of the furnace part, to be covered, does not permit application of standard brick and
unshaped (monolithic) materials. The available manufacturing processes limit
shape, size and weight of the non-standard shapes. Specific properties of these
shapes may not be also attained by using uniaxial pressing or hand shaping. Hence,
other shaping methods can be applied, e.g. slip-casting, vibration, extrusion,
isostatic pressing and cutting out of the required shapes from larger units.
6.2.1 Anchoring:
The shaped linings are often connected to the furnace steel structure by
refractory ceramic and/or metallic anchors. Refractoryceramic anchors are always
connected with a metallic holding component to the steel structure and must have
the same good quality as the installed refractory lining at its hot face. The selection
of the type of anchor material depends on the design requirements as well as
thermo chemical and mechanical conditions.
Figures 6.1 and 6.2 show examples for furnace wall and roof anchoring of
shaped dense linings, respectively.
4
Figure 6.1: Wall anchoring for shaped dense linings
5
Figure 6.2: Roof anchoring for shaped dense linings
Wall and roof anchoring of lightweight brickwork is carried out with specific
metallic anchors as seen in Figures 6.3 and 6.4, respectively. It is necessary to drill
recesses in the lightweight bricks at regular intervals (distances) and the anchors are
subsequently introduced in these recesses. After introducing anchors, the remaining
brick thickness must be able to absorb the tensile forces resulting due to the higher
thermal expansion of the metallic anchors.
6
Figure 6.3: Wall anchoring for shaped lightweight linings
7
Figure 6.4: Roof anchoring for shaped lightweight linings
General arrangement and distances of anchors for dense and lightweight
shaped linings are summarized in Table 6.1.
Table 6.1: General arrangements and distances of anchors for the dense and lightweight
shaped linings in the different furnace parts
Furnace part Distance, (mm)
Roof < 450
Vertical wall
Horizontal wall
< 500
<1250
Bottom Only in special cases depending on the stress factors
8
6.2.2 Joints:
Joints are covsidered as important design elements that have various functions
and classified according to construction and design requirements, as shown in
Figure 4.5, into the following types:
6.2.2.1 Mortar Joints:
Ceramic and chemical bonded air-setting mortars or mastics with maximum
grain size of 1.0 and 0.30 mm, respectively are used for laying out the refractory
brickwork linings in different industrial kilns. This results in forming two types of
brick-work mortar joints (Figure 6.5) as follows:
- Horizontal-bed and staggered-vertical joints:
These must be thick enough (up to 3mm) to cover the entire joint surface and
compensate bricksize tolerances as well as transfer and distribute loads and forces
uniformly under service conditions. In furnace-lining exposed to internal pressured
gases and dustparticles as well as liquid metals and slags, mastic joints with
minimum thickness (<2.5mm) are applied.
- Ring-smoothing and sliding separation joints:
Ring smoothing joints are applied for cylindrical linings, e.g. rotary kilns to
compensate relative brick movement under service conditions and also to make
easier repairing. On the other side, sliding-separation joints are usually made to fill
hollow spaces occur due to some tolerances in the brickwork dimensions.
9
Figure 6.5: Type of brickwork joints: 1- Bed, 2- Vertical, 3- Ring , 4- Smoothing, 5- Sliding
(Separation) and 6- Expansion joints
6.2.2.2 Expansion joints:
Expansion joints as slidung or separating joints, usually filled with refractory
fibers, paper (or carton sheets), or dry mortar, that should enable movement of the
different adjacent brickwork due to their thermal expansion in opposite directions.
These joints are required to absorb thermal expansion of brickwork during heating
up. Distances and thickness of expansion joints must be designed according to
extent of thermal expansion and service conditions of the different brickwork types.
10
Open expansion joints may occur in the outer shaped, rigid thermal
insulating lining, during furnace preheating up to medium service temperatures (<
1000
o
C), due to expansion of the furnace steel shell with simultaneous contraction
of the outer thermal-insulating layer. This difference in dimensional changes results
in formation of open expansion joints in the outer thermal-insulating layer as shown
in Figure 6.6.
Table 6.2 illustrates linear changes of some medium-temperature insulating
and metallic materials up to 600
o
C.
Table 6.2: Percentage linear changes of some medium-temperature thermal-insulating and
metallic materials up to 600
o
C
Type of
Material
Medium-Temp.
Materials
Percentage Linear Change at (
o
C)
100 200 400 600
Insulating
Calcium Silicate - 0.48 - 1.29
Expanded Perlite - 0.32 - 0.36
Mineral Wool - 0.59 - 0.86
Metallic
Steel 0.09 0.17 0.49 0.79
Stainless Steel 0.12 0.24 0.64 1.00
Aluminium 0.17 0.34 0.70
11
Figure 6.6: Open expansion joints results due to expansion of the isolated metallic
equipment with simultaneous contraction of the outer shaped rigid lining upon heating up
to medium service temperatures (< 800
o
C)
12
Robes, expansion stainless steel bands or compressible blankets are usually
used to compensate the difference in dimensional changes between the surface of
the isolated metallic equipment and the outer rigid insulating layer for medium-
temperature applications (< 800
o
C) as shown in Figure 6.7.
Figure 6.7: Wrapping fibrous rope, stainless-steel band or blanket in-between the metallic
equipment and the outer rigid insulating lining to eliminate open expansion joints
13
Concerning application of outer shaped and rigid insulation for metallic pipe-
work, the circumferential expansion has no problem due to clearance existing
between insulation sections and the pipe. The major problem is the longitudinal
expansion and expansion joints should be made to eliminate this effect.
Figure 6.8 shows two types of staggered expansion joints. Hence, wires and
straps made of galvanized steel are also used for fitting rigid pipe-insulation.
Figure 6.8: Typical expansion joints of the outer rigid insulation sections for straight pipe-
work
Important Notes:
-- In the rotary kilns, expansion joints of the inner refractory brickwork are
designed to absorb about half of the lining liear thermal expansion at service
temperatures. Also, about 30% of this expansion is absorbed by the relatively lower
expansion of the outer kiln shell and the remaining 20% is absorbed by ring joints.
14
-- It is generally preferable to design large number of expansion joints with smaller
dimensions than smaller number with bigger dimensions. If expansion joints are
made too wide, the risk of brick falling during kiln shutdown would be high since
its thermal expansion is reversible, as previously explained in part 3.4.4.3.
6.2.3 Designation of courses and mortar bonds of refractory bricks:
Figure 6.9 shows that the refractory bricks can be laid in different
arrangements; namely, header and stretcher as well as flat and rowlock courses.
These include header or stretcher bonded as well as a combination between both
types; namely, English and cross bonding.
Figure 6.9: Different arrangements and bonding of brickwork courses
15
6.3 Design and installation for unshaped (monolithic) materials:
6.3.1 Design, preparation and installation:
In designing the hydraulic-, chemical and/or ceramic- bonded lightweight or
dense unshaped (monolithic) linings, the layer thickness can be determined from
their dimensions and thermal properties, according to the heat-flow requirements.
After mixing the unshaped material with the required amount of water using a
suitable mixer, it is directly installed by casting with vibrating or self-flowing as
well as gunning or ramming methods as anchored splitted sections, using suitable
steel or plastic forms.
For instance, Figures 6.10 and 6.11 exhibit the modern fast vibrating-casting
processes used for installation of self-flowing developed castables, while normal-
and flame- gunning machines used for lining as well as cold- and hot- reparing of
the the refractory layers are seen in Figure 6.12.
Figure 6.10: A modern casting/vibrating process for a steel-ladle by using developed
self-flowing castables
16
Figure 6.11: The former and vibrators used for fast mechanical casting of steel-ladles by
using self-flowing castables
(A)
(B)
Figure 6.12: Normal (A) and flame (B) gunning machines for lining as well as cold- and
hot- repairing of the refractory linings, respectively
17
The installed hydraulic-bonded sections must be cured for hydration in humid
atmosphere at least 24 hrs, dried for another 24 hrs at 110
o
C and then preheated up
to the maximum service temperature using a suitable scheme. During hydration,
drying and preheating processes, some linear changes (shrinkage or expansion)
occur and usually compensate each others after preheating.
Table 6.3 summarizes recommended type of mixers, mixing times and
installation methods for varieties of international lightweight and dense castables.
These include two types of lightweight castables with less- and more- than 1.20
g/cm
3
bulk density as well as dense traditional high- and medium- cement castables
(RC and MCC) as well as the developed low-, ultra-low- and no- cement castables
(LCC, ULCC and NCC), respectively.
It is recommended in Table 6.3 to apply gravity mixer for lightweight castables
and its installation by tamping (light ramming) method, while the developed LCC,
ULCC and NCC types are mixed with paddle mixer and installed by using
vibrating and/or self-flowing casting methods.
18
Table 6.3: Recommendations for installation of different types of hydraulic-bonded
lightweight as well as traditional and developed dense castables
Unit
Operation
Lightweight
Castables
Dense Castables
< 1.2
(g/cm
3
)
> 1.2
(g/cm
3
)
RC MCC LCC ULCC NCC
Mixing by:
Gravity
mixer
Paddle
mixer
Yes
No
Possible
Possible
Possible
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Mixing
time,
(Minutes)
2 2 2-3 > 3 > 3 > 4 > 4
Installation
Method:
Pouring/
casting
Light
ramming,
(tamping)
Vibrating
Self-
flowing
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Possible
No
Possible
No
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Possible
No
No
Yes
Possible
No
No
Yes
Possible
No
No
Yes
Possible
19
6.3.2 Anchoring:
The installed monolithic sections are individually anchored with the other
layers and or furnace-steel-structure. This enables safe repairing of longitudinal
sections without destructing the whole refractory lining. Different types and shapes
of metallic anchors are usually applied up to 1200
o
C service temperature, whereas
ceramic anchors are used above this temperature.
Table 6.4 summarizes arrangement systems of usual distances between metallic
and ceramic anchors for furnace roof, wall and bottom monolithic lining.
Figures 6.13 6.16 exhibit several rigid and flexible anchoring systems for
linings of different furnace' parts as well as service conditions.
Figure 6.17 also shows a ceramic-anchor system for a furnace' roof and metallic
(wire) anchors for its sidewalls.
A furnace lining wholly made of castables and supported by ceramic anchors
and an expansion-joint system is shown in Figure 6.18.
20
Table 6.4: Recommended distances between centers for different anchor types (metallic and
ceramic of castable linings as well as lining thickness and the part of the furnace, in which it
is installed
Anchor Type Part Lining
Thickness, (cm)
Anchor
Centers, (cm)
Wire,
Rod
Walls
5-10
10-15
15-35
15
22
30
Roofs
5-10
10-20
>20
15
22
30
Floor
5-10
10-20
>20
22
40
60
Ceramic,
Cast
Vertical,
Circular
20-30
30-40
> 40
40
48
60
21
Figure 6.13: Different metallic anchor systems for walls
Figure 6.14: Different metallic anchor systems for roofs
22
Figure 6.15: Different ceramic anchor systems for walls
Figure 6.16: Different ceramic anchor systems for walls
23
Figure 6.17: Ceramic anchor system for the roof and metallic (wire) anchor system for the
sidewalls
Figure 6.18: A furnace lining wholly made of monolithic refractories (castables), supported
by ceramic anchors and an expansion-joint system
24
6.3.3 Expansion joints:
Expansion joints are made between the boarders of the installed monolithic
sections that usually filled with ceramic fibers. Layers thicker than 100mm
generally have a staggered joint arrangement to eliminate the risks of
radiation exposure as well as not-tight sealing of their sections. For plastic
monolithics, expansion joins are cut immediately after removal of the forms
making notch-joints. The different joint types of the monolithic lining are
indicated in the design drawings by specific symbols as shown in Figure 6.19.
Figure 6.19: The specific symbols used in the design drawings for different joint types of the
monolithic lining
25
- Hexagonal steel-wire netting is also used up to 1200
o
C for supporting rigid
sections of castables, which also fixed on the isolated flat surface by welded steel
pins and also coated with a trawling (covering) concrete as shown in Figure 6.20.
Figure 6.20: Medium-temperature rigid insulating blocks, with staggered expansion joints,
supported by hexagonal steel-wire netting, coated by a trawling concrete and fixed by
welded steel pins on isolated flat surface
26
6.3.4 Curing of newly installed linings:
It is recommended to cure different types of newly installed hydraulic-,
chemical- and/or ceramic- bonded castables at different conditions and
periods as follows:
6.3.4.1 For hydraulic-bonded castables, sealing with non-reactive polyethylene
or damp cloth covers within two hours from installation and/or periodical
spraying of water on the lining surface should be used during curing up to at
least 24 hours.
6.3.4.2 For chemically-bonded linings, it is recommended that its surface
should remain uncovered without contact with water during a curing period of
few hours.
6.3.4.3 Heat-setting ceramic-bonded linings do not require any air curing and
should not be exposed to moisture or freezing conditions prior to drying and
preheating.
6.3.4.4 Drying and preheating (Dryout) of the cured linings up to service
temperatures:
- The cured linings are subsequently dried for at least 24 hrs at 110 + 10
o
C
and then preheated at its hot face by using process heating devices or other
temporary equipment, such as electric heating elements or portable burners.
- Drying and pre-heating (Dryout) should be controlled using either process
or external thermocouples to monitor the hot-gas flow temperatures
throughout the lining surfaces. Heating rates as well as hold temperatures and
27
its durations should be also monitored by thermocouples supported close to
the furnace heat source as well as all of the used thermocouples, including
those at the hot-gas exits.
- For efficient, safe and economic drying and preheating (Dryout) schedules,
surface temperature of the used lining must be controlled in order to remove
its un-reacted (free) as well as chemically-combined water without cracking
and deterioration of its thermo-mechanical properties.
- Preheating (Dryout) is described in schedules, including heating rates and
hold times, based on gas temperatures at the lining surface that will give the
greatest heat during service.
For instance, preheating (dry-out) schedules and indices that used for
conventional hydraulic-bonded fireclay castable linings with 5 inch (127 mm)
thickness and different bulk densities are summarized in Table 6.5 and
graphically represented in Figure 6.21. These include linings have low: (< 1.2
g/cm
3
), medium- (1.2 (g/cm
3
) and high- (> 1.2 (g/cm
3
) bulk density, according
to the American Petroleum Institute (API, Report No. 936, 2004 on
Recommended Practice).
The preheating schedules for these castables are designed and conducted
from ambient temperature up to 710C maximum service temperature (as
most of the petroleum industries) and including recommended heating rates
and holding times which should be accurately defined prior installation.
28
Note:
Modifications in preheating schedules and indices for linings with
greater thickness and/or multi-layer designs should be done using schedules
and indices based on the lining that has maximum thickness and longest
holding-times at the given stages.
Table 6.5: Preheating (Dryout) schedules and indices for low-, medium and high- density
conventional hydraulic-bonded fireclay castables (CC), each of 5 inch thickness, cccording
to the API-936 Report
Parameter Low density,
< 1.2 (g/cm
3
)
Medium density,
1.2 (g/cm
3
)
High density,
> 1.2 (g/cm
3
)
Rate of heating to
holding stages (
o
C/hr) 56 42 28
Temperature ranges
for holding stages,
(
o
C)
122-150 (136)
318-374 (346)
122-150 (136)
318-374 (346)
(542)
122-150 (136)
318-374 (346)
(542)
Holding time for
each stage, (
o
C)
5 hrs
(1 hr/ 1 inch)
5 hrs
(1 hr/ 1 inch)
5 hrs
(1 hr/ 1 inch)
Preheating Index,
(hrs) ~16 ~28 ~35
29
Figure 6.21: Preheating schedules for low-, medium- and high- density conventional
hydraulic-bonded fireclay castables (CC) with 5 inch thickness according to API-936 report
I I M e d i u m d e n s i t y
0
1 0 0
2 0 0
3 0 0
4 0 0
5 0 0
6 0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
o
C
)
III Hig h t d e n s it y
0
1 0 0
2 0 0
3 0 0
4 0 0
5 0 0
6 0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 4 0
R a te o f h e a tin g , (o C /h r)
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
o
C
)
I Low density
0
100
200
300
400
0 5 10 15 20
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e
,

(
o
C
)
30
6.4 Inspection and maintenance of the refractory materials:
Inspection for refractory materials is carried out, before, during and
after their installation in the industrial furnaces. The instructions and
procedures to be checked are summarized in the following:
6.4.1 Proper designing and selecting of type of the refractory materials as well
as the metallic and refractory covering and anchoring materials with
specifications fitting the service conditions.
6.4.2 Rejection of any visual-inspected damaged refractory material batch
with surface or bulk defects as well as deviated dimensions than the
permissible limits.
6.4.3 Storing of the refractory material batches should be in dry and clean
places and well-covered by plastic sheets to be ready for application.
6.4.4 Keepimg clean surfaces of the metallic equipment to be internally and/or
externally isolated with well designed anchor systems before installation of the
selected materials.
6.4.5 Proper installation of the shaped and unshaped as well as dense and
lightweight refractory materials by using suitable techniques with well
designed economic thickness as well as mortar and expansion joints.
6.4.6 To ensure well insulation after installation, the rate of heat gain or loss
around each part of the refractory linings should be measured by checking
31
water-vapour condensation as well as temperature s or by using heat tracers,
e.g. thermocouples and optical or infrared pyrometers and/or cameras.
6.4.7 Design and execution a proper periodical maintenance system should be
conducted using materials suitable for service conditions of each part of the
refractory lining.
6.4.8 It is recommended to repair fibrous lightweight linings, weared due to its
low abrasion resistance, after cutting the corroded area perpendicular to the
isolated metallic surface, by vacuum-formed fibrous-boards with high
abrasion resistance.
6.4.9 It is also recommended to repair corroded brick and castable sections
with an area of > 300 x 300 mm, after removal and cleaning, by ramming or
gunning phosphate-bonded plastic mortars using fitting anchors.
6.4.10 The inspection personnel should have no commercial affiliations with
the contractor (or owner) and manufacturer as well as working knowledge
about the applicable standards and terms as well as requirements of the owner
and manufacturer specifications for the project.
6.4.11 The inspection personnel should provide the following duties:
- Agreement to quality standards and different job specifications.
- Ensuring that the used materials and applicator qualification test-results are
fully documented and provided to the contractor.
32
- Making no engineering decisions contrary or in addition to the specified
requirements.
- Checking and verifying that accurate installation records are documented by
the contractor.
- Testing the newly installed linings by hammer before and after preheating
and reporting to the owner.
- Providing recommendations for the need and extent of repair and
procedures to be used in this purpose.
- Recording all non-conformances and/or potential problems to which the
inspector has altered with the contractor and owner.
- Informing manufacturer/contractor in the mean time of any deficiencies in
material qualification and installation process.
- Any conflict should be submitted to the owner for solution.
33
6.5 Selection criteria of the refractory materials:
The following overall considerations summarize selection criteria for all
types of the refractory materials:
6.5.1 Refractory products of fireclay and high-alumina types as well as
ceramic-fibers are preferred for lining shuttle or intermittent kilns without
direct contact with the fired materials and service temperatures up to 1600
o
C,
due mainly to their high thermal shock (spalling) resistance and low heat
capacity.
6.5.2 The above refractory products are economically recommended for the
preheating and cooling zones of most of the continuous shaft and rotary kilns,
with service temperatures up to 1200
o
C with direct contact with the fired
materials and up to 1600
o
C without this contact.
6.5.3 In slag-free applications without load-bearing, lightweight bricks,
castables and fiber-products are recommended for outer thermal insulation at
surface temperatures up to 1500
o
C due to their thinner wall construction.
6.5.4 When chemical (slag) attack and/or abrasion are severe, suitable types of
hard and dense refractories with adequate phase composition and
microstructure should be applied.
6.5.5 In case of attack by acidic material or slag, i.e. SiO
2
-rich material, hard
and dense silica and siliceous-fireclay refractories should be used as working
layers.
34
6.5.6 In case of attack by basic material or slag, i.e. CaO-rich material,
working layers of carbon-bearing hard and dense periclase, magnesite,
dolomite, MgO- dolomite, and lime refractories should be used.
6.5.7 The optimum service temperature of any refractory lining can be
generally determined, when 1/3 of its thickness exists at temperatures below
2/3 of its maximum service temperature. For example, a lining with a thickness
of 300 mm and a maximum service temperature of 1200
o
C should have at least
100 mm of its thickness at < 800
o
C under service conditions.
35
6.6 Thermal calculations:
Calculation of heat distribution within the refractory linings of industrial
furnaces is very important for selecting the materials type as well as their size and
arrangement. This includes specific heat and heat capacity of refractory lining
during heating-up and after shut-down, i.e. non-stationary heat-transfer as well as
stationary one-dimensional heat-transfer under furnace service conditions.
6.5.1 Specific heat and heat capacity:
Specific heat (S) means the amount of heat (Q) required to raise temperature
of a lining material 1
o
C, while the amount of heat can be absorbed or released
through the lining surface during heating-up or shut-down of a furnace, respectively
is known as heat capacity (HC).
The heat capacity of a lining layer is usually calculated in (W) or (W/m
2
)
applying one of the following equations:
(HC) = M. S. T (W) (1)
[(HC)/A] = . X. S. T (W/m
2
) (2)
Where:
(HC) = Heat capacity or amount of heat can be absorbed or released, (W)
M = Mass of the refractory lining, (kg)
S = Specific heat of the lining materials, (W)
T = Temperature difference between hot furnace atmosphere and a cold
lining during heating up or between a hot lining and ambient during
shutdown, (
o
K)
A = Surface area of the lining, (m
2
)
= Bulk density of the lining, (kg/m
3
)
X = Thickness of the lining, (m)
36
6.5.2 Heat transfer:
It is well known that heat is transferred or flowed by three main mechanisms;
namely, conduction, convection and radiation. The basic concepts and principles of
these mechanisms are summarized in the following
6.5.2.1 Heat conduction:
Heat conduction is the process of heat transportation by movement and
collision of the molecules of a thermal insulating material which result in slowing-
down the quicker molecules and speeding-up the slower ones. The thermal
conductivity coefficient (K or ) is the physical parameter of thermal conductivity
of a specific insulating material. It is a constant value and its magnitude is mainly
influenced by furnace temperature and pressure as well as composition,
microstructure, bulk density, total porosity and pore-size distribution of the
insulating material.
- Fourrier's law and heat transfer by conduction through a plane wall lining:
Figure 6.22 exhibits the heat flow density (Q/A or q) by conduction through
a given surface area (A) of a furnace plane wall lining with a thickness (X) from its
inner hot-face with higher temperature (T
1
) to its outer cold-face with lower
temperature (T
2
). Accordingly, temperature gradient occurs within the lining and
calculated by dividing the temperature difference (T= T
1
-T
2
) over lining thickness
(X), i.e. (T/X).
37
X
Figure 6.22: Heat conduction through a plane single-layer wall lining
Fourrier's law indicates the direct relationship between heat-transfer (flow)
through unit area of a plane refractory lining (Q/A), i.e. heat flow density (q)
through a plane wall lining and its temperature gradient (T/X) as follows:
- (Q/A) or q (T / X)
By integration of this relationship, Fourier's law for heat conduction per
unit area (Q/A) or (q) of a plane lining is obtained according to the following
equations (3 and 4):
(Q/A) or q = K. (T / X) (3) Fourier's law
(Q/A) = q = K. [(T
1
- T
2
) / (X)] (3) Fourier's law
Or: K = (Q/A). [(X) / (T
1
-T
2
)] (4) Fourier's law
- According to Equation (4), the unit of the coefficient of thermal conductivity
for unit area of a refractory lining is equal to (W/m.
o
K) as follows:
K = (Q/A). [(X)/ (T
1
-T
2
)] = (W/m
2
). [(m)/ (
o
K) = (W/m.
o
K)
38
- Heat conduction for a plane multi-layer wall lining:
The design of a plane-wall lining for a furnace usually composed of subsequent
refractory layers. The inner hot-face (working) layer is often made of dense shaped
or unshaped materials with relatively higher bulk density, thermal conductivity and
service temperatures than those of the outer back layer(s).
Figure 6.23 shows an example of a furnace plane multi-layer wall lining
composed of three layers (1, 2 and 3). Thickness of the three layers is expressed as
X
1
, X
2
and X
3
, whereas their thermal conductivity coefficients are represented by
K
1
, K
2
and K
3.
It is shown that temperature of the hot-face of the first layer (T
1
) is gradually
decreased at the contact faces of the outer two layers (2 and 3) to T
2
and T
3
as well
as to T
4
at the outer cold-surface of the third layer due mainly to heat conduction
through the three layers of the plane lining per unit area, i.e. heat-flow density (q).
X
1
X
2
X
3

Figure 6.23: Heat conduction through a plane multi-layer wall lining

39
Temperatures of the cold-surface of the outer (third) layer (T
4
) and of the
inner hot-face layer (T
1
) can be measured, while those of the intermediate layer
surfaces (T
2
and T
3
) are usually calculated according to the following procedure:
The heat flow density (q) value must be equal for each of the three layers
since the same amount of heat is transported through the three layers, as expressed
in the following equations:
q = K
1
[(T
1
-T
2
)/ X
1
] = K
2
[(T
2
-T
3
)/ X
2
] = K
3
[(T
3
-T
4
)/ X
3
] (5)
Or
(T
1
-T
2
) = q [X
1
/ T
1
], or q [R
1
]* (5
1
)
(T
2
-T
3
) = q [X
2
/ K
2
], or q [R
2
]* (5
2
)
(T
3
-T
4
) = q [X
3
/ K
3
], or q [R
3
]* (5
3
)
The addition of 5
1-3
equations provides the entire temperature gradient:
(T = T
1
- T
4
) as follows:
(T
1
-T
2
)
+
(T
2
-T
3
) + (T
3
-T
4
) = q [(X
1
/ K
1
) + (X
2
/ K
2
) + (X
3
/ K
3
)]
(T
1
- T
4
) = q [(X
1
/ K
1
)+ (X
2
/ K
2
) + (X
3
/ K
3
)] (6)
Or: = q [R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
]* (7)
Hence:
q = (T
1
- T
4
) / [(X
1
/ K
1
)+ (X
2
/ K
2
) + (X
3
/ K
3
)] (8)
Or:
q = (T
1
- T
4
)/ [(R
1
)+ (R
2
) + (R
3
)]* (9)
Since all values at the right side of equation (8) are known, it is possible to
calculate the value of entire heat-transfer density (q) and consequently temperatures
of the intermediate layers (T
2
and T
3
) from equations (5
1-3
) can be also calculated.
40
* Note:
R value is the thermal resistance of an unit area of a lining and it is
commonly used in classifying performance of the thermal insulating materials
and calculated for any plane wall lining to be [X/ K] as follows:
R = (T)/ (Q/A) = (T)/ q or q = (T/R) (10) or
T = q. R (11)
Since q = (Q/A) = [K. (T/ X)] from equation (3)
R = (T) / [K. (T/ X)]
R = [X/ K] for each lining layer (12) and
R = [X/ K] for a multi-layer lining (13)
Unit of R:
R = X / K = m / (W/m.
o
K) = (m
2
.
o
K / W)
- Heat conduction through a cylindrical wall (or pipe):
One-dimensional heat-flow (density or flux) through unit length (q
L
) of an
insulating lining of cylindrical furnace, reactor or pipe occurs in radial direction.
The flow cross-section surface area (A) of the cylinder is not constant, but increases
from the inner surface (Ai) to the outer one (Ao) with increasing the diameter from
the inner surface (Di) to the outer one (Do) as shown in Figure 6.24.
41
Figure 6.24: Heat conduction through a cylindrical lining
Applying Fourier's law for a unit length of a cylindrical lining:
(Q/L) = q
L
= K. (A). (T/X) From Equation (3)
(Q/L) = q
L
= K (2 r) (T/r) (14)
- Since the pipe surface area for unit length (A) = 2 r
Integration of Equation (14) gives the following equations:
q
L
= K. 2 (T
i
-T
o
) / (ln r
o
/r
i
) (15)
or
(T
i
-T
o
) = q
L
(ln r
o
/r
i
) / (2 K) (16)
42
Applying the previous general equation (No. 10) for thermal resistance
(R): [R = (T/q
L
)] for a cylindrical lining:
Hence:
R = (T
i
-T
o
) / [(2 K)/ (ln r
o
/r
i
)] . (T
i
-T
o
)
Consequently:
R = (ln r
o
/r
i
) / 2 K (17)
For the three-layers (1, 2, 3) of the cylindrical lining, the overall thermal
resistance is calculated as follows:
Rw = R = R
1
+ R
2
+ R
3
By substitution of R values from equation (17) for each layer:
Rw =[{(ln r
1
/r
i
)/(2. K
1
)} + {(ln r
2
/r
1
)/(2. K
2
)} + {(ln r
o
/r
2
)/(2. K
3
)}] ... (18)
The heat-flow density (q
l
) must be equal for each of the three layers and can
be calculated for the three layers according to equation (16) as follows:
- For layer 1: (T
i
-T
1
) = q
L
[(ln r
1
/r
i
)/ (2. K
1
)] (19
1
)
- For layer 2: (T
1
-T
2
) = q
L
[(ln r
3
/r
2
)/ (2. K
2
)] (19
2
)
- For layer 3: (T
2
-T
o
) = q
l
(ln r
o
/r
3
)/ (2. K
3
] (19
3
)
By summation of the (19
1-3
) equations, the following equation is obtained:
(T
i
-T
o
) = [(q
l
/2). {(ln r
1
/r
i
)/ K
1
} + {(ln r
2
/r
1
)/ K
2
} + {(ln r
o
/r
2
)/ K
3
}] (20)
43
Accordingly, q
L
as well as T
2
and T
3
can be calculated from equations:
(19
1-3
and 20).
Figure 6.25 exhibits thermal conductivity of varieties of dense refractory
bricks as a function of temperature up to 1100
o
C. It is shown that zirconia,
sillimanite, forsterite, fireclay and silica bricks give the lowest thermal conductivity
(< 2 W/m.
o
K) up to 1100
o
C as compared with that of carbon, silicon carbide,
magnesia, magnesia-spinel and dolomite types (4-8 W/m.
o
K). Meanwhile,
magnesia-chrome, zircon and corundum bricks show intermediate levels (2-4
W/m.
o
K).
44
Figure 6.25: Thermal conductivity of dense shaped refractory bricks a as a function of
temperature up to 1100
o
C
45
Figure 6.26 shows that thermal conductivity of water vapour (H
2
O), CO
2
, CO
and N
2
gases is significantly lower than those of H
2
and He on increasing firing
temperature up to 1200
o
C as shown in. Meanwhile, Figure 6.27 illustrates that
minor changes in thermal conductivity of air occur on increasing air pressure from
1 to 1000 bar up to 1000
o
C.
Figure 6.26: Thermal conductivity of some gases a as a function of temperature up to
1200
o
C
46
Figure 6.27: Thermal conductivity of air at pressures from 1 up to 1000 bar as a function of
temperature up to 1000
o
C
47
6.5.2.2 Newtons Law and heat-transfer by convection for a plane surface
(Figure 6.27):
It is well known that heat is transferred by convection mechanism,
through a fluid medium (gas or liquid) at the inner and outer surfaces of a
plane- or cylindrical wall lining. In case of industrial furnaces, heat is
transferred by convection from the inner hot gases to the lining hot-face and
also from the outer lining' cold-face to the ambient air.
There is a direct relationship between the amount of heat transferred
by convection through a lining' unit area and the temperature difference
between the hot gases inside the furnace (T
A
) and the lining hot-face (T
1
) as
well as between the lining cold face (T
2
) and the ambient temperature (T
B
) as
seen in Figure 6.28 for a plane wall lining:
(Q/A) T
By integration of this relation, Newton's Law for heat-transfer by
convection is obtained as follows:
(Q/A) = h T (21)
and for a given area (A):
(Q) = h (A) T (21)
Where:
Q = Amount of heat transferred by convection, (W)
A = Area across which heat is transferred by convection, (m
2
)
h = Convection coefficient, (W/m
2
.
o
K)
T = Temperature difference between wall surface and fluid, (
o
K).
48
Unit of h:
From Equation (21):
h = (Q) / (A) T = (W/ m
2
.
o
K
Figure 6.28: Overall heat flow by convection and conduction through a plane lining
- Thermal resistance for convection at unit surface area of a plane wall lining:
According to the previous general Equation (No.10) for thermal
resistance per unit area: [R = T / (Q/A)]
- In case of convection, according to Equation No. (21):
(Q/A) = h. T or (Q) = [h. (A) T]
Hence:
R = T / (h. A. T)
49
Accordingly, thermal resistance for heat transfer by convection at a
plane-wall surface, can be calculated according to the following equation:
R = 1 / (h. A) (22)
- Heat transfer by convection for a cylindrical lining surface:
In case of heat convection at inner and outer surface areas (A
i
and A
o
) of
a cylindrical furnace or pipe lining with a radius r and length L:
- The amount of heat transferred by convection at a given surface area (A):
(Q/A) = h (T)
Q = h (A). (T)
Q = h (2 r L) (T) .. (23)
and
q
L
per unit length (meter) = h (2 r) (T) .. (24)
- Since surface area of cylindrical furnace or pipe lining (A) = 2 r L
Note:
h = 3 W/m
2
K for resting air at normal temperatures
h = 100,000 W/m
2
K for condensing vapours
For various practical models, the convection heat transfer coefficient (h)
is changed according to the following formulas for free convection:
- For vertical and horizontal plane walls:
h = 2.56 (T)
1/4
50
- For cylindrical wall with a diameter D:
h= 1.35 (T/D)
1/4
6.5.2.3 Overall heat transfer for a multi-layer plane-wall lining:
Figure 6.29 shows the overall conduction and convection heat transfer
through a multi-layer plane-wall lining with 3- thermal insulating layers:
X
1
X
2
X
3

Figure 6.29: The overall convection and conduction heat transfer through a multi-layer
plane-wall lining (3-layers)
Applying Equations 10, 13 and 22 for thermal resistance (R):
From the general Equation 10: (Q/A) = q = (T/R),
From Equation 13: R = (X/ K) for conduction, and
From Equation 22: R = (1/ h) for convection
51
Hence, the overall amount of heat transferred by conduction and
convection per unit area of a plane multi-layer lining can be calculated as
follows:
For conduction: (Q/A) = q = T/ (X/ K)
n
. (25)
For convection: (Q/A) = q = T/ (1/ h)
n
.. (26)
Accordingly, the overall heat transfer by convection and conduction for
a multi-layer plane lining per unit area can be calculated using the following
equation:
(Q/A) = q = T/ [(1/ h
1
) + (X/ K)
n
+ (1/ h
2
)] . (27)
Where:
(Q/A) = q = Total amount of heat flow around and through multi-layer
plane wall lining per unit area
T = (T
i
T
a
) = Temperature difference between the inner hot gases and outer
cold ambient-air fluids
Kn = Thermal conductivity of the lining layer(s)
Xn = Lining layer(s) thickness
h
1
, h
2
= Convection coefficients of the hot and cold fluids
A = Surface area of the plane wall
52
6.5.2.4 Overall heat transfer for a multi-layer cylindrical (pipe) lining:
Figure 6.30 shows the overall heat transfer through a unit length of a
multi-layer cylindrical (pipe) lining (2-layers).
Figure 6.30: Overall convection and conduction heat transfer through a multi-layer
cylindrical (pipe) lining
- The Overall convection and conduction heat transfer through a cylindrical
(pipe) lining per unit length can be calculated from the following equations:
No (10): (Q/L) = q
L
= (T/ R),
No (13}: R = (X/ K), for conduction and
No (22): R = (1/ h. A), for convection
Hence:
53
(Q/L) = q
L
= T / [(1/ h
i
. A
i
) + { (X/ K)
n
} + (1/ h
o.
A
o
)] (28)
q
L
= (T
i
T
a
) / [{(1/h
i
). (2 r
i
)} + {(ln r
1
/ r
i
)/ (K
1
. 2) + (ln r
2
/ r
1
)/ (K
2
. 2)} +
{(1/h
o
). (2 r
o
)}] (29)
Where:
(Q/L) = (q
L
) = Overall conduction and convection heat transfer through
and around a steam pipe layers per unit length
T = (T
i
T
a
) = Temperature difference between the hot steam and the cold
ambient
h
i
, A
i
, r
i
= Inner convection coefficient, surface area and radius,
respectively
h
o
, A
o
, r
o
= Outer convection coefficient, surface area and radius,
respectively
r
1
and r
2
= Outer radius of the layers 1 and 2, respectively
L = Pipe length
K = Thermal conductivity of the tube and lining layers
54
6.5.2.5 Heat-transfer by radiation and Stefan-Blotzmann Law:
The amount of heat transferred by radiation is only possible, when there is an
absolute temperature difference (T) occurs between hot fluid or a solid body
surface and a cold body surface or fluid, respectively. Accordingly, the heat is
absorbed by or emitted from the cold and hot body surface, respectively.
According to Stefan-Blotzmann Law for heat radiation, the amount of
emitted heat (q
emitted
) per unit surface area (A) of a hot solid body during unit time
is as follows:
- For black bodies:
- q
emitted
= A T
4
.. (30)
- For non black bodies:
- q =
4
T A
(31)
Where:
= Stefan-Blotzmann coefficient = (5.77 x10
-8
W/m
2
.k
4
)*,
A = Area over which radiation heat transfers
T = Absolute temperature of the black body

= The emissivity ratio of the non-black body and it is usually a fraction

as compared with 1.0 for black bodies.
55
*Note:
The value of Stefan-Blotzmann coefficient () is, hence, changed depending on
type of the body-material and nature of its surface as shown in Table 6.7.
Table 6.7: Stefan-Blotzmann radiation coefficient () given by VDI* 2055 for varieties of
insulating materials with different surface nature
Material and its surface nature , (x10
-8
W/m
2
.k
4
)
Absolute black body 5.77
Brickwork, plaster, castable 5.3
Rolling or casting steel 4.5
Rusted steel 4.0
Galvanized, dust-covered steel 2.5
Oxidized copper 4.0
Aluminium coating 2.5
Galvanized, dust-covered steel 2.5
Galvanized, blank steel 1.5
Aluminium, crude or oxidized 0.5
Aluminium foil blank 0.35
* VDI is the abbreviation of "Verband der Deutschen Feuerfest-Industrie", which is
translated to "German Association of Refractory Manufacturers"
56
6.5.3 Solved problems as applied examples for thermal calculations:
Example 1:
A plane multi-layer hearth lining of a melting aluminium furnace is designed
and installed to compose of 0.300m upper bauxite brickwork layer, followed by a
0.120m layer of lightweight fireclay castable and a 0.065m and a lightweight
fireclay brick layer at the bottom.
The molten aluminium bath in contact with the bauxite brickwork layer is
kept at (Ti) = 900
o
C, while the outer ambient temperature (Ta) = 30
o
C. The heat
convection coefficient from the hot air of the inner furnace atmosphere
[h
i
= 10,000 (W/m
2
.
o
K)], while that between the furnace outer surface and ambient
[h
a
= 14 (W/m
2
.
o
K)].
The following Table 6.8 summarizes physical properties of the three layers
of the furnace lining. Calculate the overall heat transfer per unit area, i.e. heat
density (q) as well as the temperatures of hot & cold faces of the two lightweight
fireclay castable & brickwork and the total heat capacity of the three
layers lining.
Table 6.8: Physical properties and thickness of the three layers of the hearth lining:
Layer
No.
type Bulk density,
(), (kg/m
3
)
Specific heat,
(S), (W/kg.
o
K)
Thermal
conductivity,
(K), (W/m.
o
k)
Thickness
(X), (m)
1 Bauxite
bricks
2750 0.31 2.32 0.30
2 Light Wt.
castable
670 0.27 0.82 0.120
3 Light Wt.
bricks
500 0.27 0.205 0.065
- Calculation of the overall convection and conduction thermal resistance per
unit area (R) of the hearth lining according to Figure 4.28 and Equations 13
and 22:
57
R = R
i
+ R (wall layers) + R
a
= R
i
+ (R
1
+R
2
+R
3
) + R
a
R = (1/ h
i
)+ [X
1
/K
1
+ X
2
/ K
2
+ X
3
/ K
3
] + (1/ h
a
)
R = (1/ 10.000) + [0.30/ 2.32 + 0.120/ 0.81 + 0.065/ 0.20] + (1/14)
R = (0.0001) + [0.1293 + 0.1481 + 0.3250] + (0.0714)
R = 0.0001+ 0.6024 + 0.0714 = 0.6739 (m
2
.
o
K/ W)
- Calculation of the overall convection and conduction heat transfer per unit
area and surface temperatures of the three-layers according to Figure 4.29:
- To determine amount of the overall heat transfer per unit area (q),
Apply the general Equation No. (10) q = T/ R
q = (T
i
-T
a
)/ R = (900 - 30)/ 0.6739 = 870/ 0.6739 = 1291 (W)
- To determine the three surface temperatures of the three layers (T
1
, T
2
, T
3,
T
4
),
Apply the general Equation No. (11): T = q. R or (T
i
-T
1
) = q. R
i
Hence:
T
1
= T
i
- q. R
i
= 900 1291 (0.0001) = 899.9
o
C
T
2
= T
1
- q. R
1
= 899.9 1291 (0.1293) = 733.0
o
C
T
3
= T
2
q. R
2
= 733.0 1291 (0.1481) = 541.8
o
C
T
4
= T
3
- q. R
3
= 541.8 1291 (0.3250) =122.2
o
C
T
a
= T
4
- q. R
a
= 122.2 1291 (0.0714) = 30.0
o
C
58
- Calculation of the mean temperatures of the three lining layers:
(T
1
+ T
2
)/ 2
T
L1
= (899.9 + 733.0)/ 2 = 817
o
C
T
L2
= (733.0 + 541.8)/ 2 = 637
o
C
T
L3
= (541.8 + 122.2)/ 2 = 332
o
C
- Calculation of the total heat capacity (THC) per unit area of the three-layers
lining according equation No. (2):
THC = p
1
S
1
X
1
( T
L1
T
a
) + p
2
S
2
X
2
(T
L2
- T
a
) + p
3
S
3
X
3
(T
L3
- T
a
)
= 2750. 0.31. 0.300. (817 - 30) + 670. 0.27. 0.120. (637 - 30) +
500. 0.27. 0.065. (332 - 30) = 216,538 [Wh/m
2
]
= 2750. 0.31. 0.300. 787 + 670. 0.27. 0.120. 607 + 500. 0.27. 0.065. 302 =
= 217, 102 [Wh/m
2
]
Example (2) on overall convection and conduction heat transfer through a
pipe lining:
59
A Steam at T
i
= 120
o
C flows through an insulated pipe. The pipe is made of
alloyed steel (K = 15 W/m.
o
K) and has inside and outside radius of 5 and6 cm,
respectively. The pipe is covered with a 2 cm layer of magnesia insulation (K =
0.0237 W/m.
o
K). The inner convection coefficient and the outer convection
coefficient are [(h
o
= 0.40 W/m
2
.
o
K) and(h
i
= 2.65 (W/m
2
.
o
K), respectively].
Calculate the heat-transfer rate from the steam per meter of pipe length, when the
surrounding air temperature (T
o
) is 20
o
C.
The physical properties, thickness and service conditions of the steel
pipe and the insulating linings are summarized in the following:
- q
L
= Heat transfer per unit area and length of the tube
- Inner radius of the pipe (r
i
) = 0.05 m,
- Inner surface area of the pipe (A
i
) = (2 . 0.05),
- Outer radius of the pipe (r
o
) = 0.06 m,
- Outer radius of the insulation (r
o
) = 0.08 m,
- Outer surface area of the insulation (A
o
) = (2 . 0.08),
Apply equations (28 and 29) for overall heat transfer through a multi-
layer pipe lining per unit length:
(Q/L) = q
L
= T / [(1/ h
i
. A
i
) + { (X/ K)
n
} + (1/ h
o.
A
o
)]
q
L
= (T
i
-T
o
)/[(1/h
i
. 2 r
i
) + {(ln r
o
/r
i
)/(K.2) + (ln r
o
/r
i
)/(K.2)} + (1/(h
o
. 2 r
o
)]
q
L
= (120-20)/ [(1/ (2.65) 2 (0.05) + (ln 0.06/0.05)/ (15) 2 + (ln 0.08/0.06)/
(0.0237) 2 + (1/ (0.4) 2 (0.08)] =
q
L
= 12.33 W/m
60
- To determine temperatures of the hot and cold surfaces of the two layers 1
(pipe) and 2, i.e. (T
1
& T
2
) and (T
2
& T
3
), respectively:
Apply the following Equations:
No. (11): T = q
L
. R or (T
i
-T
1
) = q
L
. R
i
No. (17): R = (ln r
o
/r
i
)/ (2 K) for conduction, and
No. (22): R = (1/ h) (A), for convection
(T
i
-T
1
) = q
L
. R
i
or T
1
= T
i
- q
L
. R
i
& T
2
= T
1
- q
L
. R
1
, and so on ... as follows:
Since R
i
= [(1/ h
i
) (2 r)], according to Equation (22) for convection
Hence:
- To determine temperature of the outer pipe surface (T
1
)
T
1
= T
i
{q
L
. R
i
} = 120 {12.33. (1/ h
i
). (2 r
i
)}
T
1
= T
i
- q
L
. R
i
= 120 {(12.33). (1/ 2.65). (6.28. 0.05)}
T
1
= T
i
- q
L
. R
i
= 120 {12.33. (0.337). (0.314)}
T
1
= T
i
- q
L
. R
i
= 120 1.3 = 118.7
o
C
- The temperature of the outer pipe surface and meanwhile the hot insulation
surface (T
2
) can be similarly calculated as follows:
T
2
= T
1
- q
L
. R
1
Since R
1
= (ln r
1
/r
i
)/ 2 K for conduction through the cylindrical steel pipe
layer (1),
Hence:
T
2
= 118.7 - {(12.33). (ln 6/5)/ (6.28). (15)}
T
2
= 118.7 - {12.33. (0.182)/ (94.2)}
61
T
2
= 118.7 - {(2.244)/ (94.2)}
T
2
= 118.7 - {0.2} = 118.5
o
C
- The temperature of the cold surface of the magnesia insulation layer (T
3
), can
be calculated as T
2
as follows:
T
3
= T
2
{12.33. (ln 0.08/0.06)/ (2 . K)}
T
3
= T
2
{12.33. (0.29)/ (6.28). (0.0237)}
T
3
= T
2
{(3.576)/ (0.149)} =
T
3
= 118.5 24 = 94.5
o
C
Ambient temperature T
a
can be also calculated similar to T
1
;
T
a
= T
3
- q
L
. R
a
Since R
a
= {(1/ h
i
. 2. r
o
)}, according to Equation (22) for convection
Hence:
T
a
= 94.5 {(12.33). (1/ (0.40). (6.28). (0.08)}
T
a
= 94.5 {(12.33). (1/ 0.2)}
T
a
= 94.5 {(12.33). (5)}
T
a
= 94.5 61.7 = 33
o
C
- Calculation of the mean temperature of the magnesia layer (2):
(T
2
+ T
3
)/ 2
T
L
= ( 118.5 + 94.5)/ 2 = 213/ 2 = 107
o
C
62
- Calculation of the overall heat capacity (THC) per unit area of the insulating
lining according equation No. 2:
THC = p. S. X. ( T
L
T
a
)
THC = 3.0. 0.12. 0.02 ( 107 33) = (0.0072). (74)
THC = 0.5328 [Wh/m
2
]
References:
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(1972).
63
2. Chesters, J. H.; Refractories: production and properties, Iron and steel
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5. Clifton, G., Bergeron and Subhash H. Risbud; Introduction to phase
equilibria in ceramics, 2
nd
Ed., American Ceramic Society, Inc. Columbus,
Ohio, (1984).
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nd
Ed. Vulkan-
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nd
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