Module 2 Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics

Dr.Mahesh S.
Bannur, KLS VDIT, Haliyal ENGINEERING PHYSICS: MODULE-2

MODULE 2
Syllabus :
Modern Physics & Quantum Mechanics 08 Hours
Introduction to blackbody radiation spectrum- Wien's law, Rayleigh Jean’s law, Stefan -Boltzmann law
and Planck's law (qualitative), Deduction of Wien's law, and Rayleigh Jeans law from Planck's law. Wave
Particle dualism, de-Broglie hypothesis, de-Broglie wavelength. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle and
Its physical significance, Application of uncertainty principle (Non-existence of electron in the nucleus),
Wave function- Properties, Physical significance, Probability density, Normalization, Eigen values and
Eigen functions. Time independent Schrödinger wave equation. Particle in a box- Energy Eigen values
and probability densities, Numerical problems.
MODERN PHYSICS
Black body Radiation spectrum:
A Blackbody is one which absorbs the entire radiation incident on it
and emits all the absorbed radiation when it is more hot. A true black body
does not exist practically. A blackbody designed by Wein has features very
close to the true blackbody. A blackbody at a particular temperature found
to emit a radiation of all possible wavelengths. It is a continuous spectrum
starting from certain minimum wavelength to maximum wavelength. The
maximum intensity corresponds to a particular wavelength. For different
temperatures of the black body, there are different curves. As the
temperature of the body increases, the wavelength corresponding to
maximum intensity shifts towards lower wavelength side. The distribution of
energy in black body radiation is
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Dr.Mahesh S. Bannur, KLS VDIT, Haliyal ENGINEERING PHYSICS: MODULE-2
Perfect black body or an ideal black body absorbs all the incident radiations
and does not transmit or reflect any energy from the body.
Ferry's black body: A cavity with walls made of any material, with a small
opening, is an excellent black body. This is Ferry's black body. A hollow enclosure
maintained at a uniform temperature, with a small opening compared to its size and a
conical projection, is an excellent approximation to a black body. There is a conical
projection on the inner surface of the sphere opposite the aperture. The projection
ensures that a ray travelling along the axis of the aperture is not incident normally on
the surface and is therefore not reflected back along the same path. Blackbody, also
spelled black body, in physics, a surface that absorbs all radiant energy falling on it.
The term arises because incident visible light will be absorbed rather than reflected, and
therefore the surface will appear black. It consist of double walled hollow metal sphere
having small aperture. (i) Inner surface is coated with lamp black. (ii) Outer surface is
Nickel polished.
Wien’s Displacement Law:
The law states that “The wavelength of maximum intensity is inversely
proportional to the absolute temperature of the emitting body, because of
which the peaks of the energy curves for different temperatures get
displaced towards the lower wavelength side”.
i.e. λm  ( )
λmT = constant = 2.898×10-3 m-K
Wein showed that the maximum energy of the peak emission is directly
proportional to the fifth power of absolute temperature.
Emα T5 or Em = constant × T 5
Wien’s law: The relation between the wavelength of emission and the
temperature of the source is
–( )
𝐸 = C1λ–5. dλ
Where Uλ dλ is the radiated energy / unit volume in the range of wavelength
λ and λ+dλ, C1 and C2 are constants.
This is called Wien’s law of energy distribution in the black body
radiation spectrum.
Drawbacks of Wien’s law:
Wien’s law holds good for the shorter wavelength region and high
temperature of the source. It failed to explain gradual drop in intensity of
radiation corresponding to longer wavelength greater than the peak value.
Rayleigh-Jeans Law:
Rayleigh derived an equation for the blackbody radiation on the basis
of principle of equipartition of energy. The principle of equipartition of
energy suggests that an average energy kT is assigned to each mode of
vibration. The number of vibrations/unit volume whose wavelength is in the
range of λ and λ+dλ is given by
𝐸 = dλ or 8λ-4dλ.
The energy/unit volume in the wavelength range λ and λ + dλ is
Eλ dλ = 8kTλ-4dλ
Where k is Boltzmann’s constant, K = 1.38x10-23 J/K.
This is Rayleigh-Jeans equation.
Accordingly energy radiated by the black body decreases with
increasing wavelength.
Drawbacks of Rayleigh - Jeans Law: (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe)

Rayleigh-Jeans Law predicts to radiate all the energy at shorter
wavelength side but it does not happen so. A black body radiates mainly in
the infra-red or visible region of electromagnetic spectrum and intensity of
radiation decreases down steeply for shorter wavelengths. Thus, the
Rayleigh-Jeans Law fails to explain the lower wavelength side of the
spectrum. This is referred to as ultra-violet Catastrophe.
Stefan-Boltzmann law:
In 1884, Stefan-Boltzmann showed that the total energy radiated by a
black body per unit area per unit time is proportional to the fourth power of
its absolute temperature.
E  T4
E= where  is stefan’s constant
Planck’s Law:
Planck’s assumed that walls of the experimental blackbody consists
larger number of electrical oscillators. Each oscillator vibrates with its own
frequency.
i) Each oscillator has an energy given by integral multiple of hν
where h is Planck’s constant & ν is the frequency of vibration.
E = nhν where n = 1, 2, 3 . . . etc.
ii) An oscillator may lose or gain energy by emitting or absorbing respectively
a radiation of frequency ν where ν = , ΔE is difference in energies of the
oscillator before and after the emission or absorption take place.
Planck derived the law which holds good for the entire spectrum of the
black body radiation as
Eλ dλ = / dλ (since ν = c/λ) ………(1)
This is Planck’s Radiation Law

Since Wien’s law holds good in the shorter or lower wavelength side
and Rayleigh-Jeans law at the expect that, Planck’s law should take the
form of Wien’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law at the shorter and longer
wavelength respectively.
Reduction of Planck’s law to Wien’s law for shorter wavelength:

1) For shorter wavelengths, ν = c/λ is large.
When ν is large, ehν/kT is very large.
ehν/kT >> 1
(ehν/kT -1) ≈ ehν/kT = ehc/λkT
Substituting in eqn (1), we have
Eλ dλ = / dλ
Eλ dλ = C1λ–5. e –( ) dλ
Where C1 = 8πhc and C2 =
This is the Wein’s law of radiation.
2) Reduction of Planck’s law to Rayleigh - Jeans law for longer
wavelength:
For longer wavelengths ν = is small.
When ν is small, will be very small.

Expanding ehν/kT as power series. We have,
hν hν
ehν/kT =1+ +
kT
+
kT
+ . . . . ……,
≈1+ .
Since is very small, its higher power terms could be neglected.
hν/kT
(e -1) =
Substituting in equation (1), we have
8𝜋ℎ𝐶
Eλ dλ = 5 hc dλ
𝜆 λkT
Eλ dλ = dλ This is Rayleigh Jeans Law of Radiation.
Thus, Wien’s law and Rayleigh-Jeans law came out as special cases
showingthe general form of Planck’s law of radiations.
Dual nature of matter (de-Broglie Hypothesis)

The optical phenomenon like reflection, refraction, interference,
diffraction and polarization could be easily explained by wave theory. But,
wave theory failed to explain photoelectric effect and Compton Effect. The
short wavelength limit of the continuous X-ray spectrum etc.
This phenomenon’s explained on the basis of Planck’s quantum theory.
A beam of light of frequency ‘ν’ is composed of tiny descrete packets called
‘photons’ each having an energy hν.
E = hν
Where h is Planck’s constant.
Thus, light possess a dual character, behaving as a wave as well as
particle(photon).
de-Broglie’s Wavelength:
In analogy with dual character of light, de-Broglie in 1924 introduced the
hypothesis that “all material particle in motion possess a wave character
also”.
Accordingly, particles such as electrons, protons etc ., have waves
associated with them. These waves are called “ matter waves” or “ de-
Broglie waves”.
de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves:

A particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘c’ possess energy given by
E = mc2 → (1) (Einstein‟s Equation)
A light wave of frequency ν’ is associated with a photon of energy E,
and also according to Planck’s quantum theory the energy of quantum of
frequency ‘ν’ is given by E = hν
E = hν → (2)
From (1) & (2)
mc2 = hν = since ν = c/λ
λ= =
λ= since v ≈ c
Relation between de-Broglie wavelength and kinetic energy

Consider an electron in an electric potential V, the energy acquired is
given by
E = eV = 𝑚𝑣 =
Where ‘m’ is the mass, ‘v’ is the velocity and ‘p’ is the momentum of the
particle. ‘e’ is charge of an electron.
P = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉 = √2𝑚𝐸
The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is given by

ℎ
λ= =
𝑚𝑣
= λ= =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √2𝑚𝐸
λ =
√2𝑚𝐸
de-Broglie Wavelength of an Accelerated Electron:

An electron accelerated with potential difference ‘V’ has energy ‘eV’.
If ‘m’ is the mass and ‘v’ is the velocity of the electron.
Then eV = 𝑚𝑣 …………….. (1)
If ‘p’ is the momentum of the electron, then p = mv

Squaring on both sides, we have
P2 = m2v2
P2 = m.m v2
𝑚𝑣 =
Using in equation (1) we have

eV = P2 = 2meV
P = √2𝑚𝑒𝑉
According to de-Broglie, λ =
Therefore λ = =
√2𝑚𝑒𝑉 √ √2𝑚𝑒
.
λ=
√ √2𝑥9.11𝑥 10−31 𝑥1.602𝑥 10−19
.
λ= m
√
.
λ= nm
√
Characteristics of matter waves:

1. Waves associated with moving particles are called matter waves. The
wavelength ‘λ’ of a de-Broglie wave associated with particle of mass ‘m’
moving with velocity 'v' is
ℎ
λ=
𝑚𝑣
2. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves because the de Broglie
wavelength is independent of charge of the moving particle.
3. The velocity of matter waves (vP) is not constant. The wavelength is
inversely proportional to the velocity of the moving particle.
4. Lighter the particle, longer will be the wavelength of the matter waves,
velocity being constant.
5. For a particle at rest the wavelength associated with it becomes
infinite. This shows that only moving particle produces the matter
waves.
Introduction: Classical Mechanics - Quantum Mechanics

Mechanics is the branch of Physics which deals with the study of
motion of objects. The study of motion of objects started from 14th Century.
Leonardo daVinci, Galileo and Blaise pascal were the beginners. Their study
did not have analogical connection to each other. In the 17th Century
Newton consolidated the ideas of previous workers in addition to his own.
He gave a unified theory which accounted for all types of motions of bodies
on common grounds. His work “Principia mathematica” was published in
the year 1687. Newton’s three laws of motion were included in his work.
1687 year was recognized as the birth year of Mechanics. These laws were
important in the wider fields of study in Physics. For example electro
dynamics by Maxwell. By the end of 19th Century in the mind of scientific
community it was that the knowledge of mechanics is complete and only
refinement of the known is required.
In the last part of 19th Century the study of Blackbody radiation
became an insoluble puzzle. It was much against the confidence and belief
of many investigators. Newtonian mechanics failed to account the observed
spectrum. In December 1900 Max Planck explained the blackbody spectrum
by introducing the idea of quanta. This is the origin of “Quantum
Mechanics”. Whatever studies were made in mechanics till then was called
classical mechanics. From 1901 onwards quantum mechanics has been
employed to study mechanics of atomic and subatomic particles. The
concept of quantization of energy is used in Bohr’s theory of hydrogen
spectrum. In 1924 de-Broglie proposed dual nature of matter called de
Broglie hypothesis. Schrodinger made use in his work the concepts of wave
nature of matter and quantization of energy. The work of Schrodinger,
Heisenberg, Dirac and others on mechanics of atomic and subatomic
particles was called Quantum Mechanics.
Quantum Mechanics is a new branch of study in physics which is
indispensable in understanding the mechanics of particles or bodies in the
atomic and the subatomic scale. The term quantum mechanics was first
introduced by Max Born in l924.Within the field of engineering, quantum
mechanics plays an important role. The study of quantum mechanics has
led to many new inventions that include the laser, the diode, the transistor,
the electron microscope, and magnetic resonance imaging. Flash memory
chips found in USB drives also use quantum ideas to erase their memory
cells. The entire science of Nanotechnology is based on the quantum
mechanics.
Difference between Classical Mechanics and Quantum Mechanics
According to Classical mechanics it is unconditionally accepted that
the position, mass, velocity; acceleration etc., of a particle or a body can be
measured accurately, which is true as we observe in every day. The values
predicted by classical mechanics fully agree with measured values.
Quantum mechanics has been built upon with purely probabilistic in
nature. The fundamental assumption of Quantum mechanics is that it is
impossible to measure simultaneously the position and momentum of a
particle. In quantum mechanics the measurements are purely probable. For
example the radius of the first allowed orbitof electron in hydrogen atom is
precisely 5.3 x 10-11m. If a suitable experiment is conducted to measure the
radius, numbers of values are obtained which are very close to 5.3 x 10-11m.
This type of uncertainty makes classical mechanics superior to quantum
mechanics. The accurate values declared by classical mechanics are found
to be true in day to day life. But in the domain of nucleus, atoms, molecules
etc., the probabilities involved in the values of various physical quantities
become insignificant and classical mechanics fails to account such
problems.
WAVE NATURE OF PARTICLES
Dual nature of matter (de-Broglie Hypothesis)
Light exhibits the phenomenon of interference, diffraction, photoelectric
effect and Compton Effect. The phenomenon of interference, diffraction can
only be explained with the concept that light travels in the form of waves.
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect and Compton Effect can only be
explained with the concept of Quantum theory of light. It means to say
that light possess particle nature. Hence it is concluded that light exhibits
dual nature namely wave nature as well as particle nature.
de-Broglie’s Wavelength:
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A particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘c’ possess energy given by
E = mc2 → (Einstein’s Equation)
According to Planck’s quantum theory the energy of quantum of frequency
‘ν’is E = hν → (2)
From (1) & (2)
mc2 = hν = since ν = c/λ
λ= =
λ= since v ≈ c
Q: What is meant by Dual nature of matter?

Matter is made up of particles like electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms
etc also waves are associated with these matter particles under suitable
conditions. Thus matter exhibiting both particle & wave nature is called
dual nature of matter.
Q: What are de-Broglie (matter) waves?
de-Broglie(matter) waves are the waves associated with material
particles in motion.
Q: Derive an expression for de-broglie wavelength(λ).
According to Einstein’s mass-energy relation E = m𝐶2……(1)
Where, m=mass, c = speed or velocity of light.
Also, from Planck’s quantum theory, E = …………(2)
where h= Planck’s constant.
ν=frequency. From eqns 1 & 2, m𝐶2=
∴ 𝝀=

Similarly, for a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with a velocity ‘𝒗′,
De-broglie wavelength, λ = or λ = since P = mv
Q: Expression for De-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron accelerated in

a potential difference ’V’ volt OR
.
Show that λ = Å for an electron accelerated in a potential
√
difference ’V’ volt.
The K.E of an electron of mass ‘m’, charge ‘e’ accelerated in a potential ‘V’ in
volt is given by 𝑚𝑣2 = 𝑒𝑉,
Multiplying both Nr. and Dr. of LHS by ‘m’
we get, = 𝑒𝑉
𝑖𝑒; 𝑚2𝑣2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉
𝑃2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉 ∵𝑚𝑣=𝑃
𝑷=√𝟐𝐦𝐞𝐕
𝒉
But λ = ∴ 𝝀 =
𝑷 √𝟐𝐦𝐞𝐕
. −34
= 𝑽
. .
.
= m
√𝑽
𝟏.𝟐𝟐𝟖 .
= 𝑛𝑚 𝝀= A0
√𝑽
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

According to classical mechanics a particle occupies a definite place in
space and possesses a definite momentum. If the position and momentum

of a particle is known at any instant of time, it is possible to calculate its
position and momentum at any later instant of time. The path of the particle
could be traced. This concept breaks down in quantum mechanics leading
to Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle according to which “It is impossible to
measure simultaneously both the position and momentum of a particle
accurately. If we make an effort to measure very accurately the position of a
particle, it leads to large uncertainty in the measurement of momentum and
vice versa.
Describing a moving particle as a wave group introduces uncertainty in
the measurement of particle properties like position and momentum. This
uncertainty is not due to any inadequacy in the measuring instruments but
is inherent in wave nature. The position of particle becomes uncertain when
it is described as a wave group. The particle may be located anywhere within
the wave group but its exact location within the wave group is not known.
Narrower the wave group, smaller is the uncertainty in its position as
illustrated in Fig. (a) and (b).
Thus for broader wave groups, there is smaller uncertainty in

wavelength and momentum, whereas for narrower wave groups there is
larger uncertainty in wavelength and momentum.
From the above discussion, we can conclude that for a narrow wave group
there is small uncertainty in position but large uncertainty in momentum,

whereas for a broader wave group there is larger uncertainty in position and
smaller uncertainty in momentum.
If Δ x and ΔPx are the uncertainties in the measurement of position and
momentum of the particle then the uncertainty can be written as
“In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of

the particle, the product of the corresponding uncertainties inherently
𝒉
present in the measurement is equal to or greater than
𝟒𝛑
”.
Δ𝑥.ΔP𝑥 ≥
Δ𝑥 is uncertainty in position; ΔP𝑥 is the uncertainty in momentum.

Similarly,
1) ΔE.Δt ≥ this equation represents uncertainty in energy and time.
ΔE is uncertainty in energy; Δt is the uncertainty in time.
2) ΔL.Δθ ≥ this equation represents uncertainty in angular
Momentum (ΔL) and angular displacement (Δθ).June-10, 12, Marks 8

Statement: The Heisenberg's uncertainty principle states that
“It is impossible to determine both the exact position and the exact
momentum of a particle at the same time. The product of uncertainties
𝒉
in these quantities is always greater than or equal to
𝟒𝛑
”.
𝒉
Δ𝑥 . ΔP𝑥 ≥
𝟒𝛑
Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that “the product of the

uncertainties in the simultaneous measurement of the position (Δ𝑥) in the

position and momentum (ΔP𝑥) of a particle is equal to or greater than
(h/4𝛑)”
.: Δ𝑥.ΔP𝑥 ≥ , where h is Planck’s constant.
The significance of HUP is that, it is impossible to determine

simultaneously both the position and momentum of the particle accurately
at the same instant.
NOTE: Other HUP relations are Δ𝑬.Δ𝒕 ≥ , 𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆 Δ𝑬=𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚, Δ𝒕= time,
and Δ𝑳.Δ𝜽≥ , where, Δ𝑳=𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 & Δ𝜽 =𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕.
Show that electrons cannot exist inside the nucleus using Heisenberg’s
Uncertainty Principle.
Electron to be present in the nucleus, maximum uncertainty in
position Δ𝑥 =10 -14m (diameter)
According to HUP,
The minimum uncertainty in momentum ΔP𝑥≥ ℎ4𝜋𝛥𝑥
.
≥
.
ΔP𝑥≥ 5.275 x 10-21kg m/s = P(say)
The minimum energy of the electron in the nucleus is given by
∴E≥
( . )
≥
.
≥ 1.527 x10−11J
.
≥ MeV ≥ 95.45 MeV ≈ 95 𝑀𝑒𝑉
.
But the maximum kinetic energy of the electrons (𝛃-particle) emitted
from the nucleus does not exceed 4MeV, hence electrons do not present in
the nucleus.
Q: What is a wave function and mention it’s properties/limitations

The quantity whose periodic variations make up the matter wave is
called wave function.
Every wave is characterized by periodic variations in some physical
quantity.
For example:
1. Pressure varies periodically in sound waves.
2. Electric and magnetic fields vary periodically in an electromagnetic
waves.
The variable quantity that characterizes the de-Broglie wave of the
particle is called a ‘Wave function’ denoted by the symbol ‘𝚿’(Psi)
A physical situation in quantum mechanics is represented by a function
called wave function. It is denoted by ‘ψ’. It accounts for the wave like
properties of particles. Wave function is obtained by solving Schrodinger
equation.
To solve Schrodinger equation it is required to know
1) Potential energy of the particle
2) Initial conditions and
3) Boundary conditions.
There are two types of Schrodinger equations:
1) The time dependent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of both the
position and time variations of the wave function. It involves imaginary
quantity i.
The equation is:

2) The time independent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of only

position variation of the wave function.
The equation is:
Q: Set up 1D time independent Schrodinger wave equation for a free

particle. OR
Expression for Time independent Schrodinger wave equation:
Consider a particle of mass ‘m’ moving with velocity ‘v’.
The de-Broglie wavelength ‘λ’ is
= ……………… (1)
Where ‘mv’ is the momentum of the particle.

The wave eqn is
One dimensional wave function 𝚿for the de-Broglie wave of a particle
moving along the positive direction of 𝑥-axis is given by
𝚿= A𝑒i(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) ………. (2)

Where ‘A’ is a constant and ‘ω’ is the angular frequency of the wave.
Where A𝑒𝑖𝑘𝑥represent the time independent part of the wave function
and is represented by 𝜓= A𝑒𝑖𝑘x
Differentiating eqn (2) w.r.t ‘t‘ twice we get
= (-𝑖𝜔) 𝑒𝑖(kx – ωt)and
= A(– 𝑖ω)2𝑒𝑖(kx – ωt)

= (– 𝑖)2 ω2A 𝑒𝑖(kx – ωt)
= (– 1) ω2A 𝑒i(kx – ωt)
= – ω2 ………. (3)
The equation of a travelling wave is
Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘v’ is the velocity.

Similarly for the de- Broglie wave associated with the particle
By analogy, we can write the wave equation for the de-Broglie wave for the
motion of a free particle as
Here, y =
……. (4)
The above equation represents waves propagating along the x-axis with a
velocity “v” and ‘ψ’ is the displacement at time ‘t’.
From eqns 3 & 4, we get
2
= − 2𝜓 ……. (5)
𝑣
If λ and ν are the wavelength and frequency of the wave, then
But ω = 2пf = 2пν and w.k.t. c = ν λ or v = ν λ ν=
ν be the frequency of radiations and λ be the wavelength of the radiations
The angular frequency, ω = 2пν =
Squaring on both sides, we get

ω
𝜔 = or

Put the value of v2 in the equation (5), we get
2
= − 2𝜓
𝑣
= 𝜓…….. (6)
2
𝑑 ψ
= − 2 2 ……..(7)
4π ψ 𝑑𝑥
For a particle of mass “m”movingwith a velocity “v”
Kinetic energy = K.E. = 𝑚𝑣
K.E. = (Dividing & multiplying by “m” )
K.E. = ……… (8) ( p = mv)

But, from equation(1), we have
But, de-Broglie wave length λ =
=
λ
By substituting for “p” in equation (8)

( /λ)
K.E. = K.E. =
K.E. = . ……(9)
By substituting from equation (7)
Equation (9) becomes.

2
1 𝑑 ψ
K.E. = −
4π2 ψ 𝑑𝑥2
2
ℎ2 𝑑 ψ
K.E. = − … … . (10)
8π 𝑚 ψ 𝑑𝑥
2 2
Let there be a field where the particle is present. Depending on its position
in the field, the particle will access certain potential energy V. Then, the
total energy E of the particle is the sum of kinetic energy and & the potential
energy (V) is given by
Total energy(E) = kinetic energy + potential energy(V)
2
ℎ2 𝑑 ψ
E = − 2 ψ 𝑑𝑥2 +V
8π 𝑚
2
ℎ2 𝑑 ψ
− 2 ψ 𝑑𝑥2 =E-V
8π 𝑚
2
−8π 𝑚
= 2 (E - V)
ℎ
2
8π 𝑚
+ 2 (E - V) = 0 ……… (11)
ℎ
This is Schrodinger time independent equation for a particle.
For a free particle, V=0
∴ + =0
This is Schrodinger time independent equation for free particle.
Mathematically wave function ‘𝚿’ describes the motion of a particle.

𝚿is called probability amplitude which is space and time dependent.
Properties of the wave functions are:-
1. Wave function (𝚿) is single valued everywhere.
2. 𝚿is finite everywhere.

3. 𝚿is continuous everywhere.
4. First derivatives of are continuous and single valued everywhere.
5. IΨI is called probability density.
6. 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑠𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑏𝑦∫ IΨI 𝑑V = 1
7. Probability, P = ∫ IΨI 𝑑𝑥
Max Born’s interpretation of wave function.

1. A satisfactory interpretation of the wave function 𝛹associated with a
moving particle was given by Max Born in 1926.
2. Max Born postulated that the square of the magnitude of the wave
function |𝛹|2evaluated at a particular point represents the probability of

finding the particle at that point.
3. |𝛹|2is called probability density and 𝛹is called the probability amplitude.
4. According to Max Born interpretation the probability of finding the
particle in space is given by
5. Any wave function that obeys this equation is said to be’ normalised’.
Every acceptable wave function must be normalisable.
6. The normalized function must be Finite, Single valued and continuous

everywhere.
Physical significance of wave function:
Probability density:If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle,
then |ψ|² is the probability of finding a particle in unit volume. If ‘τ’ is the
volume in which the particle is present but where it is exactly present is not
known. Then the probability of finding a particle in certain elemental volume
dτ is given by |ψ|2dτ. Thus |ψ|² is called probability density. The
probability of finding an event is real and positive quantity.
In the case of complex wave functions, the probability density is

|ψ|² = ψ * ψ where ψ* is Complex conjugate of ψ.
Normalization:
The probability of finding a particle having wave function ‘ψ’ in a volume ‘dτ’
is ‘|ψ|²dτ’. If it is certain that the particle is present in finite volume ‘τ’,
then
If we are not certain that the particle is present in finite volume, then
The process of integrating the square of the wave function within a

suitable limits and equating it to unity the value of the constant involved in
the wave function is estimated. The constant value is substituted in the
wave function. This process is called as normalization. The wave function
with constant value included is called as the normalized wave function and
the value of constant is called normalization factor.

Properties of the wave function:

A system or state of the particle is defined by its energy, momentum,
position etc. If the wave function ‘ψ’ of the system is known, the system can
be defined. The wave function ‘ψ’ of the system changes with its state.
To find ‘ψ’ Schrodinger equation has to be solved. As it is a second order
differential equation, there are several solutions. All the solutions may not
be correct. We have to select those wave functions which are suitable to the
system. The acceptable wave function has to possess the following
properties:
1) ‘ψ’ is single valued everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which

varies with position as represented in the graph. The function f(x) has
three values f1, f2 and f3 at x = p. Since f1 ≠ f2≠ f3 it is to state that if
f(x) were to be the wave function. The probability of finding the particle
has three different values at the same location which is not true. Thus
the wave function is not acceptable.

2) ‘ψ’ is finite everywhere: Consider the function f( x ) which varies with

position as represented in the graph. The function f( x ) is not finite at
x =R but f( x )=∞. Thus it indicates large probability of finding the
particle at a location. It violates uncertainty principle. Thus the wave
function is not acceptable.
3) ‘ψ’ and its first derivatives with respect to its variables are
continuous everywhere:
Consider the function f(x) which varies with position as
represented in the graph. The function f(x) is truncated at x =Q
between the points A & B, the state of the system is not defined. To
obtain the wave function associated with the system, we have to solve
Schrodinger wave equation. Since it is a second order differential wave
equation, the wave function and its first derivative must be continuous

at x=Q. As it is a discontinuous wave function, the wave function is
not acceptable.
4) For bound states ‘ψ’ must vanish at potential boundary and outside. If
‘ψ*’ is a complex function, then ψ* ψ must also vanish at potential
boundary and outside. The wave function which satisfies the above 4
properties are called Eigen functions.
Eigen functions:
Eigen functions are those wave functions in Quantum mechanics
which possesses the properties:
1. They are single valued.
2. Finite everywhere and
3. The wave functions and their first derivatives with respect to their
variables are continuous.
Eigen values:
According to the Schrodinger equation there is more number of
solutions. The wave functions are related to energy E. The values of
energy En for which Schrodinger equation solved are called Eigen
values.

Application of Schrodinger wave equation:

Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential
well (potential well of infinite depth) or of a particle in a box.
Obtain normalized wave function for a free particle in a infinite walled
potential Box/Well using Schrodinger 1D time independent equation.
Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one dimension along

positive x -direction between x =0 to x =a. The potential energy outside this
region is infinite and within the region is zero. The particle is in bound state.
Such a configuration of potential in space is called infinite potential well. It
is also called particle in a box. The Schrödinger equation outside the well is
( )
+ =0
This is Schrodinger time independent equation for a particle.
∞ ψ
+ = 0 …….. (1) (∴ 𝑉 = ∞)

For outside, the equation holds good if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle
cannot be found outside the well and also at the walls
The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:
ψ
+ = 0 ….. (2) (∴ V = 0)
This is an Eigen-value equation.
Putting = 𝐾2 …..(3) in equation (2) , we get
+ 𝐾2 𝜓 = 0 ……(4)
The general solution of the quadratic equation (4) is of the form

The solution of this equation is:
ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x → (5)
Where C & D are constants determined from boundary conditions
as follows :
ψ (𝑥)=0 at 𝑥=0 from eqn (5),
at x = 0 → ψ = 0
0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0
∴ C=0
Also x = a → ψ = 0
0 = C cos ka + D sin ka
But C = 0
∴ D sin ka = 0 (5)
D≠ 0 (because the wave concept vanishes)
Ka = sin–1(0)
i.e. ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (Quantum number)

п
k= ……………. (6)
Using this equation (5), we have
Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional

infinite potential well is:

In general, ……. (7)
where n=1,2,3..called quantum number.

The values of En are called Eigen energy values which satisfy Schrodinger
wave equation.
It gives the energy Eigen values of the particle in an infinite potential
well.
If, n = 0 is not acceptable inside the well because ψn = 0. It means that the
electron is not present inside the well which is not true. Thus the lowest

energy value for n = 1 is called zero point energy value or ground state
energy.
i.e. E zero-point =
The states for which n >1 are called exited states.
Eigen energy values and Eigen wave functions:

Eigen energy values are the energy values which satify Schrodinger wave
equation and are given by
Wave functions, probability densities and energy levels for particle in

an infinite potential well:
Let us consider the most probable location of the particle in the well and its
energies for first three cases.
Case I → n=1
It is the ground state and the particle is normally present in this state.
The Eigen function is

The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses x are shown in the above figure.
| ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum for x = a/2.

i.e. in ground state the particle cannot be found at the walls, but the
probability of finding it is maximum in the middle.
The energy of the particle at the ground state is
= E0
Case II → n=2
In the first excited state the Eigen function of this state is

The energy of the particle in the first excited state is E2 = 4E0.

Case III → n=3
In the second excited state,

+ =0

This equation holds good for free particle in free space in which V = 0.
With the knowledge of the particle in a box or a particle in an infinite
potential well V = 0 holds good over a finite width ‘a’ and outside V = ∞. By
taking the width to be infinite i.e. a = ∞, the case is extended to free particle
in space.
The energy Eigen values for a particle in an infinite potential well is
Where n =1, 2, 3, …
Here when ‘E’ is constant, ‘n’ depends on ‘a’ as a→∞ n→∞.
It means that free particle can have any energy. That is the energy Eigen
values or possible energy values are infinite in number. It follows that
energy values are continuous. It means that there is no discreteness or
quantization of energy. Thus a free particle is a ‘Classical entity’.

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Dr.Mahesh S.

Bannur, KLS VDIT, Haliyal ENGINEERING PHYSICS: MODULE-2

Drawbacks of Rayleigh - Jeans Law: (or Ultra Violet Catastrophe)

Eλ dλ = / dλ (since ν = c/λ) ………(1)

This is Planck’s Radiation Law

Reduction of Planck’s law to Wien’s law for shorter wavelength:

When ν is small, will be very small.

Since is very small, its higher power terms could be neglected.

Eλ dλ = dλ This is Rayleigh Jeans Law of Radiation.

Dual nature of matter (de-Broglie Hypothesis)

de-Broglie wavelength of matter waves:

Relation between de-Broglie wavelength and kinetic energy

The expression for de-Broglie wavelength is given by

de-Broglie Wavelength of an Accelerated Electron:

If ‘p’ is the momentum of the electron, then p = mv

Using in equation (1) we have

Characteristics of matter waves:

Introduction: Classical Mechanics - Quantum Mechanics

mc2 = hν = since ν = c/λ

Q: What is meant by Dual nature of matter?

Also, from Planck’s quantum theory, E = …………(2)

where h= Planck’s constant.

ν=frequency. From eqns 1 & 2, m𝐶2=

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 11 | P a g e

De-broglie wavelength, λ = or λ = since P = mv

Q: Expression for De-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron accelerated in

Multiplying both Nr. and Dr. of LHS by ‘m’

𝑖𝑒; 𝑚2𝑣2 = 2𝑚𝑒𝑉

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle:

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 12 | P a g e

Thus for broader wave groups, there is smaller uncertainty in

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 13 | P a g e

“In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of

Δ𝑥 is uncertainty in position; ΔP𝑥 is the uncertainty in momentum.

1) ΔE.Δt ≥ this equation represents uncertainty in energy and time.

ΔE is uncertainty in energy; Δt is the uncertainty in time.

2) ΔL.Δθ ≥ this equation represents uncertainty in angular

Momentum (ΔL) and angular displacement (Δθ).June-10, 12, Marks 8

Heisenberg’s Uncertainty Principle states that “the product of the

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 14 | P a g e

.: Δ𝑥.ΔP𝑥 ≥ , where h is Planck’s constant.

The significance of HUP is that, it is impossible to determine

and Δ𝑳.Δ𝜽≥ , where, Δ𝑳=𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 & Δ𝜽 =𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕.

ΔP𝑥≥ 5.275 x 10-21kg m/s = P(say)

The minimum energy of the electron in the nucleus is given by

Q: What is a wave function and mention it’s properties/limitations

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 16 | P a g e

2) The time independent Schrodinger equation: It takes care of only

Q: Set up 1D time independent Schrodinger wave equation for a free

Where ‘mv’ is the momentum of the particle.

𝚿= A𝑒i(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) ………. (2)

Differentiating eqn (2) w.r.t ‘t‘ twice we get

= (-𝑖𝜔) 𝑒𝑖(kx – ωt)and

= A(– 𝑖ω)2𝑒𝑖(kx – ωt)

I/II SEM B.E 18PHY12/22 ( NEW 60:40 CBCS SCHEME ) Mob.9900111638 17 | P a g e

= (– 1) ω2A 𝑒i(kx – ωt)

The equation of a travelling wave is

Where ‘y’ is the displacement and ‘v’ is the velocity.

ν be the frequency of radiations and λ be the wavelength of the radiations

The angular frequency, ω = 2пν =