SURFACE CHEMISTRY

ADSORPTION FROM SOLUTIONS

The process of adsorption can take place from solutions also. It is observed that solid
adsorbents adsorb certain solutes from solutions in preference to other solutes and
solvents. For example, animal charcoal decolourises impure sugar solution by
adsorbing dye in preference to sugar molecules. The Freundlich's adsorption
isotherms obtained for the adsorption of gases on the surface of solid adsorbents
have also been found to be applicable to adsorption of solutes from solutions. Here
the equilibrium pressures in adsorption of gases has been replaced by equilibrium
concentrations (C) of the adsorbates in solution. The adsorption isotherm may be
represented as:
Taking logarithms , equation ( 5) becomes :
A graph drawn between log (x/m) vs log C will be a straight line. From the graph, the
value of (1/n) and log k can be calculated as slope and intercept respectively.
For Langmuir adsorption isotherms :
The parameters of Equation (6) and (7) can be obtained by methods described for
adsorption of gases on solids.
Applications of adsorption
The phenomenon of adsorption finds a large number of applications. A few examples
are mentioned below:
1. Creation of high vacuum: Adsorption by charcoal cooled in liquid air helps in
creating a high vaccumin a vessel which has already been evacuated by a
vaccum pump.
2. Removal of toxic gases: Adsorption of toxic gases by activated charcoal makes
useful in gas masks.
3. Removal of moisture: Alumina and silica gel are used as adsorbents for
removing moisture and for controlling humidities in rooms.
4. Removal of colour: Animal charcoal is used as decolouriser in the manufacture
of cane sugar.
5. In catalysts: Adsorption also plays a significant role in heterogeneous catalysis.
6. In chromatography: Adsorption forms the basis of chromatography.
ROLE OF ADSORPTION IN CATALYTIC REACTIONS
Many gaseous reactions proceed rapidly in the presence of suitable solid catalysts.
Granular forms of catalysts are more useful due to adsorption of the reactants on the
surface of the catalyst. The following types of help are provided by adsorption in
catalytic reactions.
After the reactant molecules are adsorbed, the attack by other molecules on it
becomes easier. This is because the adsorbed substance is not free to move
about and escape the collision of other molecules.
Adsorbed molecules may expose its own attackable part for reaction with
other molecules.
Adsorbed substances may get dissociated into active atoms or free radicals
which are capable of reacting much faster than molecules. For example,
hydrogen molecule split up into atoms during adsorption on the surface of
nickel and platinum.
Reaction proceeds rapidly at higher concentration. Thus the simultaneous
adsorption of reactants provides increased concentration conditions.
Chemisorption provides the necessary activation energy due to heat of
adsorption evolved in the process.
CATALYSIS
A catalyst is a substance that increases the rate of reaction without being consumed
in the reaction. The phenomenon of increase in the rate of reaction with the help of a
catalyst is known as catalysis. Since catalysts are not consumed in a reaction, very
small, non-stoichiometric quantities are generally all that are required. Catalysts are
employed in a number of industrial processes (Table)
Some modern processes based on catalysis
Reactants Catalyst Product
Homogeneous
Propylene,oxygen
Methanol,CO
Butadiene, HCN
-olefin, CO, H
2
Mo(VI) complexes
[Rh(CO)
2
I
2
]

Ni/Pd compounds
Rh/Pd compounds
Propylene oxide
Acetic acid
Adiponitrile
Aldehydes
Heterogeneous
Ethylene, O
2
Propylene, NH
3
, O
2
Ethylene
Ag,CsCl on alumina
Bismuth molybdates
Organo chromium and
titanium
Ethylene oxide
Acrylonitrile
High density
polythene
Nature is the master designer of catalysts. Even the
simplest bacterium employs thousands of biological
catalysts, known as enzymes, to speed up its cellular
reactions. Every organism relies on enzymes to sustain
life.
Each catalyst has its own specific way of functioning , but in general, a catalyst
functions by lowering the energy of activation which in turn makes the rate constant
larger and hence the rate of reaction is higher.
Two important points stand out in Fig.
A catalyst speeds up the forward and reverse reactions to the same extent
and therefore does not affect the equilibrium constant.
A catalyst lowers the energy of activation by providing a different mechanism
for the reaction positive and negative Catalysis
Depending upon the nature of catalyst, catalysis can be classified as positive and
negative catalysis.
Positive Catalysis
When a catalyst increases the rate of reaction, it is termed as positive catalyst and
the process is known as positive catalysis. Some examples are as follows:
1. Oxidation of ammonia in the presence of platinum gauze. Here, platinum acts
as a positive catalyst.
2. Oxidation of sulphur dioxide into sulphur trioxide is enhanced in the presence
of vanadium pentoxide.
3. Decomposition of MnO
2
is facilitated in the presence of MnO
2
.
Negative catalysis
When a catalyst decreases the rate of a reaction, it is termed as a negative catalyst
and the process is called negative catalysis. Some examples of negative catalysis are
as follows.
1. The oxidation of chloroform by air is retarded in the presence of ethyl alcohol.
Here ethyl alcohol acts as a negative catalyst.
CHCl
3
+ O
2
COCl
2
+ HCl
(retarded in presence of ethyl alcohol)
2. Decomposition of hydrogen peroxide gets retarded when some glycerine is
added to it.
2 H
2
O
2
2 H
2
O + O
2
( retarded in presence of glycerol )
TYPES OF CATALYSIS
There are two broad categories of catalysis homogeneous and heterogeneous
depending on whether the catalyst is in the same phase as the reaction mixture or
not.
HOMOGENEOUS CATALYSIS
If the catalyst is present in the same phase as the reactants, it is called a
homogeneous catalyst and this type of catalysis is called homogeneous catalysis. It is
believed that in homogeneous catalysis, a catalyst enters into chemical combination
with one or more of the reactants forming intermediate compound which then
decomposes or combines with one of the reactants to produce the product and the
catalyst is generated.
The Table given above shows industrial processes that employ these catalysts.
A thoroughly studied example of homogeneous catalysis is the hydrolysis of an
organic ester (RCOOR').
where R and R' are alkyl groups, RCOOH is a carboxylic acid and ROH is an alcohol.
The reaction rate is low at room temperature but can be increased by adding a small
amount of a strong inorganic acid which provides H
+
ion that acts as a catalyst in the
reaction.
Some other examples of homogeneous catalysts are:
1. Catalytic decomposition of ozone by Cl atoms in the gas phase.
2. Oxidation of CO by O
2
in the presence of NO as catalyst.
3. Hydrolysis of cane sugar solution in the presence of dilute sulphuric acid.
Theory of Homogeneous Catalysis - Intermediate Compound Theory
The role of a catalyst in homogeneous catalysis can be understood in the light of
intermediate compound theory. According to intermediate compound theory, the
homogeneous catalyst combines with a reactant to form an unstable intermediate
compound, the formation of which occurs at a lower activation energy. The
intermediate compound thus formed either reacts with other reactant(s) or
decomposes to give the desired end-products and the catalyst is finally regenerated.
Thus, catalyst enhances the rate of reaction by providing an alternate path of lower
activation energy.
For example, in the lead chamber process used for the manufacture of sulphuric acid,
sulphur dioxide is oxidised to sulphur trioxide in the presence of nitric oxide as
catalyst. In the absence of catalyst, the oxidation of SO
2
into SO
3
is very slow.
2 SO
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2 SO
3
(g)
When nitric oxide is used as a catalyst, the rate of reaction increases considerably. It
is believed that the catalyst provides an alternate path of low activation energy by
combining with O
2
to form an intermediate NO
2
which subsequently reacts with SO
2
to yield the required product, i.e., SO
3
and the catalyst gets regenerated as shown
below.
2 NO(g) + O
2
(g) 2 NO
2
(g)
(catalyst) (reactant) (intermediate)
2 NO
2
(g) + SO
2
(g) SO
3
(g) + NO(g)
(intermediate) (reactant) (product) (catalyst regenerated)
(Catalysed reaction involving an alternate path of lower activation energy , fast)
HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS
In this type of catalysis the catalyst is present in a different phase than that of the
reactants.
In heterogeneous catalysis, catalyst is generally a solid and the reactants are
generally gases but sometimes liquid reactants are also used. It is also known as
surface catalysis as the reaction starts at the surface of solid catalyst. These catalysts
have enormous surface areas between
1 to 500 m
2
g
1
for contact. Interestingly, many reactions that occur on the metal
surface such as decomposition of HI on gold and decomposition of N
2
O on platinum
are zero order because the rate determining step occurs on the surface itself. Thus
despite an enormous surface area, once the reactant gas covers the surface,
increasing the reactant concentration cannot increase the rate. Some industrial
processes that employ heterogeneous catalysts are given below.
Reactants Catalyst Product
Ethylene, O
2
Propylene, NH
3
,O
2
Ethylene
Ag,CsCl on alumina
Bismuth molybdates
Organo chromium and
titanium
Ethylene oxide
Acrylonitrile
High density polythene
One of the most important examples of heterogeneous catalysis is the addition of H
2
to C=C bonds of organic compounds to form C C bonds. The petroleum, plastics and
food industries frequently use catalytic hydrogenation. The conversion of vegetable
oil into margarine is one example.
The simplest hydrogenation process converts ethylene to ethane:
CH
2
=CH
2
(g) + H
2
(g) CH
3
CH
3
(g)
In the absence of a catalyst , the reaction occurs very slowly. At high H
2
pressure in
presence of finely divided nickel, palladium or platinum the reaction becomes rapid
at ordinary temperatures. The catalysed reaction is believed to take place through
the following consecutive steps:
Diffusion of C
2
H
4
and H
2
towards the surface.
Adsorption of C
2
H
4
and H
2
at the active sites.
(a) Dissociation of H
2
into H atoms (b) Linking of the H-atom to C
2
H
4
to form
C
2
H
6
.
Diffusion of C
2
H
6
from the surface.
Diffusion of C
2
H
6
away from the surface.
Some other examples of heterogeneous catalysis are:
1. Manufacture of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen in presence of spongy
iron.
2. Synthesis of methanol from CO and H
2
using a mixture of copper, ZnO and
Cr
2
O
3
as catalyst.
Nature of Solid Catalyst
Solid catalysts may be metals, metal oxides, metal sulphides, clays etc. These
materials may be used in their pure form or in the form of their mixtures. Further
they may be crystalline, microcrystalline (in the form of fine particles) or amorphous.
Two significant aspects of heterogeneous catalyst are:
1. Activity
2. Selectivity
Activity
The activity a solid catalyst depends upon the strength of chemisorption to a large
extent. The reactant must adsorb reasonably strongly for the catalyst to be active
must not adsorb so strongly that they are immobilised and other reactants are left
with no space on the catalyst surface for adsorption. It has been found that for
hydrogenation the catalytic activity increases as we go from group 5 metals to
group11 with maximum activity shown by group 7 9 elements in the periodic table.
The ability of catalysts to accelerate chemical reaction is called activity. In certain
cases, the degree of acceleration shall be as high as 10
10
times. For example, in the
absence of a catalyst, a mixture of H
2
and O
2
(both pure) can be stored indefinitely
without any reaction. However, in presence of a catalyst such as platinum, they (H
2
and O
2
) combine explosively to form water.
Selectivity
It is the ability of catalysts to direct a reaction to yield a particular product
(preventing side reactions), i.e., a particular catalyst cannot be used for all types of
reactions.
Example,
1. Ethanol can undergo both dehydration and dehydrogenation.
2. In the presence of Ni catalyst, only dehydrogenation of ethanol occurs.
3. In the presence of alumina, only dehydration of ethanol occurs.
4. MnO
2
can catalyse the decomposition of KClO
3
but not KNO
3
.
Action of a catalyst is highly specific (selective) in nature i.e., a given substance can
act as a catalyst in a particular reaction and not for all reactions. It means a
substance which acts as a catalyst in one reaction may fail to catalyse other reaction
i.e., a catalyst is highly selective in nature.
SHAPE SELECTIVE CATALYSIS BY ZEOLITES
Zeolites are microporous aluminosilicates of the general formula
M
x / n
[ (AlO
2
)
x
(SiO
2
)
y
] m H
2
O, where M represents a metal cation
(e.g. Na + , K
+
, or Ca
2+
) having valency n . They may be natural as well as synthetic.
Some common zeoltes are:
Fujasite Na
56
[(AlO
2
)
56
(SiO
2
)
136
] 250 H
2
O
Linde A {Na
2
[(AlO
2
)
12
(SiO
2
)
12
} 27 H
2
O
ZSM-5 H
x
[ (AlO
2
)
x
(SiO
2
)
96 x
] 16 H
2
O
Zeolites may be considered as open structures of silica in which x / (x + y) fraction of
tetrahedral sites is occupied by aluminium. The net negative charge of alumina-
silicate frame work is neutralised by exchangeable cations M
n+
. The void space
present in the unit cell (which may be greater than 50% of the volume) is occupied by
water molecules. Due to openness of the structure, zeolites have high porosity. The
high porosity is mainly due to one, two or three-dimensional networks of
interconnected channels and cavities of molecular dimensions.
The catalytic behaviour of zeolite depends on the size of the cavities (cages) and
pores (apertures) present in them. In zeolites, the size of the pores varies between
260 pm to 740 pm. Through these pores, the reactant molecules of a particular size
and shape can enter, fit in and get adsorbed. The adsorbed molecules form an
activated complex which on decomposition yields the products. If the reactant
molecules are too large, they will not enter these pores. In case, if they are too small,
they will slip through the pores of the catalyst without being adsorbed. In both these
cases, the catalyst cannot influence the rate of reaction. Thus zeolites are shape-
selective catalysts. Zeolites are widely used in petrochemical industries for cracking
of hydrocarbons and isomerization.
Recently, a synthetic zeolite ZSM-5 has been used to convert alcohols to gasoline.
The alcohol is dehydrated in the cavities by protons and hydrocarbons are formed.
Shape-selectivity in this reaction can be seen from the data given below for the
conversion of methanol and 1-heptanol to hydrocarbon mixtures.
Product starting from methanol (%) Starting from n-heptanol
(%)
Methane 11.0 0.0
Ethane 0.6 0.3
Isobutane 18.7 19.3
n-butane 5.6 11.0
Isopentane 7.8 8.7
Benzene 1.7 14.3
Xylenes 17.2 11.6
The nature of the product formed depends upon the ability of pores to
accommodate linear and iso-alkanes as well as benzene derivatives.
ENZYME CATALYSIS
Living organisms carry out thousands of chemical reactions which take place in dilute
solution at ordinary temperature and pressure. For example, they can use small
molecules to assemble complex biopolymers such as proteins and DNA. Organisms
can produce molecules that combat bacterial invaders. They can break down large,
energy-rich molecules in many steps to extract chemical energy in small proportions
to drive their many activities.
Most of these reactions are catalysed by biochemical catalysts called enzymes.
Enzymes are proteins with high molecular mass ranging from 15,000 to 1,000,000
g/mol. Enzymes are efficient catalysts. They increase rate by 10 8 to 10 20 times.
Enzymes are also extremely specific, each reaction is generally catalysed by a
particular enzyme. Urease for example, catalyses only the hydrolysis of urea and
none of the several thousand other enzymes present in the cell catalyses that
reaction:
The remarkable specificity of enzymes results from the fact that each enzyme has a
specific site on its surface. When the reactant molecules, called the substrates of the
reaction, bind at the active site, a chemical change is initiated. In most cases, the
substrates bind to the active site through intermolecular forces: H-bonds, dipole
forces and other weak attractions.
Two models of enzyme action have been proposed (Fig ).
In lock-and-key model, the active site is thought to be an exact fit for the substrate
shape. In the induced-fit-model , the active site is thought to change shape to fit the
substrate. Most enzyme-catalysed reactions proceed through a fast, reversible
formation of an enzyme-substrate complex, followed by a slow conversion to product
and free enzyme.
According to the lock-and-key model, when the key' (substrate) fits the lock (active
site) , the chemical change begins. However, modern X-ray crystallographic methods
show that in many cases, the enzyme changes shape when substrate lands at all the
active site. Thus induced-fit model of enzyme action pictures the substrate inducing
the active site to adopt a perfect fit, rather than a rigidly shaped lock and key.
Therefore, we might picture a hand in a glove, in which glove' (active site) does not
attain its functional shape until the hand' (subtrate) moves into place.
The kinetics of enzyme catalysis has many features in common with ordinary
catalysis. In the enzyme catalysed reaction, substrate (S) and enzyme (E) form an
intermediate-enzyme complex (ES) whose concentration determines the rate of
product (P) formation. The steps common to virtually all enzyme catalysed reactions
are :
(i) E + S ES (fast reversible)
(ii) ES E + P ( slow , rate-determining)
The rate of enzyme-catalysed reaction changes from first order to zero-order as the
concentration of the substate is increased.
Chemically, all enzymes are globular proteins. However, some enzymes are
associated with non-protein components called prosthetic group. The prosthetic
groups could be either metal ions such as Zn
2+
, Mg
2+
, Co
2+
, K
+
, Na
+
etc or small
organic molecules. When the prosthetic group is a metal ion, it is called a cofactor. In
case the prosthetic group is a small organic molecule, it is referred to as a coenzyme.
Many of the coenzymes for biological processes are derived from vitamins like
thiamine, riboflavin, niacin etc. In such enzymes, the protein part of the enzyme is
called Apo enzyme. Neither apoenzyme nor coenzyme is able to catalyse the reaction
alone. The two must combine together before acting as a catalyst.
Since the action of enzyme is highly specific, every biological reaction requires a
particular type of enzyme. To date, more than 3000 different kinds of enzymes have
been identified in living systems, each catalysing a different biological reaction. Some
important enzymes and their functions are listed in TABLE.
Enzyme Reaction caalysed
Invertase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose
Amylase Starch n Glucose
Maltase Maltose 2 Glucose
Lactase Lactose Glucose + Galactose
Urease Urea CO
2
+ NH
3
Carbonic
anhydrase
H
2
CO
3
H
2
O + CO
2
Pepsin Proteins Amino acids
Trypsin Proteins Aminoacids
Nucleases DNA, RNA Nucleotides
DNA polymerase Deoxynucleotide triphosphate DNA
RNA polymerase Ribonucleotidetriphosphates RNA
COLLOIDAL STATE
Based on the size of particles, solutions can be classified into three :
1. True solution or molecular solution: It is homogeneous solution which
contains solute particles having size (diameter) less than 1000 pm (i.e., 1 nm),
dispersed throughout the solvent, e.g., the solution of KCl in water. The
particles (molecules or ions ) present in a true solution are invisible under
microscope. Moreover they pass through ordinary filter paper and animal
membrane.
2. Suspension: It is a heterogeneous mixture which contains particles having size
greater than 100,000 pm (i.e., 100 nm). Eg. AgCl in water, dust particles in
water etc. The particles of a suspension are visible even for naked eye. These
particles do not pass through the pores of ordinary filter paper or animal
membrane.
3. Colloidal solution: It is a heterogeneous solution which contains particles
having size in between 1000 100,000 pm (i.e., 1 nm- 100 nm), i.e., particles
of colloidal solutions are intermediate in size between the particles of true
solutions and supensons. In other words, colloidal state is an intermediate
state between true solutions and suspensions. e.g. starch in water, milk etc.
Collidal particles cannot be seen with a naked eye, but light reflected by them
can be seen under an ultramicroscope. The particles pass through ordinary
filter paper but they are retained when filtered through an animal membrane.
Distinction between True solution, Colloidal solution and suspension
Property True solution Colloids Suspension
1 particle size < 10
3
pm 10
3
- 10
5
pm > 10
5
pm
2 Appearance transparent generally
transparent
opaque
3 Separation
a. ordinary
filtration
b. ultra filtration
not possible
not possible
not possible
possible
possible
possible
4 settling of particlesdo not settle settle only on
centrifugation
settle under
gravity
5 Nature homogeneousheterogeneous heterogeneous
6 Tyndall effect does not
show
shows may show
7 Brownian
movement
may or may
not show
shows shows
Phases of colloids and their classification
A colloidal solution is of heterogeneous in nature. It consists of two phases , i.e., a
dispersed phase and a dispersion medium.
1. Dispersed phase : It is the component present in small proportion and is just
like a solute in a solution. For example, in colloidal solution of silver in water,
the former acts as the dispersed phase.
2. Dispersion medium: It is generally the component present in excess and is
just like a solvent in a solution. In the above example, water acts as the
dispersion medium.
Classification of Colloidal Systems
Based on states of dispersed and dispersion medium
The dispersed phase need not always be a solid. It may be a solid, liquid or a gas.
Similarly, the dispersion medium shall be a gas or a liquid or even a solid. Thus based
on the physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium, nine different
colloidal systems are possible. However, a gas dispersed in another gas does not give
a colloidal solution, since gases are completely miscible. Therefore, the number of
colloidal systems reduces to eight, which are listed below.
Types of colloidal solutions
1. Based on states of dispersed and dispersion medium
The dispersed phase need not always be a solid. It may be a solid, liquid or a
gas. Similarly, the dispersion medium shall be a gas or a liquid or even a solid.
Thus based on the physical state of dispersed phase and dispersion medium,
nine different colloidal systems are possible. However, a gas dispersed in
another gas does not give a colloidal solution, since gases are completely
miscible. Therefore, the number of colloidal systems reduces to eight, which
are listed below.
Dispersed
phase
Dispersion
medium
Examples Name
1 gas liquid soap lather, whipped cream,
soda water
foam
2 gas solid pumice stone, foam rubber solif foam
3 liquid gas mist, fog, cloud, insecticide
spray
aerosol
4 liquid liquid milk, emulsified oils, cod liver
oil
emulsion
5 liquid solid jelly, butter, cheese, boot polishgel
6 solid gas smoke, dust storm, haze aerosol
7 solid liquid paints, starch dispersed in
water, gold sol
sol
8 solid solid alloys, coloured glass, gem
stones, ruby glass.
solid sol
2. Based on the nature of dispersion medium
The colloidal systems are classified as follows on the basis of nature of
dispersion medium.
Dispersion medium Name of colloidal solution
water hydrosol
alcohol alcosol
benzene benzosol
air aerosol
3. Based on nature of interaction between Dispersed phase and dispersion
medium.
The colloids can be classified into two on the basis of affinity of phases.
Lyophilic colloids
The colloidal systems in which the particles of dispersed phase have a great
affinity towards the dispersion medium are called lyophilic colloids . Such
colloidal solutions are readily formed when the dispersed phase and
dispersion medium are brought together. These are reversible colloids. When
water is the dispersion medium, then the lyophilic colloids are called
hydrophilic colloids . Examples of lyophilic colloids are glue, gelation, starch
etc.
Lyophobic colloids
The colloidal solutions in which the particles of dispersed phase have no
affinity for dispersion medium are called lyophobic collids . Such colloidal
solutions are formed with difficulty. They are irreversible colloids. Example of
lyophobic colloids are As
2
S
3
sol, gold sol,
Fe(OH)
3
sol etc. In case the dispersion medium is water, then lyophobic
colloids are hydrophobic colloids .
Comparison of lyophilic colloids and lyophobic colloids are given in the TABLE.
Lyophilic colloids Lyophobic colloids
1
These are easily formed by direct
mixing
These are formed by only
under special methods.
2 These are reversible in nature. These are irreversible in nature.
3
The particles of colloids are true
molecules and are big in size.
The particles are aggregates of
many molecules
4
The particles are not easily visible
even under microscope.
The particles are easily
detected under
ultramicroscope
5 These are very stable.
These are unstable and require
traces of stabilizers.
6
The addition of small amount of
electrolytes cause
precipitation(called coagulation)
of colloidal solution.
The addition of small amount
of electrolyte has less effect.
Larger quantities of electrolytes
are required to cause
coagulation.
7
The particles do not carry any
charge. The particles may migrate
in any direction or even under the
influence of electric field.
The particles move in specific
direction, i.e., either towards
anode or cathode depending
upon their charge.
8
The particles of colloids are
heavily hydrated due to attraction
for solvent.
The particles of colloids are not
appreciably hydrated due to
hatred for the solvent.
9
The viscosity and surface tension
of the sols are much higher than
that of dispersion medium.
The viscosity and surface
tension are nearly the same as
that of the dispersion medium.
10 They do not show Tyndall effect. They show Tyndall effect
4. Based on type of particles of dispersed phase
The colloids have been classified into three types according to the molecular size.
1. Multimolecular Colloids : In this type, the particles consists of an aggregate of
atoms or molecules with molecular size less than 1 nm.
For example, in gold sol several atoms of gold are condensed together to form
bigger particles of colloidal size. Similarly in sulphur sol, each collodial particle
contains more than a thousand individual S
8
molecules. In these colloids, the
particles are held together by van der Waal's forces .
2. Macromolecular Colloids : In this type, the particles of dispersed phase are
sufficiently big in size (macro) to be of colloidal dimensions. In this case, a
large number of small molecules are joined together through their primary
valencies to form giant molecules. These molecules are called macromolecules
and each macromolecule may consist of hundreds or thousands of simple
molecules. The solutions of such molecules are called macromolecular
solutions. For example, colloidal solutions of starch , proteins, cellulose and
enzymes. Examples of man-made macromolecules are polyethene, nylon,
polystyrene, synthetic rubber etc.
3. Associated colloids (Micelles) : There are some substances which at low
cocentrations behave as normal, strong electrolytes but at higher
concentrations exhibit colloidal behaviour due to the formation of aggregated
particles. The aggregated particles thus formed are called micelles . These are
also known as associated colloids . The formation of micelles takes place only
above a particular temperature called
kraft temperature (T
k
) and above a particular concentration called critical
micelle concentration (CMC). On dilution, these colloids revert back to
individual ions. Surface active agents such as soaps and synthetic dtergents
belong to this class.
For soaps CMC is ~ 10
4
to 10
4
mol L
1
. These colloids have both lyophobic
and lyophilic parts. Micelles may contain as many as
100 molecules or more.
Mechanism of micelle formation
Let us take the formation of soap solutions. Soap is
sodium salt of higher fatty acid and may be
represented as RCOO

Na
+
e.g., sodium stearate
CH
3
(CH
2
)
16
COO

Na
+
which is the major component
of many bar soaps. When dissolved in water it
dissociates into RCOO

and Na
+
ions. The RCOO

ions , however, consists of two parts, i.e., long

hydrocarbon chain R (also called non-polar tail' )
which is hydrophobic (water repelling) and the
polar group COO

(also called polarionic head')

which is hydrophylic (water loving). The RCOO

ions
are , therefore present on the surface with their COO

groups in water and the

hydrocarbon chains R staying away from it, and remain at the surface, but at higher
concentration these are pulled into the bulk of the solution and aggregate in a
spherical form with their hydrocarbon chains pointing towards the centre with
COO

part remaining outward on the surface.

An aggregate thus formed is known as
ionic micelle'. These micelles may contain as many as 100 such ions.
Similarly, in case of detergents, e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate viz CH
3
(CH
2
)
11
SO
4

Na
+
,
the polar group
SO
4

along with the long hydrocarbon chain.

Hence the mechanism of micelle formation is same as that of soaps.
PREPARATION OF COLLOIDS
1. Preparation of Lyophilic colloids : The lyophilic colloids have strong affinity
between particles of dispersed phase and dispersion medium. Therefore,
these colloidal solutions are readily formed by simply mixing the dispersed
phase and dispersion medium under ordinary conditions. For example, the
substances like gelatin, gum etc. pass rapidly into water to give colloidal
solution. These are reversible in nature because, these can be precipiated and
directly converted into colloidal state.
2. Preparation of Lyophobic colloids : Lyophobic sols can be prepared by mainly
two types of methods.
a. Condensation method
b. Dispersion method
c. Condensation Methods
In these methods, smaller particles of dispersed phase condensed suitably to
be of colloidal size. This is done by the following methods.
Chemical methods
Oxidation : A colloidal sol of sulphur is obtained when hydrogen sulphide is
bubbled through oxidising agent such as bromine water, sulphur dioxide ,
nitric acid etc.
H
2
S + Br
2
2 HBr + S
2 H
2
S + SO
2
2 H
2
O + 3 S
H
2
S + [O] H
2
O + S
Reduction
Sols of metals such as silver, gold and platinum are obtained by the reduction
of their salts with reducing agents like formaldehyde, phenyl hydrazine, SnCl
2
etc.
2 AuCl
3
+ 3 SnCl
2
3SnCl
4
+ 2 Au
Hydrolysis
A colloidal solution of ferric hydroxide is obtained when concentrated solution
of ferric chloride is added drop-wise to hot water.
FeCl
3
+ 3 H
2
O Fe(OH)
3
+ 3 HCl
Double decomposition
A colloidal solution of arsenic sulphide is obtained by passing hydrogen
sulphide through a dilute solution of arseneous oxide in water.
As
2
O
3
+ 3 H
2
S As
2
S
3
+ 3 H
2
O
Physical methods
1. By excessive cooling
The colloidal solution of ice in some organic solvents such as chloroform or
ether can be prepared by freezing a solution of water in organic solvent. The
molecules of water which can no longer be held in solution separately
combine to form particles of colloidal size.
2. By exchange of solvent
Colloidal solution of certain substances such as sulphur and phosphorus can
be prepared by pouring their alcoholic solution in excess of water. For
example, alcoholic solution of sulphur on pouring into water gives milky
colloidal solution of sulphur.
3. Dispersion methods
In these methods, large particles of the substance are broken into particles
having colloidal size, in presence of dispersion medium.
Mechanical dispersion
The substance whose sol is to be prepared is powdered and mixed with
dispersion medium to get a suspension. It is then fed into a
colloid mill (Fig) :
Mechanical dispersion
which consists of two metallic discs nearly touching each other and rotating in
opposite directions at very high speed. The suspension particles are torn off to
the colloidal size.
Electrical disintegration : Bredig's Arc method
This method is convenient for the preparation of sols of metals like gold,
silver, platinum etc. Two electrodes of the metal whose colloidal solution is to
be prepared are dipped in the dispersion medium such as water. The
dispersion medium is kept cooled by surrounding it with ice. The intense heat
of the arc converts the metal into vapours . These vapours are then
condensed by ice-cold water to form the sol. The sol is stabilised by trace of
sodium hydroxide or potassium carbonate.
Peptisation
The conversion of a freshly prepared precipitate into a colloidal solution by
the small amount of a suitable electrolyte is called peptisation . The
electrolyte used for this purpose is called peptising agent. For example, by the
addition of a few drops of ferric chloride to a freshly formed precipitate of
Fe(OH)
3
, a reddish brown coloured sol of ferric hydroxide is formed.
Peptisation involves the preferential adsorption of suitable ions from
electrolyte by the particles of the precipitate. Thus in the above case, the
precipitate of Fe(OH)
3
adsorbs Fe
3+
ions from FeCl
3
to form Fe(OH)
3
. Fe
3+
.
Fe(OH)
3
+ Fe
3+
Fe(OH)
3
. Fe
3+
precipitate electrolyte colloidal solution
PURIFICATION OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
The colloidal solutions prepared by the above methods usually contain impurities
especially electrolytes which can destabilise the sols. These impurities must be
eliminated to make the colloidal solutions stable. The following methods are
commonly used for the purification of colloidal solution.
(i) Dialysis
The process of separating the electrolytes in the colloidal state from those present in
the true solution by means of diffusion through a semi-permeable membrane is
called dialysis . The apparatus used for dialysis is called dialyser . Dialysis is based on
the fact that colloidal particles are retained by a semi-permeable membrane ( e.g.
parchment , cellophane membrane etc.) while the ions of the electrolyte pass
through it. The impure colloidal solution is taken in a parchment bag and placed in a
vessel containing running water (Fig).
The impurities move slowly out of the bag leaving behind pure colloidal dispersion.
(ii) Electrodialysis
This is a modified form of dialysis. Ordinary dialysis is quite slow, but it can be
quickened by applying an electric field. The process is then called electrodyalysis .
(iii) Ultrafiltration
The pores of an ordinary filter paper are large enough
to allow the passage of both impurity particles as well
as colloidal particles. Therefore , an ordinary filter
paper cannot be used for removing the impurities of
the electrolytes from an impure sol. However, if the
pore size of ordinary filter paper is reduced, it can be
used for separating the impurities from impure sols.
This is achieved by treating an ordinary filter paper
with collodion or gelatine followed by its hardening by
dipping it in formaldehyde solution. This treatment
reduces the pore size and enables it to check the
passage of colloidal particles through it. Filter papers thus obtained are called
ultrafilters . Filtration through ultrafilters is called ultrafiltration .
In utrafiltration, the ultra-filter is supported over a wire mesh and impure
sol is poured over it. The impurity particles (electrolytes) pass through the ultrafilter
while larger colloidal particles are retained. The process is very slow. However, it can
be expedicted by applying pressure on sol side or by using a suction pump on filtrate
side. By using a series of graded ultrafilters, impurities of different size can be
removed and it is even possible to separate colloidal particles of different size from
one another.
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDAL SOLUTIONS
1. Colligative properties : Colloidal solutions show the colligative properties viz.,
relative lowering of vapour pressure, elevation in boiling point, depression in
freezing point and osmotic pressure. However, due to high average molecular
masses of colloidal particles, mole fraction of dispersed phase is very low.
Hence , the values of colligative properties observed experimentally are very
small. Only osmotic pressure measurements are used in determining the
molecular mass of polymers.
2. Mechanical properties
Brownian movement
When a colloidal solution is viewed under an ultramicroscope, the colloidal
particles are seen continuously moving zig-zag
path. The property was discovered by a
botanist Robert Brown (1827) when he
observed that pollen grains suspended in water
exhibit randomzig-zag motion. The property
was named as Brownian movement.
The continuous rapid zig-zag movement of colloidal particles in the dispersion
medium is called
Brownian movement .
Cause of Brownian movement
Brownian movement is due to the unequal bombardments of the moving
molecules of dispersion medium on colloidal particles. The moving molecules
of the dispersion medium continuously attack on colloidal particles . The
moving molecules of the dispersion medium continuously attack on colloidal
particles from all sides and impart momentum to them. Since the chances of
their collisions are unequal , the net driving force on a colloidal particle forces
it to move in a particular direction. As the particle moves in that direction,
other molecules of the medium again collide with it and the particle changes
its direction. The process continues. This results in a random zig-zag
movement of the colloid particle.
The Brownian movement decreases with increase in the size of colloidal
particle. This is why suspensions do not exhibit this type of movement.
Brownian movement plays an important role in imparting stability to a sol.
This is because Brownian movement opposes the gravitational forces acting
on colloidal particles and prevents them from getting settled down.
Diffusion
The sol particles diffuse from high concentration region to low concentration
region. However, the rate of diffusion of colloidal solution is less than that of
true solutions.
Sedimentation
The particles of colloidal solution are in a state of constant motion. Under the
influence of gravity, the sol particles tend to settle under very slowly. The rate
of sedimentation can be increased by the use of ultracentrifuge.
Optical properties
1. Tyndall Effect
Tyndall observed that when a beam of light is passed through a colloidal
solution, placed in a dark room, the path of the beam gets illuminated by a
bluish light. This is due to the scattering of light by colloidal
particles(molecules and ions do not scatter light). The phenomenon of
scattering of light by colloidal particles is known as Tyndall effect and the
illuminated path is known as Tyndall cone.
The visibility of dust particles in a semi darkened room when a beam of
sunlight enters is an example of Tyndall effect. Tyndall effect is not observed
in a solution as the particles are too small in size to cause any scattering.
2. Visibility
The ultra microscope developed by Zsigmondy , is used to visualise the
colloidal particles. This technique depends upon Tyndall effect.
A beam of light is allowed to pass through the sol and the scattered beam is
viewed through a microscope placed at right angles to the incident beam. This
arrangement is known as ultramicroscope. In doing so, we can observe spots
of light moving irregularly against a dark background. It may be noted that, we
do not see the actual particles, but only the light scattered by them.
Electrical properties
The particles of the colloidal solutions possesses
electrical charge. The presence of charge is responsible
for the stability of these solutions. It may be noted that
only the sol particles carry some charge, while the
dispersion medium has no charge. For example, the
colloidal solutions of gold, arseneous sulphide (As
2
S
3
) are
negatively charged, while those of Fe(OH)
3
and Al(OH)
3
have positive charge. In the case of silver chloride sol,
the particles may either be positively charged or
negatively charged.
Electrophoresis
The presence of the charge on the sol particles and its nature whether positive or
negative can be determined with the help of a phenomenon known as
electrophoresis. In this experiment, the colloidal particles move towards positive or
negative electrodes depending upon their charge under the influence of electrical
field. The phenomenon of movement of colloidal particles under an applied electric
field is called electrophoresis .
If a particle accumulate near the negative electrode, the charge on the particle is
positive. On the other hand, if the sol particles accumulate near the positive
electrode, the charge on the particle is negative.
The apparatus used consists of a U-tube with two platinum electrodes in each limb.
Take a sol of As
2
S
3
in a U-tube. The intensity of colour of the sol in both the arms is
the same. Now pass the current through the sol. After some time, it is observed that
the colour of the sol near the positive electrode become intense than the initial
colour. This indicates that the As
2
S
3
particles are negatively charged and they move
towards oppositely charged (positive) electrode and accumulate here.
Similarly, when electric current is passed through positively charged Fe(OH)
3
sol , it is
observed that they move towards negatively charged electrode and get accumulate
there. Thus, by observing the direction of movement of colloidal particles, the sign of
the charge carried by the particles can be determined.
Electro-osmosis
The migration of colloidal particles under the influence of an electric field can be
prevented by placing suitable semipermeable membranes on either side of the U-
tube. At the same time, when an electric field is applied, the dispersion medium is
seen to migrate in a direction opposite to the direction in which the sol particles
would be moved, if they were free to do so. Thus, the movement of dispersion
medium under the influence of an electric field, when the sol particles are prevented
from moving is called electro-osmosis.
Origin of Charge
1. Due to frictional electrification : The rubbing of dispersed phase particles with
those of dispersion medium may result in some charge on colloidal particles.
2. Due to Dissociation of surface molecules : Sol particles may get charge due to
dissociation of surface molecules. For example, an aqueous solution of soap
dissociates into ions :
C
15
H
31
COONa C
15
H
31
COO

+ Na
+
The cation (Na + ) pass into solution, while the anions have a tendency to form
aggregates (micelle) due to weak attractive forces present in the hydrocarbon
chain. Thus, the anions which are of colloidal dimensions get negative charge.
3. Selective adsorption of ions : It has been observed that a small amount of
electrolyte is essential for the stability of the sols. It is therefore believed that
the charge on the colloidal particles is due to preferential adsorption of
positive or negative ions from the electrolyte. Thus, if positive ions are
adsorbed by sol particles, then the sol particles get positive charge and vice
versa . Generally sol particles adsorb only those ions, preferentially which are
common with their own lattice ions. Examples :
(a) The Fe(OH)
3
sol prepared by the hydrolysis of FeCl
3
has positive charge due
to the preferential adsorption of Fe
3+
ions.
Representation of Fe(OH )
3
sol
FeCl
3
Fe
3+
+ 3 Cl

Fe(OH)
3
+ Fe
3+
[Fe(OH)
3
] Fe
3+
(sol)
Cl

ions will remain in the medium.

(b) The negative charge on As
2
S
3
sol particles is due to the preferential
adsorption of S
2
on the surface of sol particles.
H
2
S 2 H
+
+ S
2
As
2
S
3
+ S
2
[As
2
S
3
]S
2
(sol)
(c) When AgNO
3
solution is added to aqueous KI solution , a negatively
charged sol of AgI is formed. This is due to selective adsorption of
I

ions from the dispersion medium.

Ag I + I

[AgI] I

dispersion medium (negative sol)

On the other hand , when K I is added to AgNO
3
solution, a positively
charged sol of AgI is formed. This is due to the selective adsorption of Ag
+
ions present in the dispersion medium.
Ag I + Ag
+
[Ag I ] Ag
+
dispersion medium (positive sol)
Coagulation of Colloidal solutions
The stability of colloidal state is due to the existence of similar charges on the sol
particles. For this a small amount of electrolyte is essential. However, in the presence
of a large excess of electrolyte, the charge on sol particles get neutralised. As a
result, these neutralised particles comes closer, grow in size and form precipitate.
This is called coagulation . The coagulation of colloids can be brought about by any
one of the following methods.
1. By the action of electrolytes : In a colloidal system, the sole particles bear
some charge. When an electrolyte is added to the sol, the colloidal particles
take up ions carrying opposite charge from electrolyte. This results in
neutralisation of the charge on the particles leading to their coagulation. For
example, if aluminium sulphate solution is added to As
2
S
3
sol, the Al
3+
ions are
attracted by the negatively charged sol particles. This causes neutralisation of
the charge and hence precipitation of the colloidal solution occurs.
HARDY-SCHULZ RULE
The coagulation capacity of electrolyte depends on the valence of the active
ion or flocculating ion. This is expressed by Hardy-Schulz law which states :
the greater the valence of the flocculating ion, the greater will be its
coagulating power' . Thus the coagulation of the negatively charged As
2
S
3
sol,
the coagulating power of positive ions decrease in the order :
Al
3+
> Ba
2+
> Na
+
Similarly, the coagulation of positive sol of Fe(OH) 3 , the flocculating power of
negative ions decreases in the order :
[Fe(CN)
6
]
4
> PO
4
3
> SO
4
2
> Cl

.
However, the rule is only approximate. The minimum concentration (in
millimoles per litre) of an electrolyte which is required to cause the
flocculation of a sol is known as flocculation value of the electrolyte. The
flocculation values ( in millimoles per litre) for the negativesly charged As
2
S
3
sol and positively charged Fe(OH)
3
sol are given in TABLE.
For Negatively charged As
2
S
3
sol
Electrolyte Flocculating ion Flocculation value(millimoles
Litre
1
)
NaCl Na
+
52
KCl K
+
50
HCl H
+
30
MgCl
2
Mg
2+
0.72
BaCl
2
Ba
2+
0.69
ZnCl
2
Zn
2+
0.68
AlCl
3
Al
3+
0.093
2.
For Positively charged Fe(OH)
3
sol
Electrolyte Flocculating
ion
Flocculation value(millimoles Litre
1
)
KBr Br

138
HCl Cl

132
KNO
3
NO
3

132
K
2
CrO
4
CrO
4
2
0.315
K
2
SO
4
SO
4
2
0.210
K
2
C
2
O
4
C
2
O
4
2
0.238
K
3
[ Fe(CN )
6
] [Fe(CN)
6
]
3
0.096
3.
4. By mutual precipitation : When two oppositely charged sols [eg Fe(OH)
3
and
As
2
S
3
sols] are mixed in equimolar proportions, they mutually neutralise their
charges and precipitate out.
5. By persistent dialysis : The stability of colloidal solution is due to the presence
of traces of electrolytes. On prolonged dialysis, these traces of electrolytes are
removed and particles of the dispersed phase will be coagulated.
PROTECTIVE COLLOIDS
The lyophilic colloids are more stable than lyophobic
colloids. This is due to heavy solvation of lyophilic sol
particles. Lyophilic colloids possess the property of
protecting lyophobic colloids from precipitation by the
action of electrolytes. The process of protecting lyophobic
colloidal solution from coagulation by the action of
electrolytes due to the previous addition of some lyophilic
colloid is called protection . The lyophilic colloids used for
such purposes are called protective colloids.
For example, the addition of gelatine ( a lyophilic colloid) to a gold sol (lyophobic sol)
protects the latter from being coagulated on addition of sodium chloride solution.
The exact mechanism of protection is not very clearly understood. It may be due to
the formation of a protective coating of lyophilic colloid around the lyophobic sol
particles which prevent it from coming in contact with the ions of the electrolyte.
GOLD NUMBER
The lyophilic colloids differ in their protective powers. Zsigmondy introduced the
term gold number to measure the protective powers of different colloids. This is
defined as : The number of milligrams of the protective colloid that will just prevent
the coagulation of 10 ml of a gold sol on the addition of 1 ml of 10% sodium chloride
solution .'
The coagulation of the gold sol is indicated by colour change from red to blue when
the particle size just increases. The gold number of a few protective colloids are given
below :
Protective colloid Gold number Reciprocal
Gelatin 0.005 - 0.01 200 - 100
Haemoglobin 0.03 - 0 .14 33 - 14
Egg albumin 0.12 - 0.2 10 - 5
Dextrin 6 - 20 0.16 - 0.05
Potato starch 20 - 25 0.05 - 0.04
Evidently , the smaller the value of gold number, the greater is the protecting power
of the protective collloid. Therefore, the reciprocal of gold number is a measure of
the protective power of a colloid. Thus in the above table, gelatin is the best
protective colloid ( reciprocal value of 200 - 100 ).
EMULSIONS
Emulsions are the colloidal solutions of two immiscible liquids in which one liquid
acts as the dispersed phase and the other as the dispersion medium. In emulsion, the
suspended droplets (dispersed phase) are larger than the particles of dispersion
medium. There are two types of emulsions :
1. Oil - in - water (o - w) emulsions : In this type of emulsions, oil is the dispersed
phase(small amount) and water is the dispersion medium(excess). E.g. milk is
an emulsion of soluble fats in water and hence casein acts as an emulsifier.
Another example is vanishing cream. Such emulsions are called aqueous
emulsions.
2. Water-in-oil (w-o) Emulsions : In this type of emulsions, water is the dispersed
phase and oil is the dispersion medium. e.g. cod liver oil, butter, cold cream
etc. have particles of water dispersed in oil. Such types of emulsions are called
oily emulsions.
Identification of Emulsions
The following tests may be employed to distinguish between the two types
emulsions.
1. Dry test : Some oil soluble dye is added to the emulsion, if the background
becomes coloured, the emulsion is water-in-oil type and if the coloured
droplets are seen , the emulsion is oil-in water type.
2. Dilution test : If the emulsion can be diluted with water, this indicates that
water is the dispersion medium and emulsion is of oil-in-water type. In case
the added water forms a separate layer, the emulsion is water-in-oil type.
Preparation of Emulsions
Emulsification
The process of making an emulsion from water and oil is called emulsification.
Emulsions can be prepared by vigourously shaking a mixture of two immiscible
liquids or by propagating ultrasonic vibrations through course suspension.
Emulsifier
The emulsion prepared by mixing only two immiscible liquid is quite unstable and
liquids separate after some time. To obtain stable emulsions, it is necessary to add
small amount of suitable outside reagent called emulsifier or emulsifying agent.
These are usually long chain compounds having both polar and non-polar ends.
When an emulsion is formed , the polar part is attracted towards water and the non-
polar part towards oil , i.e., an emulsifier reduces the interfacial tension between
water and oil and thus helps in the mixing of two liquids, e.g. soap, gum, gelatin,
detergents etc. Emulsifying properties of soaps and detergents are exploited in
washing clothes and crockery. They emulsify the grease along the dirt and carry them
away in the wash water.Digestion of fats in the intestines is aided by emulsification.
A little of the fat forms a sodium soap with the alkaline solution of intestine, and this
soap emulsifies the rest of the fat. This makes it easier for digestive enzymes to carry
out their functions.
Industrial Applications
1. Emulsions find many industrial applications. For example, the concentration of
the sulphide ore of a metal by froth floatation process involves the use of
some oil like pine oil. The oil forms emulsion with ore particles. When air is
bubbled through the emulsion, it rises to the surface as foam and is skimmed
off.
2. Many pharmaceutical preparations like cod liver oil, lotions, ointments etc.
are emulsions.
3. The cleaning action of soap : The cleaning action of soaps and synthetic
detergents is based on their ability to form micelles.
In solution soap dissociates to give carboxylate ion (RCOO

) and sodium(Na
+
)
ion. The carboxylate ion (RCOO

) is composed of a non-polar part(R-) of long

hydrocarbon chain called tail and a polar part of COO

, called head. Dirt

present in clothes is oily in nature. When dirty clothes are soaked with soap
solution, the tail part(it is hydrophobic in nature and hence has affinity to oil
or grease) of soap and dissolves in the grease deposit and form micelle (Fig
above). At the same time, the water soluble carboxylate ion (head) make
hydrophilic surface around this sphere and render the entire micelle of grease
water-soluble ( in the figure the solid circles represent the polar group and the
wavy lines represent alkyl portions.). Thus soap helps in forming a stable
emulsion of oil and water by acting as an emulsifier. Finally, when the cloth is
rinsed with water, the soluble micelles are removed and thus the cloth
becomes free from dirt.
APPLICATIONS OF COLLOIDS
Colloids play a vital role in our daily life. The applications in general are based on the
presence of the charge on the colloidal particles.
1. Smoke precipitation : Smoke is a colloidal dispersion of carbon particles.
Smoke is made free from carbon particles by passing in between metal
electrodes of a Cottrell precipitator. The electrodes are maintained at a high
difference of potential. The carbon particles gets discharged and precipitate,
while gases come out from the chimney.
2. Sewage disposal : Sewage water contains charged colloidal particles of dirt,
rubbish etc. and these do not settle down easily. The particles can be removed
by discharging them at electrodes. Dirty water is passed through the tunnel
fitted with metallic electrodes which are maintained at high potential
difference. The particles migrate to the oppositely charged electrode, lose
their charge and get coagulated. The deposited matter is used as a manure
and the water left behind is used for irrigation.
3. Colloidal medicines : The colloidal medicines are more effective and are easily
assimilated. A few important medicines are colloidal solutions of gold,
manganese, sulphur etc. Ferric chloride is quite effective to stop bleeding as it
can coagulate the blood due to its charged nature.
4. Foods : Many of our foods are colloidal nature. For example, milk is an
emulsion of fat dispersed in water. Gelatin is added to ice cream as a
protective agent to preserve its smoothness.
5. Industrial goods : Soap is a colloidal electrolyte. Paints, varnishes, enamels,
resins, gums etc are colloidal in nature. Latex from rubber is a suspension of
negatively charged colloidal particles of rubber.
6. Purification of water : The drinking water can be purified by the precipitation
of suspended particles. For this small amount of potash alum is added. The
aluminium ions neutralise the negative charge on the mud particles and they
get coagulated.
7. Formation of delta : The deltas at the mouth of great rivers are formed by the
charged clay particles present in river water by the action of ions present in
sea water. The river water contains colloidal particles of sand and clay which
carry negative charge. The sea water contains a number of positive ions such
as Na
+
, Mg
2+
, Ca
2+
ion etc. When the river water comes in contact with sea
water, the negative charge present on colloidal sand and clay particles get
neutralised by the positively charged ions (present in sea water) and they get
coagulated. The coagulated sand and clay particles settle down and take the
shape of delta in due course of time (Fig).
8. Building roads : Asphalt emulsified in water is used for building roads without
the necessity of melting the asphalt.
9. Blue of sky : The sky is the empty space around the earth and as such it has no
colour. It appears blue due to the scattering of light by colloidal dust particles
present in the air (Tyndall Effect).